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Culture Documents
ArtOfCalligraphy Text
ArtOfCalligraphy Text
eA'RT of
DAVID HARRIS
fanmftcauoncnntimir4Xccraa.
DglauamDrictutnommts
nm lauor
Oncplaiants accipias.cr
A DORLING KINDERSLEY
BOOK
Art editor
Liz
Brown
Walton
Dc Abrcu
Senior editor Roger Tritton Senior art editor Tracy Hambleton-Miles DTP designer Zirrinia Austin Managing editor Sean Moore Managing art editor Toni Kay Production controller Meryl Silbert Picture research Julia Harris-Voss, Jo Walton Photography Steve Gorton, Andy Crawford
1995
London
WC2E
8PS
Copyright
1995
Text copyright
No
A CIP
book
is
available
5
from the
British Library
ISBN
7513 0149
Colour reproduction by
GRB
Lditrice
s.r.l.
ti-'i
s
'
Contents
Introduction
6
8
Bastard Capitals
78
Cadels
80
Timeline
12 14
Getting Started
Italian
Rotunda
Roman
Rotunda Capitals
Rustic Capitals
Humanist Minuscule
Italic
Square Capitals
Uncial
20
24
94
&
Artifical Uncial
Humanist
Italic
&
Italic
Capitals
98
Swash Capitals
100
Insular
Insular Insular
&
National Scripts
28 34
Majuscule
Post-Renaissance Scripts
Copperplate
Minuscule
102 106
Copperplate Capitals
Caroline
Caroline Minuscule
Roman &
Late
Roman
108
Scripts
Foundational
Earlv
Hand 42
46
Imperial Capitals
Gothic
20
Gothic Scripts
Textura Quadrata Textura Prescisus
Glossary
122
50
Bibliography
124
125
54
Versals
Index
& Acknowledgments
Gothic Capitals
&
58
Lombardic Capitals
Bastard Secretary
62
66
Batarde
Fraktur
70
&
Schwabacher
74
Introduction
Introduction
Book production
The production of a manuscript book is
a
complex
business,
skills
requiring the
of
numerous craftsmen.
modern
in
book
both historical and practical contexts. Calligraphers of all levels will be able to
explore the origins of each script and
Magnifying glass
A
eyeglass
magnifying
is
glass
or
a valuable aid to
we
shown
in this
book.
Generally, Latin-based
into
is
scripts
fall
Ascender line
Bracketed serif
Capital line
two
categories: formal
that
Counter
Minuscule
scripts
Tongue
(lower-case later)
upper-case
letter)
- the
cursive
Bowl (bow,
cuned
stroke)
Interletter
Inner-
which
are, in turn,
upgraded,
finally
Horizontal
Stem
(main
stroke)
letter
new
hands
space
foot
space
own
fall,
right.
the rise,
Headline
(waistline.
each script
is
a practical guide to
Pen angle
complete alphabet
is
of this
Descender line
Letter anatomy
order to identify or construct scripts, it is become familiar with the vocabulary of calligraphy. Unfortunately, there is no agreed
In
essential to
demonstrated
in a separate panel.
The appearance of a
script
is
of the nib
used to write
it.
Full information
most commonly favoured by and palaeographers. Alternative terms, including those used by typographers, are shown here in brackets. For example, the
book
are those
describe their
to
all
components
are applicable
calligraphers
full
glossary
this
in
book
about tools
is
Introduction
This angle indicates the degree of
teller; in this
biotf
angle
is
clone to
10
a definitive
model
hand
is
virtually
about
pen widths
held at
this
book
form
an angle of 40
to the horizontal
to the left
of the
letter in the
is
included
this
in
drawn
This letter
is
at
one
book
particular
written
The
figures
used to indicate
horizontal. Where relevant, the approximate angle of the forward lean of a letter is also given. This is
own
vertical.
is
system
this
sources.
Where
appropriate, an enlargement
stroke finishes
and
the pen
is
lifted
manuscript
is
shown, often
revealing;
Imperial Capitals
One
book must be regarded separately from the rest - the Roman Imperial
Capital.
A product of the
it
brush and
the sequence
not accepted as
The second stroke
The black arrow indicates
ibe progress of thefirst
stroke; creates
Due
to
its
a Caroline
is
Minuscule ((pp.
40-41)
of a
quill
modern
it is
baseline, the
pushed
explored
depth in a section
first
The
sensitivity
it
at the
pen makes
an
ideal tool
and upwards
26
demonstrated
in
an
are
more
of a
script
than others. For instance, most scribes writing before 500 used either parchment or vellum,
1
which remain
implement
is
to this day two of the finest writing surfaces. Frequently, the writing
way (pp. 108-1 19). Left-handed work The step-by-step letters demonstrated in this book are the work of a righteasily accessible
of equal importance. For a Batarde letter {left), it would be difficult to achieve the very fine lines with any other implement than a sharply cut quill. Advice on the selection of surfaces and writing tools
is
same
might find
it
of
it
and
shift the
paper
down
to the right.
bottom
left
Script
whose letterforms were borrowed by the Etruscans and, in turn, by the Romans. All subsequent Western scripts have evolved from Roman originals. The scripts in this book are
grouped
(pp.
in six categories:
Roman and
(pp.
Late
Roman
Scripts
(pp.
28-37),
50-83),
Italian
84101), and
The duration of
each script
is
shown
Etruscan letters
These
have been written in Oscan, an ancient Italian language derived from
letters
the
Roman
alphabet.
By the
a
almost every aspect of Etruscan culture was adopted by the Romans, including the legal and military systems.
This icrracoua tablet, of a type used to mark property
One was
and
scratched onto a
wax
tablet or written
with
was
influential in the
development of
Column, Rome,
Half Uncial
(pp.
38-39). Another
is one of the finest surviving examples of Imperial Capitals (pp. 108-109). The oldest Latin alphabet contained 21
characters, as
late
opposed
By
manuscript, signwritten,
(pp.
16-17).
characters, the
23 two additional characters- Vand Z - having been taken from the Greek Upsilon
times, the Latin alphabet had
Roman
Imperial Capitals
and Zeta.
for
The
third
Roman
hand produced by
modern
now known
in
as
was used
both
later,
modern
capitals.
:\
*CAaS'ARIDl\ IN
^
;
HVAl
.*
:
Capital, a modified
KRAIAN
MA\li\
>Ei
\
i !
W ^JGERMHAG
:
2021).
script that
Another important
its
had
Roman
period
V V
24-25). Similar
that
form
to the
it,
Greek Uncial
\R\NnVM^V\NT.\
v
preceded
this
ON M
1
sTA
N^^l.
The Deveeopmem
oi-
Westers Script
Chari
Iii
p.magnf.
and Alcuin
Insular
Emperor Charlemagne modelled himself and his court on his Roman forebears. Roman influence in the Frankish Empire was particularly
many ways
the eighth-century
Roman Empire
which the emperor was aided by a prominent monk from York named Alcuin. Under Alcuin's abbotship from 796804, the great scriptorium at Tours. France, was founded. Here, the Caroline Minuscule was created (pp. 38-39).
such
as die
now known
in
as "insular" scripts.
Elsewhere
The rounded
tip
Spain and
the Merovingian
in France.
on the page
monks formed
manv monastic
and Corbie
Italy.
The scribe casts a critical eye over the
northern England,
in
Rome
The parchment
is
stretched on a
wooden
of a team of workers
The
1'U.oduction
Caroline
first
of manuscripts
These 12th-century illustrations show some of the processes
involved
in
West
to
the production ol
First,
medieval book.
skin and then stretch
The finished manuscript book lends
authority to the monk's preaching
the
parchment maker would soak the and scrape it. Next, the dried parchment would be trimmed and scored in
preparation for the scribe.
text
By the ninth
trimmed to
si/e
The
would be planned
left
in detail,
with spaces
for the
work of
it is
now known
(pp.
as the
the gold
leaf,
Caroline Minuscule
3839).
overdrawn by the
post-Roman
scripts,
until
to
text
300
(pp.
Insular and
34
35),
when
more
This
letters.
The punched
lines,
by scored
compressed
script
is
known
(pp.
as Late
stitched together
46-47).
/'//;
Devei.opmf.ni of
Western Scripi
..-.
characterized
This
such as this r
II
Jwm
,
scripts
ih,-
"indmill Pidltcr
Gull III Tl XH'RA SCRIPTS from the 13th-century Windmill Psalter shows Gothic Textur.i Prescisus script (pp. 54-55). lioth the Prescisus and its twin script the Quadrata were reserved tor prestige religions book work.
detail
into
high-quality
documentary work and, from the late 3th centurv, lor vernacular book
I
production.
Quadrata
(pp.
and
3 3).
its
twin,
Bastard scripts
Gothic cursive scripts are
known
as
Copperplate
(pp.
the
8th centurv
from
lowever, general
between English
(pp.
(/>/'.
66 67), French
(pp.
70
71),
It
and
in
German
74 7 ))
models.
that
was
same hand
appeared together
with the Gothic Capitals used to begin new sentences and denote
proper nouns
(pp.
58
I
59).
II
llMWIM MlNl'M
from a translation of Pliny's Natural History shows beautifully penned Humanist Minuscule letters. The handwritten Renaissance script was used as a model for type by 15th-century Venetian printers. It quickly replaced the Gothic models favoured byjohann Gutenberg, the German inventor of printing with movable type.
This manuscript page
/(>
Till.
DEVELOPMES'l
01
M'/:s;/\ SciUI'l
Gothic
MH,1)>|,til nttii(.~XTiMi(.
basi \ri>
is
si
This page
from
.1
win Hook of I
lours
Italian
and Humanist
a
scripts
mum
V> ilim
produced
In Italy, the
(irfubifirtuut <mfrpfoiin
.-;
of printing.
Ownership of a handwritten
time was an indication of
status.
book
.1
at this
ATwuuiHt-tr. x>x
ctfoic^inniiii
high social
late
The
elegant script
.is
is
generally
Batarde hand
(/>/>.
known
'11-71).
Lefrre
known
(pp. ti4
muriSiuVcrfu'i*3
Bourguignonne
contains
.1
which
by the
.S'>)
name of Rotunda
Textura elements.
^Oitiiuc mi/cmr
noFif..\>/iif
The Ratardc
letter f often
has
Gothic contemporaries.
of the
as
clamor.
Oiirnif liVfu tpjiflrflfl
).\//ioii(iii
/,
known
Modern calligraphy
This three-dimensional work, which
become
iiunttiHtiirtMj
inter
iii^ininiitiiuiijrtrtiHiiituiiL
measures 24 by 35 by 5 centimetres (9 by 14 by 2 inches), was created in 1993 by Denis Brown. Entitled Phoenix, the page of Insular letters - reminiscent of the great manuscripts of Kells and Lindisf.nnc
(pp. 2S-.il)
Renaissance
its
(pp.
90-91). Eventually,
iimuii MiiiKctMjIiwti
mo.ui
made
in
it
the
iiitr:ctfiiunn"f>iiime.*vuw
pre-eminent letterform
and
day.
its
Europe,
itoiiioi)tt iviimii)wfrfic
electric wires as
metaphor
life
ol the
Humanist
in
use
the
Italic (pp.
94 95). Devised as
in
1
manuscript hand
1420,
500.
it
was
The
is
final script
of significance
(pp.
the Copperplate
102
this
103).
was
on sheets
ol
be engraved with
it
far
being very
last
it
9th century,
script
/Modern calligraphy
A modern
at
Johnston
in
England
(pp.
42 43) and
Germany
(pp.
1950s, interest
proliferated in
in
many
During the
last
20 years,
as ealligraphers have
explored and
become
an art form
in its
own
right.
//
Script Timeune
Date
(a. p.)
Script
1(10
[N opssf7^
<
,r
J>
"XHrxreM;
Greek Uncial
Timeline
2(1(1
Oi
i)
Roman
Cursive
Key
( ;r (
y fine; lint:
line:
Dotted
}
300
While
UNCIAL
41
II
New Roman
Cursive
500
I
-4- I
Halt Uncial
"
r-
figNifi car ud
\fo rrnoncl,
i
Cliimm Hai
Um
iai
Insular Minuscule
(.00
myflrfmtiie
I
VlSIGOTHK
700
Minuscule
avijciusS
Insular
SHU
i
Caroline Minuscule
Majuscule
b^pci fmo
whx
>)IHI
I
I
II
II
1100
200
jbcnmmfopartu
Rotunda
Early COTIIK
\^mS'1kctmnaM
1300
pntifimntunmn|--^n$ (Etrnmtam
Textura
I'RI SI
INI
1400
Textura quadrata
I5oo
(.00
l7oo
isoo
140(1
Foundational Hand
21MKI
(British Calligraphic
Revival)
12
Script Timeline
SENATV$POP^lfomQM5m(^R~
Imperial
!U sue Capitals
Capitals
d\Cjx\
IMPROB1TDVR
Square Capitals
Ki M( CAPI Ms
I
rC9:i|Sik
I(i\ihmu)ic
Capitals
mftar&tyar&Cw
Bastard Secretary
Humanist Mini ^
CMoltofig nor mi
[talk
^encmbttfrxkuj
li\l \RI>I
bt&miM-QbcAm
...J
[-U
AK
II
ColTIKI'LATE
Revival
1
V"
SWtv&gfbfyfto
V
13
Getting Started
Getting Started
the tools THE ART OF CALLIGRAPHY begins withselected should be
a struggle to
achieve
unsuitable.
Owing to
in calligraphy,
there
now
Here, basic
and writing implements you can use, and also on how to make the two traditional types of
SUK. FACES
pen the
The reed pen
the quill.
lightweight designer's
layout paper
is
the quill [opposM) have been used since antiquity. Although both have now been superseded by other writing implements, the reed pen remains an ideal tool for expressive calligraphy. It is usually made from a hollow-stemmed garden cane (Phragmitis communis), but some calligraphers
ideal.
For
a
more
paper
important - preferably
use a synthetic material, such as plastic tubing, instead. A sharp cralt knife - always take the greatest care when using it. is required to make a reed pen
or goatskin,
is
.1
selection oj
WlUTINCJ IMPLEMENTS
In addition to the reed pen and quill, there is a huge ratige of writing implements from which the calligrapher can choose. Fibre-tipped pens are ideal for trying out ideas, while, for
I
he
,i
.nu//
pointed
sable brush
and economy, detachable nibs are an excellent option. The use of a fountain pen guarantees a constant supply of ink. although a spring-loaded dip pen is more
flexibility
for drawing
built-up
letters
Spring-loaded
dip pens are
The calligraphic
fountain pen
idealfor largescale
Imperial
Capitals
1.
(j>p.
work
A standard
pen holder can
fit
Cut
a length
(7
centimetres
2.
On
110-119).
directly
underneath the
first
cut.
a variety
make
a cut
about
make
inches) long to
remove
.1
jibre-iipped
is
pen
ideal for
preliminary work
Return to the underside ol the pen and carve shoulders between the two
3.
cuts.
4. Finally,
make
longitudinal cut
('';
about
1.5 centimetres
inch) long
this
Make
make
The
reed pen
is
now
ready to use.
14
Gettixc STARTim
The
quill
quill is
Although the
convenient
as
probably the
finest
of all writing
tools,
it is
not
as
in
handling.
Being of a
is
steel
it
requires gentler
it
would
produces
crow may
also
USINCI A
WHETSTONE
To
at
sharpen steel nib, hold the pen 45 to the whetstone and stroke
.1
Detachable nius
Pointed Copperplate
steel
nib
1.
Cut
2.
Holdiim the
shaft firmly,
make
a
Spcedball
obliiiue-cut nib
.
on the underside
and carefully
it
strip
the
make
tip.
second
barbs from
Mitchell
using
.1
scalpel 01
square-cm nib
Detachable reservoir
for Mitchell nib
Parchment
sheepskin,
and more
A
Use a reed
long, broad-
A broad -edged
I
pen for
expressive
edged sable or
synthetic brush
synthetic or
sable brush
is
calligraphy
used for
\
essential for
large- scale
The
Is
.pull
Imperial
Capitals
Imperial
Capitals
the most
traditional
3.
Make
of the
quill
on
of tools
How
of ink.
Remove
the pith
auo Make
pen and .m
Throughout
.1
an angle
it
of about
.1
at riaht
it is
ideal
shaft
is
online
the
Minuscule (pp.
40-41*
IS
Scripts
Rustic Capitals
IF
THE CALLIGRAPHER of today
is
sometimes
both
modern and
period,
historical,
[ILVMiVAlMAMOatVI
AUlOfvL^AKAOVNiUli
-
Roman
The
the
who had
first
most complex of all scripts, used in stonecut form on the great monuments of state (pp.
108109). Secondly, for everyday needs, there
script
the
m
MV
quickly executed
in the Latin
Capital,
If
jb'J
FROM THE
FIRST TO the
fifth
century,
was used
for
de luxe
The nib would have been
held at a near vertical [or
the upright strobes
.
lost
'
tOEU\
use tor
titles
afterwards. As far as
script
known, the
lOit
Verc.ilius
OLUON JVMCOKDOl
N 1-N
I
for Christian
literature,
ROMANUS, ECLOCA II
This magnificent and
rare
Virgil
DELlCl A::-D0AV1
Rome
with
(pp.
TAN1IVAUNU1UMN5A5-
example of a
in
its
manuscript
24 2j), may be one reason for the demise of the Rustic as a bookhand.
Rustic Capitals also served as stonecut letters, often used in conjunction
The words
are
separated by a punctus
(mid-point), instead
of the
scriptura contlnua
(continuous
typical
script)
monuments.
of this period.
Nl C
IT
llblK
TflkTIVS-
tOUVON
16
oo
Rustic Capitals
Writing materials
The
Ttie
fact that
we have
pen or brush
ai
evidence of the
is
held
an angle
of
40
for the
broad
form shows
that
two
diagonal stroke
different writing
.
implements were
IkY.AUNLVlVMAM
bNIlh'.H'AV'biA:
I
used.
The
pen
script
a reed
The
century, a quill
broad
of the stem.
at a near-
The
basic difference
between the
lies in
the
The
L_
The feet
downwards
beforefinishing with
an upward flick
10
is
19).
The
I'irtjil
simpler to
lectern, with
left
a capsa
and L
A-vD:DAhUXlM suVJJlKAM&AT
|:
RACACUUNUfAGC*
llmmsmM
.i".
,
r''fii-Qf!*".*^iifi
WKBgnsaMS
The interlinear gloss has been
written in a
Papyrus leaf
PapyiUS was the principal writing surface for over 3.00(1
years until the late
Roman
OSEMSfllWS
lNSlMSSmi&M
ftjJpTOJmfc
wi~/
period.
modern
Italic
right angles
Peter Halliday
This
to each other.
modern
7/.
by
on cream paper, was penned Peter Halliday in 1983. Note the contrast he achieves between the broad horizontal and diagonal strokes and the thin verticals.
Romanus. ECLOCA
II
I.V5.:Oa'AJv2:Ba1
17
Scripts
Rustic Capitals
THE DUCTUS OF the Rustic Capital
as
is
Tiiere
is
no
crossbar on the
is
different
hands shown in this book in that the pen angle can be as steep
is
tall letter
and
Therefore, from the top of the stem to the beginning of the foot,
the pen
rises
above
must
twist as
much
as
40 , and
key to
the headline
With
its serif,
thin stem,
and broad
is
(below) typifies
many
Rustic letters.
The
letter height
generally between four and six pen widths, but can reach seven.
1.
Using
a square-cut
pen nib,
L by
edge of the nib. The pen angle should be about 65 for this stroke.
Without lifting the pen, begin drawing the fine stroke of the stem.
stem.
Tlie second
>
stroke of the
tall
rises
above the
headline
it
to 45,
downward
is
diagonal sweep.
The
foot
it
element
leads the
letter.
drawn
in
one
This form of
is
most
commonly used
form ofG
is
Diagonal sweep
It is
used on the
bottom line of
downward sweeping
strokes,
a page of text
combined
Alternative
Capital
its
characteristic
counterpoint to the
fine vertical stems.
Rustic Capitals
T7if stem
This
is
the
of die]
is
modem
form of]
identical 10
dial of die
53
I
i
I
J
The
rises
serif of
die lad
This
die
is
1
modern
above
form of\J
die headline
\\
m
^k
I
/
fi>r
h f V,
\
l\
use the
same
I
II/
^^/
rfurtiw as //ie
\^^
I-
N
_t
Y is
ad
text
of a page
f
X
The
ut
C
Use
of
this form
Y only on
Alternative
of a page of text
could
alternatively be
completed in a
single stroke
19
Scripts
Square Capitals
As A LATE FOURTH-CENTURY Roman hand without
iYprecedent or descendents,
(Capitalis Quadrata) falls
awkwardly into the evolutionary pattern of Roman scripts. Because very few examples survive from this period, the duration of its use and the development
of
its
Small
serifs
are
Square Capital
M
letter.
It
is
oftes believed
that the
Square
Parchment makir
In
an established rival
principal
Roman
in
to papyrus by
Roman
manuscripts,
Imperial Capital
(pp.
108-109)
such
It
as the Cotlc.x
was invented
in
in response to an
197-158
of papyrus.
on
this
of San Sebastiano. Rome, dates from between the years 366 and 3H4. Notice the imaginative ligatures of certain letters, such as N-T, ll-K. -A, and T-E, and the way some letters have been inserted inside others.
I
CAR
scribes
contemporary carved
)nc such
example
in
is
the lourth
:'
BESSEISJTRANSIEREDI ESALTMENT ANEGAKTVR MITTfrVRlNBARATERVMSANeVSlANATOMNlASANSIS VVLNERAQV^EI N TVEER ATM O RTTSrVET VENDAPOE STAS
'
C ARA S NLVVI E M -SE QVTTVRN OWPOEKARE RARTVS TESTAK VM F R AGNENTAPARAlsFN ES OA4 NVSA ) RET
I
century plaque
Sebastiano,
the
Rome
,1|
...
Square Capitals
century. Perhaps
it
has
survived
was written on parchment instead of the more fragile papyrus. Because of the scarcity of examples of Square Capitals,
is
that
it
it is
duration of the
K)
\i \r 1
i 1
\l l\ -U.\ (X'Xll
1
VN IWI.WIV t R IVL.'v.M AM
1 1
,v
VM
vw
I
\\l
n\
it
[ I
UR.I
AKIOHMO.VUAIM lAMM
t
I
XA>i:iRAI
I
X'AMr/vlMK VXI ISSCIXTM PAN lflSHll IGWM V MS A.il Af Y X !U Mil >I ,\[k)AOM X WIC
I I
I
I
Surviving examples
im proem inv.iissv uc.i xsix:u r>.\i.c:tsi.\s primage hi Mi a:u>.\ioiuaIis\ 'nil hue ivw .NSIM\ IK VAIIAMC.lAXIMSAUlARIA lASAC l IV K VM IX) >ONAN.U:VSJ L>l Id Rl X SI l\M MOXFIhRA M*X!l>L\i\0;iAPnll\ "S\ 'IMAl \<
i
I
I I
late
Roman
(pp.
24-25).
,1
Both manuscripts are dc luxe texts of Virgil dating from the fourth
century.
tssi
iu>imi;o>u;si<(>i
II
in.uAfiiww u
1
I I
AIVX1SK.I W9SVI MAMMRASIr \rrAKMAip.v.>lK ixirioxm s'ii.wiia IN 1 1 l.v LOl \ At El SM & L 3 HOM N A X 1 V R AY > C\VOWNI$l>l ADSIOVISIERlxAAIIXSK 1AESI *l i E1SOK4IN II UUIMSAX 'fSflXX IR.I50TA4 MCI TRIM *MMI L\R \S\OI ISO VOv A\E HIH.V.
One
is
CARIA'VSIX
I
3256
(left),
housed
from the
clear
From
this scant
evidence,
it is
was the
scripts,
most shortlived
of
Roman
OKI \ A M
I
1UVSI 3LVS HASI* H" ARISACE vissoLvvc R.I ov r { m iksi OVA Sl N l>\ RISAC.RESI PA AMI
1
I
terms of
hand represents
a blind alley.
Time-consuming work
One
life
it
of the
Square Capital
the time
would
difficult serif
common
In this detail,
it is
is
written
the fine
is
acceptable for
titles, it
On
M,
R, and
1
',
the pen
turned from horizontal to vertical, which produces a strong contrast in stroke proportions. The triangular
The
tall
I.
comparison
16-17).
is
often
found
in
serifs that
inscriptions
and manuscripts
from
M Af>0.\0\l X \VK
)
tfNSlN^EJVM.Ct^lAs
21
Scripts
Square Capitals
THE SQUARE Capital broad strokes
serifs.
is
characterized by a combination of
- delicate
hairlines,
is
.
to
and neat
the
most
difficult to
pen twist
45
The simpler
made with
a single
movement
of the pen, held almost horizontally. Upright hairline strokes occur on the letters A, M, N, R, W, and X and can be made bv skating the wet ink from the main stem stroke.
nib
add the
serif
of the
Begin the
curve of the
Drag
Xlost Square
Tlte
comer
Capitals are
of the nib
is
used for
Basic elements The Square Capital letter is about four pen widths high, with the letters F and
adding the
serifs
L drawn slightly higher than the rest. The script is best drawn with a reed
pen or
a
Complex
The
letter
letters
perfectly balanced
most complex
the hand.
consists
of
The F
is
tall
series
is
of
angle changes
for
its
required
F
1.
letter, rising
slightly
above
the headline
If
construction.
Begin the
with a
2.
Make
a small
horizontal stroke
on the
nib.
IHHIZH
3.
Return
to the
4.
Now
draw the
5.
Still
of the
at the
add the
serif
nTllis
is
letter}
Drag
the
tail
of the
modem
',
up the
serif under
head of the
construction
comer of
diagonal stroke.
22
45
to
U draw
77ns
letter
is
n
90
to
Square Capitals
modem
construction
I
Twist the
the
The Li a L is
tall letter,
above
pat
slightly for
to
45
Y
Use the comer
of the nib
to
draw
the serifs
of the
Use the
'
comer of
of the
Use
draw
of the nib
to
draw
the serifs
of the
T IP XIEf
The
Use
the comer
to
of the nib
add
the serif
of the
is
madefrom
the
O,
with
tail
Slightly
twist the
pen for
the tail
gt
of the
y^\
%
\^T
Ik
'
l^^serifoftheK
'^t
^_
the
serif of the
_
S
^^
J4
Tlie third
and
Capitals
is
assisted
by
fourth strokes of
the
R can be
combined
VIRGIL
Two
lines
generous
spacing
inter-letter
and by
interlinear
height
Use
to
~5Z3>
stroke of the S,
twist the
pen
anti-clockwise
GEOR.GICS
of Square Capitals
towards the
main
stroke
23
ROMAN
Si_L.ii
i-
Roman
Scripts
Uncial
&
Uncial
(Littera
Artificial
originated in the
Artificial
Uncial
letters.
is
A.D., possibly in
North
Africa. Although
its
Greek
and
drawn
as finely as possible,
left
using the
Uncial
a-
been used since the third century B.C. was the official hand of the Christian Church. By the second century, Christianity was
increasing in influence throughout the
a larger
letter in
the margin
-iiiuliro
I
UNCIAI SCRIP!
it is
hMJCNIlllX^cropLsKl.XSl.MUIOIK
qUACluWCpMHCSNOS'iKieco**
ClllONlCXCfOOSecuciiOciuLcuW*
cuiusrouttJMVisGiiuivr'-.v.-.
Greek
This economical Uncial script was written in about 450. The pen is held at 3(1. giving a
xn
MM-ocRSutocoHClUum?* Oooro
-
The
text
is
written
new
religion.
as scriptuta continua
(without
which
was
common
to
the
The
revisions in the first line
St.
later,
untutored band
"inch-high letter",
St.
attributed to
I
-.'
Jerome,
a translator
and compiler
Bible.
cc '.\'omtKi.-\oc\:icv>u
of the Vulgate
possibly used
in
(common)
as a
He
.
encmro
:
it
term of derision,
practice
CKNCRxmU 9.*,l.a\TORrS
C|t jcxr> c:\piii
objection to the
common
txxlcsixe
The dedicatory
verse
from the
Codex
Amialinus shows
Ocbic.vi \l.r\|icV:s
Ft: TI,'G>
C
Artificial
Uncial
letters
f.\Nt:OBM^ORUCi 3
\RIV\S
Origins of minuscules The beginnings of our modern lowercase letters can be discerned in the
OeciOTi
/
Uncial script.
rise
p,
i/,
The
letters J, h,
and
i,j, n,
oxxisc|opr.\NS
INTeRCAUdl.\ p.\TRlS
known
liible in
AN
1 1
Gregory
II.
Although
first.
form
is
IncacI.is
cnecnoRem
h.\IM IK I.OCUCn
second, and
fifth lines,
is a
the
makes the Uncial, together with the Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38-39) and
the Foundational
remaining script
tout
SCCOpCR
tic forte
of the
Artificial
Uncial.
The
and
finely
drawn
Hand
(pp.
42 43),
hairlines
delicate serifs
pen
JfSXLtlS
(IH-.\
(|(KUiVI KlWIW)
, *''
(Kn.vopuopi
SvijaoTRepi
cMixes (dc.vs
ipsi i\i:nun\riS(JN'l
rc eciOeRUNT-
i(:oxsisi.\N'i.\0(ii:KS{iu>iin- i:\siu\No\riiTx;
imi"
ci)umocioisiis'sinu:vi"iN'iu piioiiljucr)
IN IS6c
UGO SibGRMtO/.-.
if
ii
>
..i.
n'md pern \on'oI>xm: KoquiRXaf) UTiNnXBlTem ix-oomu o.vi omxiisds oiomj.s uitxcuih \e. a<kruiOcvm cioHun r.vuun Bni irrpRO TocxK.vrcjiliishi
citn
\hsco\Oiiim;
in'txim:kx'\i:uI.os<jo ix'OioinxIp
R1H1) |>IJOTl:,VirilH:
INXIWe.OXOrTOTXISORX'XCUl.lSII
UNCMrrem
uostnoos
1..,..
cvxl xmi
i
cxpurnxum* scipuurkimi
'
i.ikc.uiiso
..i
ie
twiseRMteni
!i
crruvxtioiiiie-
in
Vi m-asian Psalter
The Vespasian
Psalter
was written
at St.
Augustine's
added
Artificial Uncial
Abbey, Canterbury,
in the early
eighth century.
The
ol
well established
known copy
The opening D from Psalm showing the figures of David and Jonathan, is the earliest example of a historiated initial in Western manuscripts. The illuminated title is
written in built-up
All
FROM
1111
VlM'AMW
I'SAI II
of
The
than those
(opposite),
in
Roman
capitals.
which
of a
less
674 and 682 respectively. Soon, the monks of Wearmouth, Jarrow, and Southumbria (England
founded
south of the River
I
lumber) were
and
serifs
pRomxiiiDC ix\r>scoxon
k\
i!\\\I.t\<htuh:
>
on Square Capitals
2021). This
known
fx ptn
Romax
(k.
Lath
Romax
Scripts
Uncial
THE
no UNCIAL
IS
&
Artificial Uncial
The
Artificial Uncial,
X
Uncial
Artificial
Uncial
Draw
lb the
comer of the
nib
difficulties to
pen.
however,
is
twists
as
they
letters: F,
L rise
N,
P, Q_,
and R drop
B B
Uncial
can be
combined
Artificial Uncial
B
For the second
stroke
of the C,
and drag
_ ^V^.
i iicial
Artificial
c c
Uncial
clockwise
the ink
downwards
Artificial
Uncial
tail
of the
Uncial
Basic differences
easily
penned with
Artificial
is
.1
The Uncial
written with
letter
,i
is
steel nib.
The more
Uncial
pen angle
in
complex
Uncial
D
Artificial
Uncial
D
I
of 30. Simpler
letter
written
The
Artificial
'ncial
could be enclosed
r }
"S
~^
^*
jt
For the
serifs
steel
nib or a quill.
Pen
twists
e
Uncial
of the E,
twist the nib
[
1
A E
anti-clockwise
^^^~-^
Artificial Uncial
^^
^"l\
ink downwtirds
pen
twist that
occurs on the
serifs
of letters
To draw
of the
the
serifs
F. twist the
nib anticlockwise
1.
Begin by drawing
using the
2.
full
On
P F
Uncial
and
(fait"
the ink
downwards
Artificial
Uncial
pen antiresultant
The
Uncial
Blob
9
G
<7
Artificial Uncial
Complete the
curve
ol the
and
tail
in a
single stroke
Indentation
Uncial
The
blob
serifcan be
left
b b
H
Artificial
Uncial
H
Modern
Artificial
with the
still
and indentation
visible
Modern
Uncial J
Uncial J
The
I
and]
are
drawn
3.
The
serif can
be neatened
I
in a single stroke
J
Uncial
/
Artificial
comer
of the nib
Uncial
26
Uncial
k k
K
Artificial
Tlie Uncial
On
the third
strobe, twist
%*
K
horizontal
Uncial
Drag out
of the
the tail
Uncial S
s s
Artificial
To draw
the serifs
and drag
the
Uncial S
ink downwards
with the
comer
L
oj the nib
Tlw
Artificial
resembles a
version retains
minuscule Utter
the appearance
ofa
capital
Uncial
Artificial
Uncial
Both forms
L
have a
1
2
At
the
end of the
oj
second stroke
ofM
minuscule appearance
an co
Uncial
Artificial
Uncial
m
first
nib anti-clockwise
T T ^ a ao
'-
Uncial
For the
the
serif of
T,
twist the
lib anti-clockwise
and drag
the
Artificial
Uncial
ink downwards
Uncial
Artificial
Uncial
"*
On
Tlicsv forms of
arc
the first
Uncial
Uncial
N N o o
N
Artificial
modem
cofistnicfions
stroke of the
N,
fin's/
p/i
N
Begin the
Uncial
Uncial
stroke of the
twist to
Artificial
Uncial
Artificial
Uncial
o
Drag the
left
at
45 and
w uoim
These forms <>/"W are
constructions
modem
Uncial
Artificial
Uncial
is
more
form
Uncial
V
'
Artificial
PP
of the Artificial
For the
the
serif of
X,
twist
and
ti'
riu4*1 Uncial
V X
downwards
Swifrial Artificial
Uncial
Uncial
Tlie
is
A^
Tlie second
dotted
and
third
q 9
Uncial
strokes of the
Q
Q
r
mil)'
be
drawn as a
single stroke
ry
Uncial
Artificial
Uncial
Artificial
Uncial
nn's alternative
Alternative
Artificial
Artificial
Uncial
fonn
of
/his
Uncial
me appearance
tf a
capital letter
Uncial
Artificial
Uncial
Tlie simpler
Z
Fonn both
serifs
of the
by
and
i 'ncial
can
Drag
the
tail
to the right
Uncial
Artificial
Uncial
of the nib
21
.xi
pmjpCRttJspijgiiomuiri
* * OaJll^-KT^GOmUJ ISsS
.1
'
iHjuih^aKTiiniicqiioiiiam
9 Tpsi nonsuLucbuiJum
hi
to
k
quicssftnatriKi
& sianuu
ipsi n ii68CRi<
oudm m
caiisaji itrn
ipgi
PI!
dm
i
<
ndobui
rcr
- .?
.*
ISSIIIAR MAJWiCUI.k
Insular Majuscule
The Insular Majuscule (Insular Half Uncial) derives
name from
"Insular"
is
its
its
from the
much
larger
of the
complementary
Insular
Minuscule
3435).
of
As
the
it
a prestige
characterized
many
lifts
pen
(pp.
32-33).
In early
was the favoured hand for sacred manuscripts written in Latin, including two of the most beautiful books ever
produced, the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book of Kells.
Beatitudes pagb from the Book of Kells The border of this page from the Book of Kells combines and incorporates both zoomorphic and the eight initial
/is
he thickened base
is
created by
slightly to the
up
to the
midway
was the
anthropomorphic decoration. The horizontal stroke over "spu" in the first line denotes an abbreviation of "spiritu" ("breath of God"). The horizontal stroke is a device used by scribes for oftrepeated words. Also typical is the letter it in the 3th line, which has been extravagantly extended in order to fill space. The use of red dots to outline initials and ornament text is more sensitive and
1
ot
/ mi on
/ I
western
M)-M).
Majuscule
letters
Wearmouth
p.
24)
and that
at Celtic
Lindisfarne (see
some of the
The Book oj Kells The Book of Kells was written at some time in the second hall of the
eighth century and the early years of the ninth century, probably by Irish-
Northumbrian monks.
oritur)
'
Its
place of
shrouded
in
uncertainty and
its
the
is
first
record
we
have of
existence
in
1006 from
The
in the
Book
ol Kells
were written
bv The Gospel of St. Mark The Insular Majuscule is without capitals as they are used in the modern sense. Chapter openings, such as this detail from the Gospel of St. Mark in the Book of Kells, commenced
of display capitals, a Versal (pp. 58-59), or a combination of both. Verses would open with a larger character, which was often decorated or filled with colour.
a line
at least
Half Uncial
The ascender of the
letter
(pp.
38-39)
letters.
These
with
29
TARA BROOCH
This intricately decorated brooch was found in Ireland in 18511 not
tar
of its construction
similarities
initials in
unknown,
Chi-Rho page
and curvilinear
The
interlaced birds
on the Tara
of Germanic origin.
CHI-RHO PAGE
I
Chi-Rho
this
one
-innf4
;j3,'*l
of the most impressive leaves in the book. A variety of influences are evident, including Greek, Roman. Half Uncial, and runic. Eadfrith's use of the capitals is highly creative. There are three different forms of the letter A on this page: two on the second line, and a third, form on the bottom line (pp. 32-33).
OC
when
the scribes
were entering their most productive phase. The Gospels were written
in Latin
by
was added
in
Gospels from
R&TM1LT
E
number of other books and fragments from this period that reveal wellexecuted Insular Majuscules.
the
Among
Lindisfarne scriptorium.
is
The
markedly similar to
Other
[XSIII.AR AlAJIISCllir.
%KpiKTXJhiciiouurn
Manuscript decoration
The
pn aep.ru o cum
mav
sav this
oi an
I
more
more
am
lost in fresh
the decoration
(pp.
28
29).
early medieval
achievement
decoration.
ol
Western manuscript
the carpet
tilled
Scm >servu im
From
decorated
initials
and display
capitals,
Tjeftcaxm-diceiis
Quoiiiairi
in u ta
^ e en 5 ehy. e-bhp-
Quroem
$a
we view
the
work with
as
the
same
wonderment
Cambrensis, often
OTrDiuajieiJajnnajaoiJc*
/;i
wedge
ub
a horizontal
pen
St. Jerome's
preface
shows the preface to of St. Jerome. The abundant use of red dots around the initial letters is a common design feature ot the book.
Lindisfarne Gospels
the text
As well
as a
outlining the
letters,
the dots
an Anglo-
provide
Saxon minuscule
fpp.
One
The
text
15), is the
such dots.
earliest surviving
translation into
Anglo-Saxon of
the four Gospels
In this
Denis
Brown
a
This calligraphic piece, entitled Cultural Decomposition, was created by the Irish calligrapher Denis Brown in
1993. At 1.2 by 1.6 metres (47'A by 63 inches),
it is
work of great
scale
artistry
of
the Insular Majuscule letters are seen to be systematically corroded bv the symbols of modernity, the electric cables.
31
Ixsuiar 8l \'mio\
1/
Scripts
Insular Majuscule
The Insular Majuscule
scripts.
is
among
the
most prestigious of
built
Most
letters in this
hand are
up from
lifts.
a series
Or form of a
Push the
first
The bowl
of
pan of
the 3 should
the slroke
be spacious
The oc fonn
of a
is
often used
Ascenders
two minim
heights.
Uncial form of a
Wedge
serif
6
b, is made by drawing a downward stroke at about 45
The sum of
the
curve to the
left
b should II
/
I
M^ki Ml
^^^_^ ^^^J^
c tc
Pen angle and wedge
with
.in
The
C
second
stroke ol the
is
a separate,
stroke
pushed
serifs
that
on the
short
The
distinctive
wedge
serif,
such
as
main stem. This can be preceded or followed by a hairline stroke along the top ot the wedge.
into the
T>
Uncial form
draw the
dart
ofd
Horizontal darts
downward
on
use the back of the
a diagonal
pen
To
pen
to the right to
stroke. Letters
make
long horizontal
letters d, g,
and
c.
nib.
Begin by drawing
by
a short
g and I have a second dart; create this by twisting the pen downwards to an angle of about 15.
d e
Alternative d
Tlie hairlim
of the e can k
extended
right
to th
and fuiiski
with a dim
Complete
tin
Tlw
am
be
second slroke
oj the (in
sliorl
dun
a single movement
Draw
the
i
am
low
sic
of the
Alternative dart
An
alternative technique to
that described
above
is
to use
the corner of the pen nib to define the dart before filling
in the outline
with ink.
on the
-/."
~V
Draw
of the
the tin
horizontal
dam
tlir
with
back of the
nib
32
INSULAR Majuscule
h
11
The
second and
third strokes
if to
<~
of the h can
he combined
a variation of the
wedge
serif
I|
Sfazte (fa m//
ra
of the \
/tit)
separate strokes
S~ST
t;
2
4
third
combined
[A
The
final stroke
t is
of the
pushed
m
n
14
Alternative n
1r
/it'
im u
serif,
the
ftw
in
The
x
is
Tlie v takes
the form of a
modem u
completed without
lifting the
pen
irii
Hither of these two
ui till
hairline
In-
forms
1, i3j
77w
cross stroke
of the n can
to fill
lint'
of the
skated or drawn
is
composed
oj
two
single
opposing strokes
0)
After drawing
IfP
u
Swivel the nib upside
Draw
stroke
the third
the
serif,
the
down
ofthe
z with
can be
completed in
a single stroke
33
IXSUl
IK &.
\llo\
1/
S< RIPTS
Insular Minuscule
>NGSI1
)i
EACH
()l
POINTl D MINIM
en
The name
derives from
in contrast
t<>
the
squarer descenders ol
ihi- set
complementary script is the Insular Minuscule, which dates from the late fifth or early sixth century. Its use continued in England until after the Norman Conquest of 1066, and in
Ireland
it it
minuscule.
making
scripts.
mainland
INRISl \i'-M
The
on the
Priory
site
from Ireland by
was taught
at
St.
Columba and
Irish
applied by palaeographers
\MOXlS
Provable Salamonis, a work
Continental influence.
Insular
Minuscule
in
script that
on
piMirtis oti&irto
pi\<Jabiij"
Anglo-Saxon hand
After the Council of Whitby
the influence of the Celtic
in
perfected
Wearmouth-Jarrow by 750,
IAN PRAYER-BOOK minuscule from a Mercian
7~:,
t j? |
suromarrj
664,
MERI
This page of set prayer-book was written in the early ninth century, possible in Worcester, Britain.
cnaUjSram ;S
tfciilndyrain
Church
InrwitMi.ee^nvimr.tnf ahiirr.ra'
weakened
Wales and
\r me>irn$tf\mlndt(Tntmiii biminnciilinre
ectUfinrtc dv^xhqvp'.rcrvem Jrtjjrtecojv
ijiti
more
distinctive AngloIts
Compare
of the
oTTeivnan-s
man
which
Irtus Itisecnui
v.'pnve
mat oxalic
civimiiu
pvi
oc
form of a;
set,
v jCT0
ueUo'iy nolldw
lurpn
.'
s
verse
it is
this that
m
The
i
we
I
)l
Ml
I
ki IM
V
I
The
cross stroke o)
f*>
is
frequentlj
aural
stroke oj the
.'.-.
Ml
III
VN
I'k \\
K-BOOK
a/
link Icticrs
pctqvem DCptvecon
Insular Minuscule
tppYy
ttli:rrw'<v pa"St*nTi -"ixcc Inborn?
'
cc-cj^tpTTj-dtrm v^oxronctfao
iiibBrdnwtivwilfl piwnwirqjTiio
'
with
letter*
is
initial
in
C'ar.-fta;wlr canAicffe* -$vU-<trt
metalwork on a hoard in
apilals in the
it)
mJisforn
Ircwhiddle, Cornwall
Gospekfpp.
i\)
ennras
I
i^praf oacfonm
-llj-TU:
p:
mc
ceni
Us
iui.
ECCLESIASTICA
in
Carolingian influences
By the tenth century, the Insular
Minuscule was undergoing changes,
first
CvWfT-p-
CIO
OWU>
In
Getitis
Anglonm, written
-nonnwTtmn
njnwnmi cmincpir
*oim:n-Li:cc[^
about H2o.
in
.1
and terminated by an upward Qick* The pen is lifted between each stroke.
liwufa^Kaift^
afffw-tt*
^wxfc--oiu.\rda-f
Opi^pnr&rj-
op jFpitfDJT*
jmrorjJrfi
its final
apqin I'Mhdncp
Bfh^^am ofjiuipi-iA'
The
short
s it
used hoth
jyfip'lcam
km* pjnfcun
n-ppq'tj
odfcs
l*
Throughout the development of the early Insular Minuscule, it was the changes of pen angle that allowed the
scribes to express their calligraphic
virtuosity. This
IDSH)MAf)OLAD
Cfttt
if
bur fj-pxnm-
|t*Ji
milix irMJiIa
jofi
wtm
tjrtrc
Hum
b*16I:iW-
pBbfe
p&m
cpcccmazjar ocq<
ptecrov ncckftr ccn
oy oti^p
lu the
modern
<p>
-ftWnirWiih(y
-j-[*p*
all
the
more
1)1
All
ROM
Exeter Book
Written during the second half of the
tenth century in a fine
Note the two different forms of? that occur at the end of the first and second words of this detail. The use of the upright form of the letter d in the second line is a departure from the Uncial form (pp. 24-25).
Anglo-Saxon
Book
more
Compare
this
tmal
ofm
mas occur
at
c|in
crtetuirc^
4&
35
pointed
at the lop
Insular
Minuscule
find the ductus of the Insular
In die
Xl
TJie stem of the
is
created
could be more
this
upright than
drawn. The
is
about five or
<*
-1
a
.u
'7,
Tlie ascender of the (could
rise
the
downward
at
stroke
gradually turning
a short
downward
an
diagonal stroke.
clockwise direction.
g could
be more
this
open than
5.
Once
the descender
6.
On
at
reaching the
original angle,
be
its
<^t
Tltc letter]
is
a modem
the
the baseline.
letter.
36
Insular Minuscule
can
be completely upright
tt
7i
>'<\
%
3
<<*h
letter
'
Create (he
w by
V
o
'<
W
Tlie
'VI
1Y
'<r
>
o>
c
can he
s
%>
Use
either
one
or two strokes
to
draw the z
This
r is
modem form
of
more recognizable
6c
Tlie tall c
f,
f.-Xk
/*=>
g,
i,
m,
u, x, y,
and
Long
The modem
s is often preferred
E-t ligature
37
Carouse
&_ Early
Gothic Scripts
Caroline Minuscule
At
first
The ascender
is
caual
in height to the
minim
il.(Carolingian Minuscule) and the (see Vatican Basilicanus, below) are not
clear.
The main
distinction
is
square-cut nib,
40-41).
in the eighth
It
century as
strictly
and
84-85).
text
Empire
that stretched
from the
Baltic to
northern
Italy.
Charlemagne
scholar
instigated a great
cultural revival.
rMMeoiTKittdi
Tours, France,
where he established a scriptorium and Court School. It was here that the existing Half Uncial was reformed
to create the Caroline Minuscule.
NO
4cr-icn
j
itolum.
mrp-ple
idee Kim^'i-Ma
huin.
!i
.'
'
Kia
A dominant
script
its
e-i-Vieibir-ex-iM
clarity
Characterized by
gradually
script in Europe.
arrived late in
in
mil mlier-til
<:-
the
creo
HI.
i
:;
!-
I-Lllf:
o""r
PWI
itu
'.
itnjMiii
KIT'
Vatican Basilicanus
The Half Uncial
form of
write
it
is
usually defined
by
its
capital
N and by the
Although lacking in subtlety, this from the late fifth century. shows clear and unambiguous letterforms. Note how vertical the script is compared to the slanted
(p. 40).
(opposite).
38
Caroline Minuscule
letters
Capital
letters, loosely
derivedfrom Uncial
to
Sheila
Waters
Composed
oeonewm*u
calligrapher Sheila
from triecrray-wbinrflooi-ofmistr
Between tncroountxin diAirts
\r>
part
entitled
of a triptych Cloud
Conceptions from
morning sun.whichslowlybums
-ttte v.\Uev -fb^AMW.
Above.
The
text
is
arranged asymmetrically
in a stretched,
modem
version of Caroline
which stxyxwU
Iti
le.'Andliien dissolw-r
Minuscule.
The even
allow
to the
rnornin^rlitrlit,ASnocufiAti I couUvt-jdhupan.
Prankish Empire
The extent of Charlemagne's Frankish Empire in the early ninth century is marked in red on this map of modem Europe. As
the empire
Latin
of the
to be
letters
lines
made
without
busy.
expanded north of the Alps, and Greek learning was carried with
becoming too
A square-cut nib
The major
Minuscule
difference
between
The
earlier
hand
written with an
The Caroline
written with
square-cut nib,
pLlORU
51
of even proportions
(pp.
4041).
Textural colour
When viewed
as a
page
of text,
Stl>JTl^
ij
Minuscule
is
cucrnxcoB sincuLi
J
a slight
forward
CLicv>Z>ocr>-i
Minims
T
.
Ceo mi >~rn n
i
cixn
fm epTiJ.vlj m
a slightforward thrust
<rxd
e-c.vfe-r-
'
The Grandval
There
is
Bible
letters.
a subtle
Caroline Minuscule
They
the
are written
lines:
minims
lines,
the ascenders
u n l u e-riiCfryjcr^i b: et u
f om rtt
cj-.
same height
the minims.
39
Caroline Minuscule
The Caroline Minuscule
calligrapher to master.
is
easiest
hands for a
As
function was to
communicate
The
letters are
is
A forward slant
10
is
of about of the
letter
characteristic
Caroline Minuscule
lc
(ll
Tlie third
stroke of the
Tlie
pen angle
is
for the
hand
about
35
d
Basic elements
could be a
The minim
is
height of
continuation
of the second
between three and five pen widths, with a further two or three for the ascenders and
descenders.
The
serifs
i-
on the ascenders of b,
and / have a clubbed appearance.
d, h, k,
of the e could
continue upwards
to
Caroline Minuscule
.
Half Uncial
a is
with a single
downward
The Caroline
Minuscule
This oc form of 3
is
stroke
a two-storey,
-
characteristic
of
open
letter
the
Half Uncial
rr
Tlie Caroline
Tlie Caroline
n UUUS a
recognizably
lower-case form
Kt
Uncial capital n
inward sweep
written with a
"straight "
pen
(oblique-cut nib)
Minuscule
is
written
=*;
zn
Skate the
the
i
tail
of
toform a j
40
Caroline Minuscule
c nzj&m
for the
v>
Finish the
in?
below
right^
zcEZjrn
'
Finish the
with an inward
sweep or afoot
(see alternative
n,
below
rightj
_D
iL&)
Alternatively,
the
p could
strokes,
be drawn in
two
stem
q could be
-X
4^
Tins
is
stroke
r~Trg
Long
the
traditional long
form ofs
szzs
Alternative n
Tliis alternative
foot for h,
m, and n can be
used instead
of the suvep
41
Caroline
<Sl.ik/>
Gothic Scripts
Foundational
Hand
is
NO BOOK ON
without
its
complete
belongs
is
reference to
Hand and
a
to the early 20th century. However, the basis for the script
Foundational
With the pen held
p
.it
Ramsev
Psalter
was written
in a
each Foundational
as
letter
appears to be
evenly distributed
between horizontal
and
vertical strokes.
19th century,
movement
in
England, a whole
X>
i^ruirc
artists
this
tac
endorsed
this idea
and began,
writing
In
fpenunmufimr
I
1897, to experiment
in
letters with a
broad-edged pen.
dAr iru<Vemum
London,
In
at
who
invited
him to teach
classes in Calligraphy
and Illumination.
'
1901
LuidarrcVfiiper exaltanr
cum
tnfecuLi
Luidaa
In this detail, the
en anqdx
dm dnofecdi dno
dno
B B
enaquAeorrirqiaefupqdof
lunr driaiJ canfmrxux^fdnidno \
en ibl&lunx
.
has
The Ramsey
Psalter
was one of the hands on which Johnston's work was based. In H'riiino and
and
Lettering,
he
stated, "it
h.is
.ill
the
chcrnifimbcrd^rofdno
of good writing in a marked degree, and consider it, taken all round, the most perfect
satisfactory
and
penmanship which
have seen".
42
fpi ::,
cdfcmiuTinopqruxi
LETTERS COPIED |fROM A^lOm-CENTUKr ENGLISH MS.
kwiuJi.i*.
oft*
aesG
-
six
DEVELOP
I I
.
tit/
' (i'.i,l,
u jrrrmimiiulv thuf
j.%1 flu-uiii
71i v.jui^.-j d
i.-rr.u
M neatly imlbr;
-
iwtV!
io* Cnflury li JiniiJj-iin Oir t,trU rvmin^-iHal.'-liwi*} if Fruufi iim" 0:iili^Virf'u/(f"KjTJi-(t'i'htii u iiJ, nxuA)
2 TKf fnuvie. Hp* tutkt i)>mU dw WfAK f*:.^uf jmwiii.iJJ ^ourali. .-.(..l,:,
.
.,
'r iiiiui.ii
uW
tivi
b&M - 41 Ui lly u
i-i'-ct ii u-
black
lmq^^fw
n!r iwccwii.tai^)iii j
iw/ic niiu
roman'small
Letters
11.
abcderaiiiiklninot)Qqrstuv.vp
AN
ITALIC
HA\D
innLfartni At TtmAhmihI
1
LJ(l Vi.WlTiuwnrli^mJrI*i>vwiWe\<
.! > l
i
wind
TV du*Juaiftjn.-i (foV ITALIC HmVi ot Umal vvmjMt>n,; h-iiiclww 1 Nwrwoi Aawwi mt*4iA.wi fn" wVMfWftUfe] SmmJU) ...MllTinraaiTl.t|.*jtttti.M(i)i..; JMfll SlOff |, -)lt'.lJth(BHj jr-u ri rf.vrWiflu;
1
^ dawn I'n^wmlNwJ
and
abbedefc/hi
It
kllmnopaS StUUVWXVZ&^jb^Sg
j
reman uiptui M,^.,U4^'w^r*iff*}
'
the
Edward Johnston became one of the most influential pensmen of the early 20th
Century.
He
is
A ROMA)3\SMA]J-lE7TERHWDwif.tr*^ Vjr^tiwraUlinruy^^^uwI^JTmi^
work
AitJiuthinGENERAL NOTE 2 A wr, hwi rub sfivtuA. mnbdir tmff&tfciif ' d'4K "Aiiwur - Ait ifAr aKwrtdwry firm An*mwiubui^u*ur*tfc/;.w^** iou/a^
*%K%K" '*'
who
Psalter.
" SMALL-LETTERS, rtwi **&! /,*#. m V >,4,v,i,t*tf. timi /. tut,, to, ... an excellent formal hand for MS. work and to develop into later forms (Rcf. W. & L. cullo. VIII. &r pp. joj-jio). rapid and practical haml for modern MSS. (Ref. W. L. eollo. XXI. fc pp. 311-3'S)' II. luIklhnJ: L.collo. XX. fie pp. 310, *8ij. HI. Rimaa Small-Isller IU*J : suitable for the most formal modem MSS. {Kef. II. and 111. may be taken as MS. models for practical adaptation to f>rintitt', painting, curving, &c: ci. Pis, 10, it, 14, 10.
l LATK
I,
6,_-
SLANTED-PEN
.
FaunJtilianiil Han.! :
was then
that he
wrote to
a friend:
&
W.&
"And
so the idea
came
work
to
make
In his
living letters
Jf* -i I.J-H"
Mi
: -1. 11/ ..
p*.<i.i.(,-fliit..r.i
great instructional
Writing and
WORKSHI
.1
I-
lii 1909, in collaboration with the artist Eric Gill, Johnston produced scries of student worksheets on which he described the Found.1tio11.il H.ind as
for "slanted"
pen
letters,
such as
those
in
the
Ramsey
Psalter, oyer
Ct fiocc sctibimii^
vbbis utgaiidatfe
o^Qaiidiuni vestruni
sit plenum.
develop into later forms". On he modified the Ramsey Psalter script by making it lighter and more upright. and he included his characteristic "sharp-headed" serifs.
"excellent for formal
to
MS
work and
the sheets,
pen
(pp.
38
39).
Drawn
at 30,
with
rka (sr<iiiiiuncwtitJ.QjMra
r
,
Careful consideration of
weight,
this
iintl
spacing
is
dcmonnratftl in
the serif on
Study sheet The main text of this study sheet from l')l') is written in Johnston's own fully developed Foundational Hand. The ascenders are more ordered and shorter than
those demonstrated on the earlier worksheet {above).
serifs
use of "sharp-headed"
serifs
made
(pp.
94-95)
is
also clear.
strokes.
43
Foundational
Hand
is
A
I
A MOST
the
manner
laid
With
regularity of ductus,
in which arches, curves, widths of letters, and internal spaces all relate, the Foundational Hand demonstrates a perfect evenness of
is
about 30
is
Minim
height
four or
a b
c
Ml thefirst
strobe of the c
d
The key
As
this
To draw
of the d,
the
letter
letter
composite character of it. d. c, ii. and q shows, the o is the key letter of the hand. Take time and care to
of Foundational
letters
by drawing
pencils taped
The
compose
its
two curved
strokes.
It is
comers of a pen
Internal spaces
The
elegant oval
provides the
to
model
which
all
ideally
To draw
Inter-letter spacing
the serif
The
spaces
between
letters
should be
as
consistent 3S possible.
Many
scribes train
keenlv
as
oil lira*
44
A>
V*
To draw
of the
letter
1 i
the serifs
and], see
Foundational
Hand
fr
To draw
the serif
t
1
downwards
Return
to
the top
2^
curve to
and pull
the
pen
downwards
to
draw
Make an inward
^
To complete
the
letter,
pull the
To draw
u, see
the
"V
serif of the
letter
1
'
'%
m
To draw m,
see letter
1
t
;
*m
Tt
v %y$
n
O
To draw
serif of
the
~\
W
I
then,
1
see letter
jfcQ
draw
the
PTo
^W
II
serif of the p.
see letter
O
r
can begin
to
left
of the stem
Turn
the
pen
nearer to the
horizontal to
broaden the
second stroke
of the z
r
s
To draw
see letter
the
serif of the r,
i
Tliis alternative
&
9
^^^
'(kj'
easierfor beginners to
To avoid
the
s lilting,
horizontally
Alternative g
J
^^^<
45
Early Gothic
Caroline) THE EARLY GOTHIC script (Proto-Gothic, Late from the of western Europe
The pick
at the
maul
added on completion
in
most
late
fell
The how
auite
between the end of the Caroline era and the beginning of the Gothic. In retrospect, the script can be seen as transitional between the Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38-39) and the Gothic
Textura hands
(pp.
is
compressed, giving
if
an oval
aspect
5057), for
it
contains characteristics of
the
Early Count
letter
is
/<
The Winchester
The
illuminated
Bible
the Winchester
initials in
was more compressec and oval than its predecessor and greater attention was paid to such
details as serifs
Its
different
I'
the
from being
Capitals lor
and the
feet
of minims.
IT
uitwMtfM IaKH
4015.
~\i
Mwlnrn<fi riir(sjir^
sivf
h
c
.
nUTiAt--urn
to a page of text.
"
..
I
..
kibuimnf-
ud (Mrrutvlurii asfts
between
with
j^il
mt\
.
nin:
.
......
I
<
turn-urn
'
(IV
when comparing
Bible with the
the Winchester
Bible
(p.
'
Grand val
39).
IliHinlnv
-
The Winchester Bible The Winchester Bible is one of the most outstanding books ot the Earlv Gothic period. Commissioned
by Henry of Blois, the Bishop of Winchester, Britain, it dates from
about
1 1
ntf dwelt rempuf .idmouer. .rctr. njfunt:tno ncm fdctamctrrovutn dcn:-v}ium .imt luimlmiim fiyKCifinmrt'mti munAim wwhnn intcucrf: ptwhdtfli ponui qitmn (didrffe cftmul
i-ctmtf. Ocmde q.t mupirurnilnrf
The
is
initial illuminated
d v/C\ aft mi-tttnorittn dent :qiutnfi cam 1<rnw ,iliqiiifYiVOTvnTcr-Apcnce igrcur,.uircSodorcm tint crcroc llUtto itoto immcrs ictainmronira
meW
mm
X btmm
ill
l
of text
St.
Ambrose,
is
HtW itltf- tpbera qi (ft aiy<nre <tr ucrrtunif nrnifqurfq: .id jctm qd irrouToaOTur cocjnofattc- 'I1'"' W&ondttW msmmifli deberormuni p oc mi-fttnum celcbrautr rye numafec ficitc lecnmtrf
mm
De Misteriis I
This page
from a
at
pen held
theological tract
probably penned
n Jkenj uroj cfinfrfe few wort" .uxnttr : in atrmj qiUAtaaufiftt _ oiran dodwr- fctmrum mm decekrc- toft bee rrfa-ara unit r f&ftbuitKtivflitf cS rcqsticntaomf Cicwnum Swepetc quid mwrrogaCftf raopwfcc quid ttfpondaiS fLcnuncufti chabolo *op<nbtifni'
Rochester
Prion,'.
mnnde oL'bwimcd.KtioluptaabuS-Teneairuottiu-nonintu
railo mortuottmi
uafcfc
,'1d
Britain, in 1130.
The
hand
create
more
Early Gothic
fifdoctm, uidiftifutmnu Ciccixlocctn . rloli amlidsrare wrporum futunii- tid mmtftenorn -jrim ttyfttrnimf onjdif
would, and so
the line.
complete contrast to that of the Winchester Bible (above). Although the nib is square, the pen
used
is
in
ctirtodiunr facn
lik.- >.
iliS^-
is
held
at
an angle
close to 40,
results in a
which
strong
among
headline, reinforced
by a sturdy
baseline.
46
.!/</>
Gothic
Paper maker
The
This Venal letter
I
earliest
European
departs from
paper was
The pen
is
made from
Gothh conventions
informality of
in the extreme
its
decoration
held
St.
at
a shallower an^le
IX*
than in the
MisU'riis
I
Ambrose,
f
manuscript
opposite A
doqim imzrtextu&ttiylfa
paraf lance tnodasm
pondus
nam ttinaeihlibtmiotierpen1dtfi
vcv xrtruifq; huttc netp mmicdtfcuCCicml
uirj^Cpopuleafuindef&amtgda.
texuf-
^tfqqpexpolumhiaznc candov
umdtogtnapfeTunc'''azq: mbunc
fubdinir;.
Early Gothic
EARLY
has an upright,
the headline of the
Tlw bowl on
the
a should be large
GOTHIC SCRIPT is written with a "straight" pen and compressed aspect. The wedge serifs on
horizontal stress to
minim characters help create a strong the text. The minim height varies between
six
f
The ascender height
of the b can equal
that
descenders frequenth equal the minim height. Because ol the 0 and 40 - various great variation in pen angle - between 1
types of serifs are included in the hand.
all is
of the minim
V_
The most
distinctive of
k,
and
/.
d
Split serifs
1j
Omit
the crossbar
create a
"Filled" serifs
ascender with a pen angle of 40.
serif and
Create the
split
third
method
the
is
involves
(C).
drawing the
left
main stem
first,
then
""filling"
split serif
adding the thinner right serif (A). Alternatively, extend the thin serif into the stem (B).
The pen
held at a constant
letter.
of the f to
9
Titefeet
Alternatively,
the
could
h
in
on the of
completed
straight strokes
three stroke)
the
minims terminate
with an upward
turn
of the pen
77ie h could
alternatively have
serifedfoot
Early Gothic
letters
Flat-headed and
wedge
is
serifs
should be
written with
an
created
by overlapping two
with
pen angle
serif (),
ii.
Thcj
is
<.'
oblique-cut nib
of about
as the in
fifth serif
type
/,
the
wedge
p,
r,
modem
letters
HI, n,
and
as
well
modern letters j, v, and if. This can be drawn one or two strokes, with a pen angle of about 40.
48
Early Gothic
fc rc ^
/
4-
C u
5*
4
77ie v
foii/d
extend above
the headline
xrit
i
m
:tr
^
i
V
15
modem
V
'/it
Tlie second
construction
&
1/
Tltt
<*'\T {
w
is
modem
3
<>
Tliis
construction
(i
?
Z
is
and
of the
third strokes
x cum be combined
Tltex has a i
distinctive tail ctive
^^/
^m/
y*
:
This ligature between
the long
5
and the
Tlie halfr
constructed
t is
a distinctive
after letters b,
feature of the
hand
1
Full
r
Half r
S-t ligature
*8
49
C-t ligature
Gothic Sciupts
Textura Quadrata
3th century, the Early Gothic THE BYscript BEGINNING of thea non-cursive, angular hand known as had evolved into
1
the Textura
Quadrata (Black
Letter,
Old
English).
The name
indicates the
lines
of text, "Textura"
meaning "an even effect in weaving". The script represented a revolutionary change in calligraphy - after centuries of emphasis on clear letter recognition, individual letters were
suddcnlv subservient to overall tcxtural effect.
The
script's
Textuka Quadrata
most distinctive teature
is
,\
the
strokes.
With
its
to
many people
ol the
it
a
?-<3
embodiment
?&
faiimeGmonrficnietiialJcatra.
385
in
prestige to
(pp.
as a
demand for smaller, hand-held books meant thai more modestly sized scripts such as the Schwabacher
(pp.
offtnmus.fiqpltatrpiantK*
uc cuius muuftrai
utcrttlu
fmu
(pp.
form
ol
on deeds,
favoured
as well as
in
being
much
Europe by
annaiwroulanoitcfmu
imtismcr quant tiDtoffr
to ego
and
illustrations were
drawn
quoincoitntatuscsminuuftc
still to
be applied
minim height. The may have used an oblique-cut nib. which would have made the production of fine hairlines
regulation of spacing and
particularly easy {pp. 14-15).
capitals
,S
IS
Note
the rubricated
and /. preceded by the capital P. The stroke through the stem of the P denotes the
contraction ot "par", "per", or "por".
*A%*
50
Textura Quadrata
Painting in Chichester Catheijrai
This painting shows Bishop Sherbourne
asking King
Henry
By the
1
ital*Kflf
time the work was painted in 5 Quadrats would have been obsolete as
hand, appearing only occasionally
in
9,
the
a text
brush-
drawn form. The artist has padded out the text on the top line with awkward word breaks. The inelegance of these breaks is possiblyexacerbated by the requirement to place the word "Rex" above the Kings head.
The
The
split
text
on the hook
ascenders
Gothic
a.
which features
a double crossbar
pameuarlv on the
descender
of the p
Di
\n
from Painting
in
Chichester Cathedrai
1 he split ascenders and descenders are
-
particularly
developed
in this
brush-drawn
the
artist difficulties
/
A and
was
on the
terminate with
hairline flourishes
developed into
a dot).
/,
The
letter
also
Xrt.a.to.c.Tj.
doubled up
as a
acquiring
a tail
when
.f.g.\)a.k.
Venal
is
used to display
gave
the coal of
arms of the
d'Orgemom family
l.m.n.o.p.q.r.hC.
jC.tr.tt
modern
is
alphabet.
Gothic alphabet
This page from
calendar-,
a
jr.fc.*.&
3trr
ttoftir
(|ttir$
The
status ol a script
generally
hymn-, and
Guillaume
dates
It
prayer-book belonging
to
used
in
creation,
distinction particularly
d'Orgemont
gives us
.in
almost
Generally, the
compressed the
including
two
of a,
construction.
useful indicator ol
is
the bowl of
compared
to the
diagonal and
diamond
strokes.
Gothic alphabet,
left).
Gothic Scripts
Textura Quadrata
THE ESSENCE OF THE Quadrata
with strokes differing as
is
a can be more
ounded
little as
Curves are practically eliminated and the formality is only broken by the use of hairlines. These include the skating strokes
that
occur on letters
a, e,
and
r,
ink with the corner of the nib. features are the split
The Quadrata 's other distinctive ascenders and the diamond feet on the
a
be
The pen
is
held
finished with
at
an angle of between
connecting strokes.
Minim
is
of the
letters
makes
pen
ideal.
stroke
of the e
of the
to the stem
minim
Drawing
The
split
a right serif
is
ascender
drawn
in
two
to the
stroke.
Tlie ear of
the
could
a
strokes.
Begin the
Turn
II
^k
be drawn as
down
one
separate stroke
the
77if
upward
i
stroke
can
above the
and j
Textural effect
To
inner-letter spaces
achieve the ideal textural effect of Quadrata, and inter-letter spaces should
diamond
stroke
52
Textura Quadrata
AT
If
I
I
of the
ran if
finished with
a hairline
i
-^
n
^
g
6 Mifcc jure
r/iii/
Make sure
left
that
is
a small space
m
n
a smart
i*pdfc is left
between
each fool
rt
between the
two diamond
heads of letters
u and V
of the ni
Make
sure
that small
spaces are
J
*^ -
left
between
the three
diamond
heads of
the
; u
Drag
the
tail
of the
N
i
n tl
5
I
Drag
lite
ink
U
CH
O-r
ligature
Tl-
1
^^^
2 The
hairline diagonal
of the nib
to
complete the
split serifs at
the feet
letters
of
p anil
7
i The right-hand
The halfi
can be used
to
follow a
right-hand
bow
Skate the
hairline of the s
bow of the p
the left-hand
can
be joined with
of the nib
bow of the e
simuapec
catomm ti on (tart<&ttt cad) cdra xm^
"^rw
plmUajtdotntm ttbltttirafctus
i
legtnuftnrdtiabtfdtcatno^
ft
^fc^
Textura Prescisus
Textura Prescisus
(Textualis Use of the Textura PrescisusQuadrata
Prescissa,
Black
(pp.
5051), both
its
in its
in
the development of
textural style.
The two
scripts
and Versals
(pp.
name,
which translates
as
"with
its
Vie square-ended
Prescisus feet contrast
hand.
m
The
flat feet
Textura Prescisus m
of the
Prescisus are the script's
with the
diamond
feet
of the Quadrata
most
I
characteristic feature.
Psalter
was written in England in about from The Judgement of Solomon, the tine filigree work is done with a sharply pointed quill. The steep pen angle used for the text produces typically angular letters with strong diamond heads and narrow minim strokes. Stroke width and inner-letter spacing are equal.
Windmill
Psalter
nmtaittr&aratWrr
|irtoniiiii(itiintiln
the
iraimDctminrmel
fiairipisinfptnif
Uitattlni&fttintnc
[ttiplftt6 aictfusft
2th century.
two came
first. It is
possible that
iinnffiifaptrtntt
tipuO Ooniimntirtqui lo
mmtommume
pftmdninfaimi
was most
of a creative
jnuamrasiSE
gttii pontine Oommcfor mcrii $|
pioptrrnontai
cftntifcnroiOid
jrmmanomscrfa
atii6tti(b?um-H
tudSBHH^i
cotttttrtM
Till. OllMISHY PSALTER The Ormesby Psalter, written
in
precise
hand
was a
its
It
|bfrdmrc|uid cgniU6/rpdtt
frSgo
As
fum:t an thrum
tour Jc force.
was
as precise as
name
Nunidhmrdmr
fj&
artificially
The Luttkei
Psal
ER
The
work of a "straight" pen (pp. 56-57). The length of time it took to write the script meant that it could be used
only for large, prestigious books.
The lines of text are uniform and condensed, each stroke neat and
its
finest.
Use
precise.
The
thickening ol minims
towards their base may indicate a twisting of the pen (pp. 5657).
demise.
characteristic
scripts
f\%,
LUTTRELL luttrell
Gothic Scripts
Textura Prescisus
THE PRINCIPAL DIFFERENCE between the Quadrata and Prescisus
is
Drag
7
{'
on
letters a,
m, n,
r, t,
and
u.
The
split
ascenders on
in
b, h, k,
and
f, h, i, k, I, are reduced
the
and
e are
Prescisus has a
more
Quadrata and
interlinear spacing
is
1i
J ^
%
3
o
SI'
P
A
hairline can be
c
included on the
is
diamond-shaped
Common
elements
a
approximately
five
I
Tlie hairline of
The Quadrata and Prescisus have number of elements in common. Lioth have a minim height of
pen (square-cut nib). A pen angle of 45 is usual for both Textura scripts.
Twist the pen 1
Twist from
the lop of the stem
^^
I
Outline
^^
by
the foot
45
-I
at the bottom
drawing along
the baseline
of the stem
o_
main
stroke
I /
^P /
'
*
and up
to join
//if tip IH
BK^ *
\
twist
Filled feet
Pen
at
To make
foot,
the square
A second method
involves twisting the
f
/Numerous
tools are suitable
letters,
Drag
Omit
the cross
to list
stroke
of the f
this letter is
a longi
movement
(above).
Alternatively, begin
of the
then
nib. This
is
filled in
with ink.
right).
pen
.
Vie
sixth and
can be
~V
combined
Use
the comer
to
h
Flat-headed
serifs are
the
comer of the
complete the
of the nib
nib
to
ascender of the h
13
serifs
feet, the
in
Alternatively, afull
diamond can be
to
used
created
artificially
with
is
twisting the
dot the
and)
"slanted" pen.
One method
to
comer of the
56
Textura Prescisus
Letters
d and o
arc
among
the
bowed
Two
forms of half r
Conjoined d and
57
Gothic Scripts
Gothic Capitals
Versals lies in their
&
Versals
Exuberant flourishes of
this
THE PRINCIPAL DIFFERENCE between Gothic Capitals and construction: Gothic Capitals are written
with single strokes, whereas Versals are composed of several
built-up strokes.
line
of a page of text
Versal
is
drawn
larger
Gothic Capital P
Decorative diagonal
strokes and hairlines
size
of white space
in the
letter's
counter and
initial
a page
from
plain,
diagonal
complemented
with elaboration
in the
form of hairline
verticals
and diagonals.
that capital
m&i*
minuscules
(pp.
50-57), were
simplest
form,
a Versal
can be an outline
letter filled
In
more
p.
sophisticated forms,
can
Book of
28 29), or
Book of Hours,
spirals, frets,
letter
Sample alphabet
of Gothic Capitals have been drawn on this incomplete sample alphabet, which dates from about 1400. Although the letters are not the finest examples of Gothic Capitals, each stroke is clearly shown, making them useful
sets
Two
models for the modem calligrapher to follow. Note how the scribe has created extra weight on some bowed letters by adding an extra stroke.
S8
Gothic Capitals
Tim
St.
&_ Versals
Vaast
in
]
Bum
Written
northern France
]th century,
is a
in the early
product
of"
the Franco-
Saxon school, which had been producing books of the highest order since
the mid-ninth century. At
first glance, the manuscript looks ahead of its time, so sophisticated is the
(pp. 108
109;
E and T
(this
combination
the origin
SlMI'LE
These
for the
Versals
VEkSALS may be
(opposite).
freely
the letters
of letterforms.
62
as
models
(pp.
108
de luxe Northumbrian
derived
Ca dels
type
(pp.
of Versal
is
known
as a
Cadel
later revived
for
94-95) and
scripts.
page shows
Copperplate
(pp.
102 103)
one from the 12th century. This a final working pattern, in which the intertwining; stems have been accurately worked out.
59
Gothic Scripts
Gothic Capitals
GOTHIC CAPITALS use the same ductus as the minuscules
(pp.
same "slanted"
pen. However, the capitals have a wider, rounder aspect than the
rigidly
when used
flourishes in
Tlie bowl
make
it
whole word or
provide
a less
a full
Lombardic Capitals
64-65).
of the
can
flamboyant alternative
be strengthened with
(pp.
an additional
stroke
For the
the
serif of twist
C,
downwards
Thebtnvl of
the
D can be
strengthened with an
Letter height
The
is
letter
two
Hairlines
The
inner-letter space
Alternative
D
cuwe of
can be
hairlines,
and a
on either side
e
Alternative
77ie
the
strengthened
with an
additional
stroke
Create
the bulges
The pointed
by
beaks of the
hackles are
weaving the
pen
in
drawn
a single
with a jagged
downward
stroke
downward
stroke
Tlie first
stroke
of the F
extends below
the baseline
protrude to the
stem.
To draw
serif of the
the
G,
and drag
the ink
bulges or hackles.
downwards
60
Gothic Capitals
of
Tttc
bowl
of
can be
the R. can be
strengthened
trengthened
with an
additional
stroke
with an
additional
stroke
Vie
sixth
stroke of the
I
could be
drawn Jrom
right to left,
finishing
with the
hairline curl
Tliefoot of the
can be adapted
L
to
join on
to
the
following letter
The
the
curve of
can be
strengthened
with an
additional
stroke
Tiie
bowl of the
O or Q can be
strengthened
with an
additional
stroke
can be
strengthened
with an
additional
stroke
'
Gothic scripts
Lombardic Capitals
ALombardic
Capital
is
Unlike Gothic Capitals (pp. 5859), Lombardic letters worked well in sequence and so were used for whole
words and phrases. Thev were successful both in penned form as display capitals and carved form for monumental work. The script was increasingly prevalent by the midth centurv, and finally ousted by the Humanist Capital in the 16th centurv (pp. 9899). However, it enjoyed a resurgence, particularly as a monumental letter, during the 19th-century Gothic revival in England, under the influence of the architect and designer A.W.N. Pugin.
1
1
The Utter
M can
to
alternatively adhere
Lombardic Capital
A
square-cut nib
is
a baseline
cross stroke,
used to
draw Lombardic
Capitals,
a minor image
There
some
"I
is
reluctance among
in
to
gin
the strokes
.
ombardic"
extra weight
1NCI PITEZE
specifically to
Italian
hand of capital
letters.
A simplified Imperial
Lombardic Capitals can be seen as simplified, pen-drawn versions of the
Roman
Imperial Capital.
The multiple
1
10
19)
minimum, producing
easy to execute
The
text
is
written in a
Very fine Early
A, D, E,
M, and T
(pp.
24-25).
Gothic script
fpp.
46 47)
CESIUM
.
The Winchester
The
Hihi
cbobdr-^pcrafarks
Vision of Ezekicl, from the Winchester Bible (/>/>. 46-47). includes a series of meticulously crafted Lombardic Capitals. In common with other works from the
mid- 12th century, the scribe has shown little concern about breaking words at the end of a line: for instance. "INCIP1T
In the illuminated
faftrnndtucrbum
dm adocchictfttiubuzf
Ezekiel
is
The
62
Lombardic Capitals
In this early
example
77ii'sc
of a historlaied Venal
(pp. 58-59), the Virgin
is
\'RI
This
IHU
is
PS
of this eighth-century
in
text
an abbreviation
"IN
NOMINE
for Christmas
northern
shown
in the
form
I
France,
we
of a capital
letter
of Lombardic
The
Imperial Capitals as his models, drawing the outline of each letter in a single stroke with
narrow pen
title
The words of the have been considerably abbreviated. On the second line the abbreviation of "DOMINI" as "DM" has been indicated with a mermaid instead of with the traditional horizontal stroke.
feature internal decoration.
Built-up letters
Unlike most other capital scripts
included
letter
is
in this
basic
movement of the hand. While each component of the GothicCapital, for instance, is made
a single stroke (pp. 60-61),
is
from
a
Lombardic component
sides of the
built
The
main stem
as
they are
in
the
Roman
Imperial Capital.
the
mm
Wtt-l
'
and the
and decoration
limited only by
(p.
64).
"
C,S
7 tJ.
I tINlh '"VMS!
-
often modified as a
and ceramics.
Below the
title capitals,
the chapter
Uncial
letters
(pp.
24 2 5>
text
upright aspect
63
Gothic Scripts
Lombardic Capitals
THERE IS NO HISTORICAL precedent for a full set of Lombardic
Capitals and those
R
Uncial
The concave
serifs
line of the
form of A
can terminate at
B
Uncial
stm
Waisted stems
Waisted
curved
precise
steins can
vertical
l 'se
a narrow
to
be created by overlapping two broad. strokes and then adding the hairline
is
pen nib
the decorative
blobs at the
^ C
add end
serifs circle
method
to
and bottom (above left). A more draw the whole outline with a
fill it
of the
in
centre).
Rounded
rounded
letters
Outer
circle
Inner
by
form of D
forms
ofD
can he used
(see letter
O.
opposite).
Expanded and
To
level
Compressed
have shorter
letters
serifs
than
expanded
can be
letters.
Bows
Expanded
letter
fully
rounded
Compressed
letter
or pointed.
Basic form
'etter
Display capitals
Since the
1
2th century,
elaborated
when
used
as a display capital.
complex
Lombardic Capitals
IS
s
_*=
a
VUs
lombardic
iJ
modern
construction
Tftis
Lombardic
is
it
modern
construction
X
J?
2\\
1
-'
f X\2
// //
65
Gothic Scripts
Bastard Secretary
HISTORICALLY, THE MORE FORMAL
a
minim
hcia.hi
the greater has been the need for a functional cursive script to
complement
Minuscule
it.
spawned the
Insular
in the eighth
century
(pp.
Tcxturas of the 13th century (pp. 5057) gave rise to parallel hands
for the less prestigious
work of the
day.
scries of
complementary
developing into
classified
fully
own
right.
Thev
are
liAMARI) SECRETARY
II'
the
term denoting
script
The w
The cursive
(pp.
,.
Srj|
i-
,v-
Sth-century English
documentary use
die end of the
1
in
England towards
manuscript work
.
1
-V -
l"""
'
>-
Wf
known
(Jiifillra
a dpbusnaii fCpttmu
|)jc
BSBifi
rBf* <^>''-i.
as
ifftflv- Ivf
an "elephant's trunk"
The French
The
feet
jS it
MM
'
* otGcr tfbrK
form of cursive,
called Secretary
of the
araillatii'9i-ii|limn(Jn.-ufvhiOAe-nSEmrnstof l^iifmoi^-.
(oi-Si(mm-frv|'**'1"5"'"ft'l6cti--''
,
of<"'9'-'
.,r,-i'rn.
iM
rrtmci(fer fi0(hnfl<A>iifliSc^.^W-T*(i4K6KT
yst^n^Jnioilfli'iii''riWrnft:*l9fiicodfi
at
the end
ofomeiWcSH
the
4th centurv. j
When
Textura
it
features
were incorporated,
in
became
The horizontal stroke over
the ampersand denotes the
mftc-(&r(icnT"toon Hon pKhramtn<iMSmfMiif^i ww" & ftbtattVt ir< f" w (* of G"" "S'WI* l"
lW
f>
I
known
%
.
HO mmitt^rtforfrfcrflxliolSSmst Jte .-Tnt rtii^itliuwr^ 9 fic mfmm iln? ' ftiW liifflt* V- f* w Mftfl wile
;
lie
^o
'h'
VJ>ifl'uojB
Batarde
French
(pp.
7071).
6m ft" 6 ""'v fc
u> no iunoy(c
ftfi* wwfitfic
tSa
abbreviation of a word
.Ineicv flaiiinl?rt&Kfltt(iitnurocficf'^fnoi'Slf6ujiTil
*s8
iAineto\*t
fyni|l\iUvtf ytta fti
*ua AiSnioieoiicr yens no (rime cAVrffeSncIli; fote |Mtft: /iflrtfIK-oi ttit*fecVP* < TO lt'Jc8 <'W & -T * M9 fr' *'"' <r*' 9 **1' Xt iCoiSce mSycScas ofififltraiin m fthmpBcrfmc f fe'-m (i/f
,'l , 'i
to'WmWenrdnmplcflfjwSGnijTiiwtfffcrft'iciiiofftQrcBoiBciiicii-?
Qii: miiienilii8ciiciril?tiln?<iiaTSisniofifliiiQS;ifeii!/hnvi'K'
civ
popular 13th-century
Latin
work
attributed
III? U#& At W'ldVH* ; rtumiftuSMiu u- (lm rtAf \*& 'if wMfttffc W i^fef i (<ct* hum* >W tnum? 0"> H \t t^<tt cPUKim>(fttl.%n>
.
Wtrfuan yiit
x iixvi (xrw fta Rtt< <Siv wkti wmt* Wjm tin? tfSvi iw uri^* 1tfourofenipuSit &m >*mr fefeU ro (v c-nup us i" ftftWH <f ft
i
nif
^^cfce(?e*rrKnanoirt<iiif?rifl*tiiQiofe'ltofJfiiiiiiC).lo'iii
(lti
ilf
to St. Bonavencura.
glut tv
'
fcfa Amuiffc? *mG \*f * vf*;< pfcv euit '(bf? ft* u M &rf< hm u|'.v."ia [v.; .( >ff
,Yi# fetf*
E^f
One of 49
oi the text
exist,
it
versions
to
vfli \t
known
145(1.
Vflt if "i
cmiiti $hU|fi in tirof Rfk.'ffirtl'na m^ucltim J' wftVyf mwuiftBf fp: \i it fj'iw to RT \*t fi
-
dates
from
L-^SuJ^^V^'L V \<*t Kvh friflwf pffhlfc aifli-iita Ant. ^Mdrw tWljott mt Hu9 ftttSitrt >& li Wi/
41 &n vutWflnufc
jt luiil'im.Vrtt
if
about
The
tS<i'u
-^
'
#
this earlier translation
is
Anglo-Saxon thorn
sign, a character that
resembles
represents a
KUP^rtiMc tunny 9o|lliQut\'ii><iUf-'irfr(i>w rlDuiwiwrJ tonuhi, fPimiiK i(ch>C' 'tivr (nupu fontcft vv ir :rtvh hi ni^tiffli i *nkii to HP u u (*&* oft* &cR-:e : \*vfo* i/**' v*ff* nuv tfttwtu mtii-.g >:f \ih*uw* mrflMWQ mtf
*
remained
in use until
'
*
rf
'
Y-
Bonaventura's
In this
reff^'
'fc*
t^urt n(iciw
rKtoV'H \t FigmiWii*. vrti un'Vdf'vili i-.ViinwJlpi*" .'fif* .^r--V-/V)'lii ftlv t**yu I'tiCf <| iirf \tff\tfr f-iUi'i.- v^rwinit--*
fy
.
Meditations on
lite
Life of Christ
also the
made
t;>J.)^~>rniiiiisi
(.i
\v ii tfk
JET
'-?
cvfcrnfe^citt iM'Cwv
the
throughout the
text
modern tit for writing the word "the". Notice also the serifs at the of the minims, which are turned upwards and not broken as they are the Bastard Secretary of the Adam and Eve text (opposite).
in
66
Bastard Secretary
that
its
nationality.
for
^w**#>
tti
for
The French form, instance, is most distinctive the calligraphic feast made of
form of s
(pp.
7071).
German
tttj
to0
$& vu
wav
minims and
descenders.
tall
ascenders and
they were
When
1
end of the
5 th
century, the
fefctfje
tniiaw%6^ttv-fw4e-ciut^<ftm'y
dttimttecttot^^^Wmfc^&^+^w
* & v J
^ P* wr
tc<*
Sm ftp* "*** #f
In English
models,
it is
the letter
w
the
most attention
is
1 srifeSftmi
#e- jow&
m -tfc Qgfc of
otij
the long,
downward
terminating
RPJ**
its
it
$c/map not
<WSrtti9
-tfct
/*,..
^
*,
French counterpart. As
a result,
was highly
.
practical,
and so had
:
se
long
life
as a
document hand
1
it
was
8th century.
Stetoi- <?
fine upright
were written
pronounced
w is well
and the
The
text includes
'"elephant's
minks"
set of
capital letters
caw
test
(pp. 78 79J
w make
it
Detail from
In this
Adam and
Evi
each stroke. Notice particularly the letter/ this is constructed with a single stroke, the
pen beginning at the vertical, then turning to about 30 at mid stem before returning to the vertical for the descender (/>/>. 6869).
ueia^raam
67
Gothic Scripts
Bastard Secretary
AS
A FUNCTIONAL, CURSIVE script, the Bastard Secretary
is
l\ written with as
wherever
few pen
lifts
as possible,
more
Quadrata
downward
the
diagonal strokes
known
as "elephant's trunks",
draw n
stem
at
downward
minim
feet.
should be consistent
throughout the text
c
usually
Complete
the
The
tail
of the h
to
is
hairline loop
dragged
letter,
the
left
of the
of the d
i'h
almost at a parallel
single stroke
to the baseline
Key
The
letter
letter
is
a useful
with which to
the
start practising
Bastard Secretary.
It
sweeps from the head of the ascender almost to the headline, and
the characteristic
77ie e
is
almost
Tlte
tail
circular
and can o
of the e
second stroke
The
stroke
second
of the
downward
the pen
at
pull
of
For the fust stroke of the
f,
'/
'
1
the foot
gradually
the headline
of the stem.
twist the
to
pen
/
I
and
curves slightly
to the right
the vertical
its
sweeping
the pen,
make
one of the most distinctive letters in the hand. After drawing the bowl, create a large arc by pushing the pen
is
downward
it
diagonal stroke,
to join the
Make
a hairline
curving
at
its
to the
left
bowl
midway
to
downward
stroke
tail
Basic elements
and
nib
is
generally used.
Minim
The
letters
and}
height
is
four pen
can he dotted
ascender equal to a
further four widths.
68
"
Bastard Secretary
Drag
tail
the hairline
pen nib
^\
2
the vertical
/V
to finish the
M
m
descender of the
q with a hairline
V
Conjoined
letters
^
Fullr
Conjoined
Tlte halfr
is
letters
are less a
used lo with a
Halfr
i
I
follow
letters
right-hand
bow
Abbreviation
p-p
ligature is quite
common
of "that
Y-t and w-t
(featuring the
sign, p.
Anglo-Saxon thorn
uvre
66)
common
abbreviations of
and "what
69
Gothic Scripts
Batarde
Bourguignonne) THE BATARDE Bastard Secretary English
(Lettre
is
of the
(pp.
66-67).
was developed
This baseline cross
stroke
at the
end of the
century, evolving from a lowly cursive bastard hand into a formal, prestige script in its own right. Batarde achieved its most
sophisticated appearance in the mid- 15th century, an era
the popularity of the printed
The
p is pointed and
can he drawn
tail
of the
when the
a word
begins
when
either upright or
book was increasing among a whole new section of society. In this dc luxe form, it was the hand favoured by Burgundian court circles, hence its alternative name.
Batardi;
Batarde
ifts
/>.
slightly slanted
In constructing the
a series
of pen
is
Br
(pp.
and more
shedding
letters
The Batarde
Mpxtti.}$(mibne
own Gothic
lighter,
ancestry -
\mm<xnlmmmi
jnm\tt$untxna\\(t ffum mtAiHRpi
were
seeming to
_JimlwmmriidOiw
QHiftnccrium
a
it
tenant
JAp;3H
particularly noticeable
in the Froissart
Chronicle
(opposite).
!Jv^
t >
However,
such
as that in
the
Book of Hours
text
is
IMSis
e
fflftofrif fr Dn6,ufrfflo
(right),
the
harmony of the
titflfHjiiiwucTtrrtrwtiw. 1IS7
77ii- split
ofseveral
Hi
ii
>k
of Hours
This page
is
from
a small
prayer-book
written for the wealthy I'oligny family in about 147(1. The script's Gothic origins
are clear: ascenders are split, descenders modest, and minim strokes terminated with feet reminiscent of the Quadrata (pp. 50-51).
The
is
authority of the Gothic Textura scripts than to the light harmony of a true Batarde. such as that
achieved
in
70
Batarde
(- Ulll/lu.
MC...,..,,,,
am-illl/iniiUwci\-ulr.-4:irrw
ir\vir.iiu> IIKtliitv.-tiUrMiiw
tSWtU
(irtiiCtrfttwuiKitliin-
rt.tfMlH|l/tM 1V11IV
llii 1
.,'illllltt
6*
UKI
(lit-
-.
in/.
.-i.i
lc*fmtMMfrtncmQtP
("ie
l.i-,Ua>MK rvt.lln.lh<K<Tla
Hint
BMrfl
fauut ,wtfi#te
HUlllf Vi
hmneff
'TvtTfllirOHl
lll.'ldt
liip'iin(iir\'iic-.*
co|i/iiWrbKfi(iMJFlf**M*fr iroiiirulrc-^-MgnmtrV/Hrhr
A'n itiw- p.yiiiicivinftirV'/ 1 1 ^(IIHKlir \ |V 1.* KWIt
tfnltiirViKlt o^tirtip.inMrt-
finfmufimtm unh
IIC C* 1'.""'*
."^"' ,
-"
*
*
Cllttll>tlillflllYfllllrtl(f
r>'
-ill,, i.'m.i.HiiTiiHf
<l.tm
4111
'
ttKUO- U H"*""
1
iVf^ifciK-VArt mini
-/r;
CtU IKMHtyMrtUHnA
Tnnt)eaMmc<tlcw0
?ltlltrtl|(< UHltiii.il.'.liiriWfii
t*r,CT viiMT/iivviiiriwi^
~Vii*.'n rr JifM
IV
ImiXkmit oi.iii^/rn.ntin*iHJiiirti
MHNMr
l-l.lltl 11:.
.
HlHH Hil.Vll.
...
I>
IWNl >'
/'NiliH.<t)viiin.iiiii, ir
' I
."rtl'T
IflMcrtm'tvmtWiicraSM*tt
litiffl-atiimn^rtiirtt1VI' If lUl.v
uu
-Nl
/iiincc ct S*
^mimiiU'Ht
ftn<t
itmtiKiiicwr
mm it* nam nf
HAnlyrmini'riraOVM^Hfft
UKiirtiiMfmn/tMirr
nHAHMW iwiKiinllfPT
llll- IM.M<-fllflLlllllf
r/mr<tbfMtjTtH.ir.-<[*i,-
""' ""
'
c/..-n*mrn ffc
^U^'^~"
^NttvwKln-lVtNirNLni^/'
'MI,IM.7||lr.\M0M...Htl|
<HMtM
4^
TrtrtUiS.1
if
.i./.-/,,,,,,,
"<mN/tiviiim.iiiVf m*f
<>>IKI\VMitfM.IIHl/ri^
litmr-'r^ittrHiiinniiif n.iiif.
'<
if-
i
_
iniiioit
l?5w-<wfiit
WMcWWWMMWrfiWWfi WWHH
V^/li^r/fSKl,,,,*^;
i>iNiiKni.ii//,iMiWf .1
<*<
i."y+i<i(iMiv *r/fci
Hllll.lllWtj'ni.
i
mA'"
w
<,n
l,-i
mi
oniiii.iitiii'iK
Miiiiiiivnr
ta .funM ic
K*". "
1
trtl.-
iirtiuotifliciHiiit
*vm#uir
G
!
Ui.;M
ffift*.
*l\(/m(|
iliititfutrl
Ot ff
Vita Christi
The
(left)
partly to the
partly to the
and
from La Vengeance
his
shown
in
the decoration.
The
feet
of
than
the
minims end without elaboration and the script is generally more cursive than thai used to write the Book of Hours (opposite).
(
here.
He
harmony of the
or Book of Hours,
pen angles
is
C
The
unable
lum>itiv*.
(\nr
pen angle.
the
at
Common features
In
is
decorated with
Cadel
.ire
(pp. 8I)-X
The horns on
the letter g
similar to those
.rapn+Jcnftcu&T& BGmikiSi Liiire CuiMmnr
>c?iii ?i^
two
icrlwiiuiur
\*rii.irwt'.a*n; Hi.Ikuciii
Fraktur (pp. 76-77). Both the halt rand full r forms are used in the text.
script, the
'.
cr^iuliiciui\ttim.imu
iin.i.ic
:
XBWtflQc iftfvi'
main harmony.
This textual
liiiiii.iTiii.'ii(ii.iiuV-*^v
3*?
r--'^
I'lt'K.f
.V.'ii
jv(-.>.viimsccrmui.iiik
kfitjvffi*ntein<nt
&tm
effect
t
wi
Igg
/.*
'".
"v
</><nai#n ei .minn.i1
'^Lv^ncAiiiii;iii(iir.>u
characteristics
of the BatarJe
iMccr.Wfiiia-
^uwiiacnifm
VlTA Christi
I'AGE
I
of Lettrc
i7(i><'iiir
^>uiLAimciinionuiiiUii> IT;
de
la
Mori Blesa
main text, which opens with a Versal. The book dates from 147V and was written by David Aubert ot Ghent, scribe to Philip the Good. Duke of Burgundy. In the illustration, we see the scribe presenting the book to his patron.
includes the rubricated prologue to the
of Fraktur
(pp.
these
seem
of
movement
7/
Gothic Scripts
Batarde
Finish the
first
and
third strokes
TO
to
of the 3 with
a hairline
flick
quill is
recommended. A
is
required
The clubbed/and
more
forward slant (the two letters have the same basic form,
a crossbar
added
Prepare
to
to
add the
crossbar
the
quill
(by turning to 10
the
terminates with a
hairline flick
77ie
key
letters
and long
to the right
Tlie hairline
stroke of the c
is
you
pull the
pen downwards,
long
are typical
of this sophisticated
hand. Begin about half a minim above the headline and gradually
and of 30.
c
OmA
the crossbar of the f to create the long
drawn
at
an angle
of about 45
form ofs
(left)
Draw
Tile curved hairline stroke at the lop of the letter
the hairline
q can be The
letter
an angle of 10
f can lean
forward at a more
Descenders
this (pp.
70-7 1)
The
q are
5
The
height
of the
is
Bdtardc minim
The
leading stroke
of the h finishes
with a flat foot
hairline at the
Flat feet
Flat feet straight
top
all
and
tail oj
is
occur on
leading
the letter h
minims
in the script,
t
characteristic
such
the
as the
stem of the
and
Tlie
j
i
first
leg of the n. In a
and
more
cursive version of
can be
Batarde, the
minims may
flick at
doited
terminate with a
the
12
Batarde
Tin' stew
and
77/t*
6
r
leading/out of
the k can be
drawn in a
single stroke
\
ll
of the
in a single stroke
V I t
Tlie
first
onil second
1
strokes of the
can
be combined
r
2
*.
The
loot
(>/ //if I
can be
extended ex
slightly
I fc
I.
7.
//
ni 1
5
9
77re
drawn
in
vy
single
movement
W
to
1 n
r
ft
conslntctetl
from
nw conjoined vs
s
/
Dn/i> OH/ '/ hairline Dr.ii; i'/ // hairline " tail of the x with the /.
J/
comer
ol
the nib
a near
vertical
P
f
1 1
of the
77ii'
(eM
z can
alternatively be
drawn
stroke
in
a single
letters
can be connected
XI
Full
r
Halfr
Joined
letters
Vie and
right
the
left
Tlw p
i'h/}'
(Hid
h <c
f/i*'
o can be conjoined
hen by
a hairline stroke
73
Gothic Scripts
Fraktur
German
first
&
Schwabacher
LETTER)
is
FRAKTUR (GERMAN
marriage between
400 and
FkAKTUR
it
It
The
distinctive
appeared
as a typeface
its
about
century
later.
Early type
spikes of
many
Fraktur
letters
more
of overlapping
strokes (pp. 76-77).
the
work of eminent
Koch
(opposite).
The fraktur a
letter
ft
always a single-store)
'
[5
'
\:jjm
*vmtutnti cfttmntm
trcct|ptntufmtt(o8ronet)iu(t
<evrli
'
ewgnatmfecuta fcculomm
snnw
r<>
j"
1*
'
Cso
7"Ht D1PFF.RESCES
between Fraktur
difficult to
WORKSHJ
worksheet
II
a
is
nefmmfcumt)fum$omane
curie*
This portion ol
(above)
2fottttttutta.
tail of
the
surviving example
6mmefolameaape
curved strokes
of letters
a.
a, b, c, J, e, g,
o, p,
and
Diamond
strokes reminiscent of
is
tendency
All
by Johannes vom Hagen. who refers to the hand as "Nottula Fraeluranmi" ("broken notes"). It is from this term that the name
"Fraktur"
is
riefrgwmarow mmmaWlauDemtu^So
uema^utotttimmcummtc
.
believed
be curved.
mefcftm^eibnapamctfr
tiorct fbirimt^acto^ tiattcrat
The
thai
tail
of this
p.
an J
more
of other
letters
on the
bottom line
lni\ e
oj text,
may
hand
been added by
lifter
Some
versions of Schwabacher
were
first
The
illustrations an<l
'T%
\ersols were
added
after the
the text
Fiuktur SlSchwabacher
Matthaus Evangelium
In this German text of the Gospel of St. Matthew from 1921, Rudolf Koch combines the features of Fraktur and Textura Quadrata to the ultimate
have been knitted. Koch classified this style as a version ol Schwabacher. and explained: "The page should seem to be stacked with finished rows of lines.. .especially the space between words must not be broader than that
between
lines."
The
two
beautifully designed
pages of text.
just sufficient
hon/ont all} /i
(nptmaptotnunttMtw;
ctmfccuiafcmiomm$imav
i
)i
^tte(itta*(t^ilctutaap^
febat)^ at>(cptuagcftmmn:
mi from Matthaus
i
German
Letter
1
By the earlv
etafepmagcfmta
t# ai> p&
shown
T*aDiatur^u6tiDi&ot#
najeretmtcgjoue^ttuttato
German
scripts.
It
featured
(above).
Radical in
its
time, such
7677).
Used only
areas, this
in
German-speaking
letter
is
broken
frequently
referred to as a
Tin: straight,
"German
Letter".
Ujalmua
att(ccnHtcmu^t)omi
no:iut)ttanu0t)eo)atit
scripts
hanj
betrays
longer
lives
letter
script in
Europe
Prayer-book
These pages from the prayer-book of Emperor Maximilian were published by Schonspcrger of
Germany
still
featured Fraktur-based
German
rejection of
(pp.
Italic
in
I. SI
4.
90-101).
factors in
type was
designed by Johaim
Reformation
of three
generations of
calligraphers.
The
is
Germany
border decoration
being the work ol
Albrecht Diirer.
was
equally outstanding,
Humanist
text.
German
/S
Gothic Scripts
Fraktur
closer THE UPRIGHT, COMPRESSED letters of Fraktur are50-57)
in
(pp.
h,
and
drawn
I*
'Hie
minim
height
is
and
descenders
to the
left
Tlie
Fraktur
letters
Rounded
letter's
strokes
many
strokes are
actually rounded.
Here,
b has been
a
drawn with
rounded
it is
or
split
or pointed ascenders,
important to be
text.
as
consistent as possible
throughout the
a common feature
f
I
40
descender of the {
Tlie crossbar
is
of the
Spike strokes
The
distinctive
can be drawn as a
continuation of the first
stroke (see g, opposite^
made by extending
one stroke over
previous one.
the
The
there
Tlie spike stroke overlaps the bottom of the rounded stroke of the
lifts
spikes
bowl
are created.
Tlie tail
of the g can
Fraktur descenders are
blob, or
restrained, except
on the
a backward sweep;
alternatively,
it
can be
where additional
76
Fk\ktur
ft
(
fcfc
I
Tile final fool
Begin the
1
'^L/
_j
with an
upward
stroke
^L
w
%
%
\D
Tlic
m
n
Either of these two
.J\
m
'./fo^m
of (he
m can
stroke
terminate with a
diamond
is
constructed from
a conjoined u ,uul v
Thefmal
fool
i
Alternative o
diamond
stroke
W
l >c
on
Twist the
o
near
the comer of
the nib to
draw
the
hairline tail
of the x
pen from
Use
the corner of
40 to
the nib to
draw the
of the y
vertical for
hairline tail
the descender
of the
Gradually
twist the
pen from 40
descender of the
The
to
third stroke
of the z can
alternatively be
penned
in
two
separate strokes
H
Full
r
Halfr
% f
i^*
On
the
s,
Tliis "elephant's
trunk
"
can be used on
b, h, k,
letters
and]
the sequence
can be altered,
with the top stroke
can be used on
h,
letters
m, and n
drawn second
77
Gothic Scripts
Bastard Capitals
Bastard Capitals
that they
as the
minuscules
accompany
same
nib. In
most
expanded
letters.
The
also
common.
alphabet
C could
alternatively take
thefirm of the
Basic elements
E foelowj,
without the
is
hut
The pen
angle of
cross
stroke
accompanies. The
is about pen widths. The
characteristically
letters,
wide
li,
such
as
the
of downward and
horizontal arced
sweeping
strokes.
'
T\ic hairline
vertical
on
the
">
qui
Draw
be omitted
Connecting
hairlines
On
letters
H, M. and
strokes are
.V. hairline
is
reminiscent
ot
(pp. 6(1-6 U
Alternatively,
the
Ciiii
be
stems in the
constructed
from a
series
of composite
strokes
f
<.
Tlte
upward
linking
is
made
with the
"Elephant's trunks"
The
"elephant's trunk"
68-69)
also occurs
on
capital letters
H. K.
L,
width of the
78
Bastard Capitals
m
-^^^
linking $
Alternative
Ampersand
m
Alternative
is
stressed
ampersand
79
i,
-*wy
Cadels
Cadels
THE INVENTION OF the Cadel (Cadeaux) in the early
century
is
1
5th
Due de
name
5859), mainly
H
letter
is
appeared in
Italic
pennable (pp. 82-83). The fine internal decoration can be drawn with a flexible steel nib.
6th century,
l*<
looped
as a Versal in printed
ascender,
.
is
a useful model
Vpp. 78-79;
more
was
and minuscules
These letters were penned in the second
HI -v "Hi
KJ-l
i>
JO ;0
&'J3 >>'/>
%<
The Cadel
used
differs
from other
it is
capitals
as Versals in that
composed of
drawn with
produces
is
the
7}
."lllllllllll
strokes (pp.
a constant
58 59).
It is
*->'=>
by
a series
of shorter
pen angle
this
vAvv
7
system
is
the key to
letters,
more complex
such
as the
H (above).
added to an otherwise
skeletal letter.
German
(pp.
cursive
band
74 75)
line.
_J
Flamel's Cadi. is This page from a manuscript belonging to the Due de Berry was written by Jean Flamel in about 409. Although the basic
1
Engraved alphabet
This alphabet of capitals was engraved by Thomas Weston
in l(>S2.
is
relatively
many have
typical
81
Gothic Scripts
Cataneo's Cadels These letters B and C are based on the initials of Bernardino Cataneo, writing master at the University of Siena, Italy, between 1544 and 1560. In their original form, they were used with text 96-97). in Rotunda (pp. 86-87) and Italic {pp.
Cadels
THE GREAT VARIETY of existing Cadel examples have been selected alphabet. These
it
models makes
very difficult to
assemble a complete
to represent a
few general
principles.
Tlw
skeleton
consists
easier than daunting to accomplish, in practice they are often a great deal impressive. you may think and, when used as Versals, they can look very
The golden
rule
is
work outwards.
a
1.
Begin the
double stroke,
of the
is
letter.
composed of downward diamond strokes and straight vertical strokes. The pen angle
for
single
is
leading into a
tail.
the
basic structure
of the Cadel in
pencil before
retracing the
strokes in pen.
CK^\d
The
decorative
flourishes are
added
last
2. Build
up
the
skeletal
form
at
with loops
Use a pencil for the
initial
planning of the
letter's structure
of the
added
as a final flourish.
TJie top
of the howl
has heen
extended
Vie Cadel
is
decorated
1.
Diamond
A
series
strokes
To begin
the C,
of diamond
is
and
leafforms
strokes
common
the pen
Move
The bottom
curve can be
downwards
in a
drawn
in the
foot.
controlled, zigzagging
form of a
movement, without
altering the
strokes
and
will
diamonds.
60-61)
Maintain a
pen angle of
2. Build
up the
a
45 for a
series
Cadel with
of short,
system of
linked
neat diamonds
diminishing
strokes to create
boxes"
(opposite).
Cadels
Drawing
a
Cadel
A
A
can be built up
Diamonds have
stroke or to create a change of ornamentation can be used. The patterns shown below have all been created with the pen at a constant angle. Each involves a scries of short strokes that move at 90 to each
in line direction, various types
Jliis patient
involves
series
of
distribution
strokes.
other in a series of thin and thick "boxes". This simple device can be
A
Begin by penning the
letter:
is
1.
five basic
the
Terminal "boxes"
Straight horizontal strokes are
"
is
"Box"
basic
lift),
steps
The
is
basic principle
A
Build up the legs
letter
that
is
when
the pen
be terminated
line
produced, and
"boxed" stroke
(above
the
2.
in different directions.
or downwards,
a thick line
of the
with two
Interlocking loops
As
a general
A series
of interlocking be adapted
at a
provide an
infill.
The
lines
of the
serif
Mirror images
This patterning
is
loosely based
on
of Burgundy.
The two
halves of
a
1.
Begin by folding
a sheet
of of
direction can
now
be introduced.
at a
this
Unfold the
pattern.
Changes of line
direction
paper and
oops,
work out
interlaces
the sequence,
have
and
of half the
been introduced
Finish the
half a loop
Cadel by
terminating the
strokes with
loops
and
hairlines
and
thin
2.
as a
arm
will be
strokes for
When
complete, fold
the right
arm
4.
Now
of the
legs.
flourishes.
Any flaws in the become immediately obvious when the pattern is reversed.
through image.
design will
83
Italia*
&_Humanist Scripts
The right halfof the
has a smoother
semi-circular
Rotunda
influence on western THE Gothicand 3th centuries wasEuropeanresisted in one largely
scripts
sweep than
the
left
between
(pp. 86-87;
the tenth
major country - Italy. The clarity of classical inscriptions, still evident throughout the land, the continued use of a wide, rounded hand called the Beneventan, and the retention of the
Caroline Minuscule, were
a formal script that differed in its
all
factors in the
its
emergence of
of the o
Rotunda o
The
roundness
the key to
is
from
It
Gothic contemporaries
as
was known
Rotunda.
the prestige
38-39), with
slightly shorter
parent script.
The hand
noltrn it
.
also
embodied elements of the Beneventan, most notably in the rounded strokes on many
letters. In contrast, straight strokes
blca*ott
mc.iuiu
r.i 111.111.1
rigidly upright.
legible
hand
Rotunda was bolder
In general, the
modest
ascenders and descenders created a clear, legible script that was used
for
hamm coniblanoirfoLi
tomili
uu rrrnumuii tlir
f
The made
model
ttfprsinrcfjAT.innum nq
qo .inrcp.immuurgo
.
form
8th century.
this
on the
letter o,
rounded
scripts
letter ! is
of the Rotunda
Book of Hours
This small
in
Bruges in about 1480, shows the evenness and regularity of the Rotunda. The script differs from that used for the Verona Antiphoner (opposite) in one significant respect - the
upturned
in slightly
feet
continuation of the
more
was
usual.
84
ROTtlXDA
Large-scale letters
As
Rotunda was
from very
written in a
range of
sizes,
'"' J WJW.
4irr.cu
rf.
c
some of the
in
largest
known
manuscript books
the world.
When
written on
Rotunda Capitals
Accompanying
capitals are written
cofpectii
%tlgar
pl4ll4
(pp.
8889).
M
I
between
into a
S2^
1
strokes. In
some
Versals
text script.
A common
letters,
is
Rotunda
capital,
r . COW.
iterui. ur
which gives
and
jnfc'fixuiffic.HuiVX ,
the pen should be clearly lifted after the completion of each stroke, while
in
S>
nucta
smaller versions,
in
manv
strokes can
be drawn
jwunu
The Verona An tiphonek
This Aniiphoncr (book of chants and anthems) was written in about 1500 for the monasteries of SS Nazro and Calio in Verona. Italy. This type of book was often
written in a large format to enable several choristers to
letters
lack any
tare cm
read
it at the same time. The Rotunda letters have been drawn with considerable precision, with idiosyncrasies arising only in the unusual broken form of the capitals.
77iii
fteriWa e
Rotunda
The
founts of the Venice-based
as a typeface
printer Erhard
re i mcliozi ftarii T>cduceret:z fieri le fertile* redderet*poftca til gmf flit; 1 tf reto fcrrfUb
German
Ratdolt {pp. 90-9 1), who had punches cut for a Rotunda type in I486. This detail shows two different
forms of d: the uncial form and the upright Caroline form - both can be seen in the middle of the sixth line.
t fructuofifluntf empbttbeoticari poffc.rt Cfce Cure em'pbUUhin pn*t 6z empbitbe file qui lt% ofte ?el empbf tbcorfc?
?mctM
85
Italian
SlHuuasist Scripts
The foot of
Rotunda
ROTUNDA
IS
characterized
alternatively
by
its
hairline curl
finish with
AN upright, open
and small
letter,
a sweep
to
the right
..both a large
scale.
The
stem
on
letters
b,j, and
constructed with
The square foot is then added in one nib of two wavs. The simplest method is to use the corner of the
the pen held at about 30.
to outline the foot, before filling
it
in
be used, which involves turning 30 to the horizontal in one short movement. the pen from Although the latter mav seem more complex, it is probably
the "dual ductus" technique can
b
C
Vie fiat-headed
ascender of the b
can be replaced by
a split ascender
preferable
when drawing
large
Rotunda
letters.
.I
split
ascender can
instead of
the.
be
med
Jlal-headld variety
tC
Alternatively, the
On
large-scale
letters,
Rotunda
drawn separately
can feature an
j
upright stem
horizontal to create a
flat foot
to
the
Sweeping strokes
On
letters in
such
as
(above), the
usually stroke.
completed in
a single
On
/.
larger letters,
two
fcrossbar
Alternative
I 4& 4
of the f
and
t,
right).
Key The
letter
o
is the key letter of the Rotunda. The bowls of h, d, g, p, and q closely follow its shape, and its open aspect is also echoed in the c
and
e.
The
first
stroke
is
only slightly
The second
stroke
is
much
first.
more
Theflat-headed
Tlie second
stroke of the
h can be
extended and
the third stroke omitted
Terminating
As an
alternative to the
stroke, letters m. n.
flicks
terminate with a
flick.
of the pen.
86
Rotunda
kThe
a
flat-headed
Tlie second stroke
of the k can be
extended and the
Alternative
'
to
the vertical
ascender
to complete the
third omitted
crossbar
of the
I
Thefinalfoot of the
can be replaced by a
split
ascender
I:
IS'
Alternative
foot
.
can finish
urith a flick
rrwT
Alternative
3
foot
nvt It
Alternative
_vj
of the n could
alternatively
terminate
with a flick
foot
iO
Alternatively,
twist from the
1
Drag
more semi-
make
the
tail
of the x
circular
diagonal to the
horizontal for
the serif of the
5[?
:
ri
Full
r
f?
';
half
in
r is
common
text
Rotunda
Half r
Each stroke of the s begins or ends on the central hairline
tx to
Conjoined J and e
Conjoined and o
b
Any
two
letters
with
opposing bows
can be conjoined
Rotunda
letterforms
c*
Sequence of
Rotunda
letters
87
Italian
SlHumanist Scripts
Rotunda Capitals
THE STRUCTURE OF the Rotunda Capital
than the minuscule
capitals can
(pp.
is less
clearly defined
be used;
historically, they
{pp.
Lombardic Capitals
hairlines can
be added
through the
counter ot
Rotunda minuscules,
strokes and
curved
,
theB
some upright
strokes
drawn with
the
pen
at
30
and
at the horizontal.
Sweeping curved
establish
stroke* help
a rhythm
The pen
Capital
is
held at
30" for
the
single
diamond
space
volume
oj
in the counter
added
to
Counters
The round, open nature
counters.
ot the
Rotunda
The expanse
ot
white space
or
a
Tlte stem of
the
diamonds, double
hairlines,
F can
^F
*
alternatively be
drawn with
double stroke
Square
If the
feet
is
pen
at
30
at the
top of the
whole
baseline.
To create
use the
the
Fill in this
ink.
and filed
in with the
Alternative form of
In this
stroke
is
and
a large
been incorporated,
The volume
Hackles can be added
to the first
stem of the
two stem
strokes
88
Rotunda
Capitals
Turn
the
pen
the
from
horizontal to
30
to
draw
of the
Ml
of the
BTiira
of the
the
^^*
to
^^^ i^^^N
[fT
horizontal
O and
f\
To form
the
tail
Q hai'e
same
basic
Q, add
to the
form
Tun;
the
pen from
30
to
hairline
to the
stroke can be
horizontal
added
right
to the
draw
the
of the
first
stroke
I
stem of the P
_ of the
A
Tim;
peit
hairline
the
stroke can be
from
to the
added
right
to the
30
to
of the
horizontal
stem of the
and diamonds
draw
the
^^
first stroke
of the
Alternative forms of
O
Any Rotunda
drawn with a
Capital can be
:c*Oi
Capital
minuscules (pp.
86-87)
89
Humanist Minuscule
The Humanist Minuscule
most
both
influential in
(Littera
Roman
our modern
society.
All
Humanist Minuscule
30
Renaissance
letter. It
would
be
difficult to envisage a
bone
The Humanist Minuscule was
essentially a rediscovery of the
qui em cternam.
dctis
A nDingc domine
mam inc
tie
Caroline Minuscule
(pp.
38-39).
tree
As
a clear,
unambiguous hand,
am .An
a
in ira
Online nc
nio ar en as me
harmony with J
the ideals
of the Renaissance.
lOimnoara innt
omnia ofla
bata
ci\
meaOt
tn
was to have
influence on
modern Latin-based
was
initially
nafdc ted
domine n(at|
ct
writing, acceptance of it
ouo|ffloniicrrerc domine
u'lin.u
i
slow.
the script
mam imam
c(l in
mi(erieorc{iam
was adapted
as a
morte qui
<
memor Grtui
ini^fcr
model
38 39). It gradually replaced the Rotunda in Italy (pp. 8-1- 85) and the Gothic scripts of Britain and southern Europe as the principal
(pp.
model
lor tvpelaces.
Book or Hours
This
in
written in Bologna
about 1500 for Giovanni II Dcntivoglio. Arguably, the sumptuous decoration and bright colours of the Versals detract from the
dignity of the text script itself
at
The
flat serifs
92-9J).
HllM.WIST MlXUSCUII:
pillo.lnUp.uili
consistent.
ivtth
nhteh these
Adrp^iiw
test
lUJmil
f
i
lcdiniUHft.toun ramlicuia
'.
tu etc
Imam
u mtinbu
lii
trrrjm
vospjflTsno
fdioj
iracundum proiiocarr
!'!')|'(l
Im
irln, mjtl ,
Itros
(rdrducateillosindifcipdnaet
.-.
handwritten on vellum
infimplKieatecordiivtftnfiaiftK
fcruientes rpufi ho
:
Do -non ad oculum
eccicua.Veeutjmen ^tvos
>
finfuli
j(
if
ntc.
v(il
[i
ntj
The
Versals are
Roman and
not
baud on lombardk
59J
m df
ex ammo ni
domi
Juu_
fey. Apoflolmpntvum os f * btttrrjtti auomoilo muicrm vtiuj
nciVnon hornmibus-fcimtesquonta
C up
f>l>
letterforms fpp. 58
tnflituit
dtmdt ftruos
c* tiommat
vt
Iibu
fiUibarentes nontnr
>*d
ir.
m .p+rrnttj
.
Et
i\\o\
rfmitttnfesmma* fcitntesquutYHto
rum (Vve0erdominiiseftinca(i5.n
perfonarum acceptio non eft apuddeu
Otextt to fritres, conforumimim do
trtu*'uni
Pothemo
vn
vmutrftvm
hejios
aJ rmUtiafrnfidet hortatur
Ilu ofarditrparrniibus
in
Minuscule hands
dr.ini.itic effect.
*"
- Jj.
vm
i
)espite
ert
-
reproduced
they are
hum
Ted
*dim
same
size as
At a
for a
may be mistaken
printed book.
i..
Lii..
In this
margin annotation,
Thi handwriting
numeral*
is
evident
A small
I
letter
Printed text
Fifteenth-century
text type
Humanist Minuscule.
This annotation by the poet to his copy of Suctonuis's Lives o) Caesars, was made in about 1370 and clearly demonstrates the degree to which he had adopted the Caroline Minuscule as
a
hand
worked most
is
suceesslullv
evident
in
-Vf-
Rotunda
between
(if/oie),
1
typeface
printed after
4Nd.
lor large-scale
ffjl't-ctnt
4^
Versals
and
capitals
model
The same
sent
scribes,
tp
UJltc
These
Italic letter-,
men
I
and minuscules.
tOI
increasingly modelled on
Roman
L xv ,lu 'j?
K'S"
forms
(pp.
ex
cis
now universal. Also derived from Roman forms, the Humanist Capitals
were drawn with the same ductus as the minuscules and were the same
height as the minuscule ascender
(pp.
ot*
J cncYlireex
ro ^ nutriri
98 99).
rigid
adherence to
lines,
along
con tfngit.
Verum
fiquidem hocita
page
ot text.
9/
Italian
&_Humanist Scripts
Humanist Minuscule
THE Humanist Minuscule
Caroline Minuscule
separate, and
(pp.
is
a
b
%r&
If using a "slanted" pen,
form
to
modern
is
letters,
can be replaced by
mil
There
no exaggeration
aflat serif
have a diagonal
axis
clear
The
letters
in scale,
with
five
The
"Slanted" pen "slanted" pen Humanist Minuscule is based on the early hand of Poggio and
relates quite closely to
Tlie
wedge
cc
serij
of the
can be replaced by
aflat serif
angle of 30-40.
a
is
The
double-storey
distinguishes
Italic
ii.
letter; this
it
from the
is
which
a single-storey
bowl of the d
will
letter (pp.
96-97).
_2
^J
the Humanist
( ices
Mil
Humanist Minuscule
with a "straight" pen.
Minuscule
not have a
The pen
is
shallow
-5-15thin
If using a
"slanted"
and
a greater contrast
in
mi' strokes
of the g mil
pen
pen
have a
diagonal axis
Tlie h ran
Serif types
The
script features
two
flat.
types of serifs:
terminate with
a turned foa
wedge-shaped and
stroke or in
[above).
The wedge
two
flat
separate strokes
is
The
serif
created with
When
this
When
flat
flicking
movement
is
more
difficult.
serif
flat serif,
or finish the
to the
movement
(see letters
It,
k,
m,
n, p, q,
r,
opposite).
92
Humanist Minuscule
The wedge
by a
serif of
!k
Pull the
t
of the
I
should
Tlic
wedge
serif of
tail
along
the
din Be replaced
flat serif
by a
o
ml
q
will
pen, the
o win have
a diagonal axis
If using a "slanted"
basic form
of the y
the
same
as the u,
z
If using a "slanted" pen,
extended into a
tail
have
tmW
Humanist Minuscule
this form
letters
drawn
u'ilh a
a diagonal axis
and g
differ
from the
Italic
Ipp.
94-95;
unlinked
tr s %s
of the
can
terminate with
a turned foot
"Slanted
letters
77ie
letter
tail
of the
differentiates the
from
its Italic
counterpart
(pp.
96-97;
93
Italia*
&Mumanist Scripts
Italic
IN
ITS BASIC
FORM,
Italic script
is
Italic a
Humanist
The
with
Italic a,
its fully
Minuscule
(pp.
became
a distinctive
formed bowl,
is
the
earliest
hand
(pp.
in its
own
in turn, the
Copperplate
ancestor of our
102-103). The script was invented in 1420 by Niccolo Niccoli, an Italian scholar who found the Humanist Minuscule
too slow to execute. By 1440, his new,
script
less labour-intensive
Letters general!)
official
point between
the
headline
The four
BASIC characteristics
when
'
is
written
ItV
minimum
there
is
number of pen
lifts:
become more
oval;
Q?3
many
letters
other with
connecting stroke.
Changing the a
The character
significantly
altered
most
a,
tall
sMjoltoJionormioOiuifancLo a Quellajclji
QuMchtjiim
abb refsb
tSl^Aa &jla
(i
o co a da eofi
ItOU'i
minim height
r^n
bo tcfjcuijchi h re
w Ia
ufc
re (k) cauarli
Qucllo oMuaoonccllo
pctuw uoua imlu
\ Ajac
The terminals of Italic ascenders and descenders were drawn in one of two
forms: the formata (semi-formal), in
nO imdumulu-
la
nudUm a qiidloiia.illo
uiuuo atoruo I'cn.niiiolonl ivnuclunuclU tu tfltputuota toUih\uc mcutttc tttiklimdlc Ct fdnuqifllucrc a raw ci ulard tuoni
r
uc ltd
luii'o
die
lutt'ecui
lumto l ucu*
ct c
Mick
oglio
Butiro frclco
ct
Treatise on Hawking This page from a work by the Italian scholar Francesco Moro was penned in about 1560-70
mainly of alphabets and texts in At the top. in gold, are two lines of Cadels (pp. 80-81). Beneath the blue border are the Italics, fully separated and generously
aua
Ancora W dice
cite
and
consists
\SCEMV>OLOriN
different hands.
spaced.
identifiable
is
formata,
serifs.
ri.
Four
lines
50-51)
90-91).
follow and,
several lines
there are
of Humanist Minuscule
{pp.
94
Italic
FviUVS INQVAI^TO
V.Akuin avYorh/ lohami
r
l\\
AN MALI
ejl
I
lUtailnrn Mldns'Mtmiiliii?
H mX. vmt yef: clmfttftt myomr-'. Hemeri ejr-H wnc featfu f mc fa V (kufvoetn in Uvro fecvmdo oellt hybrid ait. Np?ii'$ mm
crvit
cmfwn .'Afch
on\
(I
tfiflm
ft
toHaern
itccejcft UctiAtttt'-
-4>i
i/mnluifcivt
N on wjtn'
eir
cvntum
AllUlVtAjl
merit* defcrvytxo
tawhim-tntif-'
mhet
ueron
JplirtBajImillC'-Cjuviibivi
The long ascenders and descenders have
BidcmiyvilliamMtmU't {Kwdjohn^tmp^EricQl^
Stanley CMoni&mvjan'Jjcl
has
.S. I/'I KXALIA was written by Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius in 1465. Each letter is clearly defined, reminiscent both of the Humanist Minuscule (pp. 90-91) and the earlier Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38-39). The capitals are small and restrained compared with those by Moro (opposite).
This fine
Italic script
is
990
is
by the
Norwegian
Haanes.
calligrapher Christopher
He
has achieved
harmony
i'rahcWGini?yi\i(Utiuiv
between the capitals and minuscules by reducing the size of the capitals to just above minim height.
influence
on the
Italic script. In
501
Italic
type
probably owing
(pp.
90-91),
in
broad-edged nib
-k_
._., ,,! ,ir(Y
From
AiCm.tvfim nii,i!MiflWM foitm
began
to follow the
1
example of type by
Although clearly an
script,
Italic
|UE-rVvH
,..i.l..rUvvl [ft*
un? C
iijt<i
rtcinei jivooi
reached
its full
maturitv as a carefully
1
550s,
that
it
f'n
was
..
IMmio
-~'0i "*.<*,
'
generally
UrvJr \ouilrw
frrrvnr Histriitnc
decline
was
rapid, eventually
the father of
calligraphy
OrfL,
~m
\
I
SiLc
modern
(pp.
42-43), William
Johnston 's o
For the modern calligrapher,
of inspiration. However,
,
H.iticliim
tlclunUl) hlibuf
iliicfir ttuercul
cur.-rij
Italic
work of 1874
much new
an attempt to realize
nomnuMM LJcvriitv
Italic
1
mU
was
than
broad-edged pen
draw
only
partially successful.
95
Italian
&_Humanjst Scripts
Italic
The
Italic z
is
always a
singleletter
is
storey
with the
a single
formata
minimum number of pen lifts - most can be written with stroke. The two traditional examples shown here are and corsiva. Formata letters are distinguished by the wedge
of the stem, corsiva by the swashes to the right of
the hand, the curve of other letters, and the letter width (below).
Joining strokes
Where
strokes spring
.Ilrtltf
Connecting
MttmsC Itrtiw n
I
from the stem of a letter, such as on h, m, and ii, the stroke should begin about two pen widths below the headline. The bottom curve of the bowl of the d, g, and q meets
the stem stroke about
cftikiK <hould
10 or 15".
connecting
basic rules.
A
Ascenders and descenders
lli:>
serif,
tongue can be
is
wedge
can be the
the
Tliis serif
same
height as
shorter
end of a word
drawn
strokes,
minims or slightly
in
two
can also be
dubbed
Without
the
a>
'Hie clubbed
corsiva serif
creates bold
crossbar, the f
becomes
the
ascenders
Alternatively,
the descender
Serifs
Serifs
of the gran
terminate with
right-facing (corsiva).
On
letters b, d, h, k,
and
in the
a swash
Step-by-step o
alphabet
(ni;/ir),
(above
left)
Alternatively, the
_Jabove
left)
1.
To
create the o in
2. Maintaining the
3.
an
downwards
the
an
moving along
draw the
letter in
two
curving
down
to the
left.
to curve upwards.
strokes (opposite).
96
Italic
k
Corsiva
bt
JLl
^/ ^y
can be
strokes
tt
form of
11 :ma
/
Formata form of/
Corsiva form of/
Tlie legs of the
%M
The first Tl,efirst
the f/jf
Itllt* //fee
stroke
of
1\
'
%V J'
<?
len/ge serif
drawn as separate
TTTTJ
14?
m/m/
'
%'
of
i
~~
l/ic the
w can begin,
serif
-f*--
a wedge
jQZ& a
Alternatively, the
can be drawn
irvzz _)2_3
Ml Ml ^*7
M
3
MB?"
.
The second stroke of the into p can be extended in the stem and the thir third
stroke omitted.
Alternatively, the
y ran if
a
Y
5
w~jfi
2
-^
from
Conjoined
letters
ofajescender
Thefirst and
of the
z
third
trokes
can be
do
not appear in
script
Italic
and
ligatures
and
Italic
ampersands can be
TJ
S-t ligature
Ampersand
91
Humanist
Humanist
Minuscule
well as Capitals (pp.
(pp.
1
&
Italic
Capitals
Roman
Imperial
A
B
-"
4445),
as
92-93).
A pen angle of
on
50
is
most
produce
letters
to the stone-cut
Roman
the
There
/^^'l
f
'
[ :
to
to
draw the
the
serif of
Humanist and
y
Italic
(ire left
'."--_
for alternative
methods)
of two minims
in height
Italic
right at the
%
is
used
accompany. The
at a slightly
serifs
shallower
1
Arm
Draw
serifs
to
Alternative serifs
Alternatively, the top
left serif
draw the
top
serif
can
of the
(see left
two
serifs
left.
Inner
Bracketed serif
Alternatively, finish the
Inner
fillet
is
third option
to
draw
below the
baselint
fillet
98
Humanist
Tiie top
the
ami
of
can be
KAlternativ
arm
drawn with a
straight stroke
T
2_
I
Trie second
Tlie first diagonal
N lH w:w
2
4
Tlie third
Mi
o
'
stroke of the
of the
V am
be a
M can be
straight
straight stroke
Viefirst
and
third
stroke
of the
strokes
the
can be
of
can
straight
be straight
aia
IF
of the
can be straight
Italic
Capitals should be
slightly shorter
than the
minuscule
Italic
Capitals
shows bracketed
serifs
draw
the
(see
for
serif of the
opposite
and bottom of the letter, and the second shows a straight stem and straight amis
at the top
Two
alternative
alternative methods)
forms of E
99
Italic
Swash Capitals
is
A
in
(pp.
Swash Capital
a similar function in
(pp.
Gothic text
58-59).
a complete
Capitals
created
by the extension of stem strokes above or below the capital line and
the extension of bowls and horizontal strokes to the
left
of the stem.
or, alternatively,
swash
When
left
a swash
Is
added
the
letter
and
Balance the
gains a particularly
top swash
flamboyant appearance
of the
over the
sweep of
the arc
Theiwash
is
to
the
left
of the stem
To draw
Italic
Swash
Left swashes
Capitals, use
the
When
creating a swash
letter,
same pen
as for Italic
it
B or
R.
minuscules
ipp.
96-97;
is
bowl
pen
pulled in a sweeping
Top swashes
The stem can be extended
upwards and pulled
to the right in the
movement. The
the alphabet
letters in
{right)
show
manner ot
Italic
a corsiva
(pp.
ascender on the
96-97).
minuscule
move downwards
slightly,
and
lift
Looped terminals
This clubbed, looped terminal can be used as an alternative to the swash in
finishing the
Formal arm
serifs
seril
provides an
stem stroke.
It
works
stem
particularly well
letter
on
/
a single P.
such
as
an
or
Create the
right.
110-1
19).
On
100
Italic
Swash
Capitals
T
The
final stroke
WW
*w *%
The
tail
of the
is
draitii
w
5
IS
of the
X extends belott
the baseline
and
terminates with
a swash
looped
and
extends
Tlte foot of the
to the
letter
right
of the
can be omitted
Tlte tail
ofZ
extends
on the
stem of the
R
This simple upright form
can be omitted
ofE
serif
1,
ofB
letters 15,
D,
F,
H,
I,
K,
wedge
R, and
T
Swash
Capitals, such as
Italic
Upright
this
B and
E, can replace
Capitals fpp.
98-99)
in Italic text
Alternative
Alternative
101
A
Post-Renaissance Scripts
. .
Copperplate
ALTHOUGH THE ITALIC script began
life as a
quickly
.penned, cursive version of the Humanist Minuscule, by the beginning of the 1 6th century it had become a formal script in its own right with a correspondingly
slower ductus
(pp.
had been
pointed tool
known
Copperplate Capital B
The stem ojihe
Copperplate Capital
usually terminates
The hand developed for this new engraving method, combined with the narrower pen and slanted
emergence of a new handwritten
The
time,
with a blob
106-107).
The
degree of
Copperplate.
closely
echo
that
of the minim.
Copperplate was
all
the letters in a
it
word were
and practical
linked,
making
a fast
script
>
of commerce,
///s A//.'//v/r/.i
//w
7/t
,.'//,
^y////. $mc/a
m?o.
used for
much
work
in
Europe
6679).
1
Throughout the
7th and
8th
//>///
nv//r;,
^^
///)//'/<//// uW/,i
/// tY/i/Af
/;w.i/.<
///'Y/V/J
////'Y.--
who
used
.
/////'//
/<y.
///vr>
2/
volume of engraved work by the calligrapher and engraver George Bickham. Published in 1743. the book epitomized the elegant writing manuals of
the 18th century.
The engraved
letters,
written
e&c
Walpurcis Night
?7jl %!.
&
OutCC
c*..tY
<vry/c*-,'
This handwritten text of a poem by the artist Richard Dadd dates from about 1840. The letters closely follow the approved "school" hand of
the period: the
relatively large
/ r. ? ce * &/e*
/* <v/S
/*
Jf""
minims are small, ascenders are and unlooped, and the hand is
102
Copperpi.mi:
(//(/////////or^
/,/
is
also
from
Universal
Penman. Notice the looped and unlooped forms of ascenders used; on the third line, the word "which" includes both types.
"Command
In
of hand
produced a series of virtuoso calligraphic performances that were each known as "striking" or "command of hand", in which increasingly complex baroque flourishes were produced without the removal of pen from
paper. This ornate
acme
Copperplate in education
angle possible
The adoption
to varying sties,
of
Copperplate script
rapidly, a
work
is
The
loops,
drawn
would
occurred remarkably
to die role
Copperplate workshop
-
.-
had been
is
inked and
is
by the
late
reversed. Ink
is
applied to the
literacy
is
of the
plate.
Dampened
who
recesses. In this
we
of writing masters'
work were
being forced onto the plate, while. in the background, printed sheets are drying on the racks.
reproduced by copperplate
engraving, and schoolbook manuals
such as The
Universal
Technical skill
By the
David Harris
production of Copperplate script from type was a very limiting process -joins did not fully connect and ascenders and descenders were atrophied. This 1984 design for a Copperplate typeface shows smoothly linked letters that are very close in form to the engraved script.
In the past, the
much
on writing technique
as the content
ball-point
word
processor.
103
Post-Renaissance Scripts
Copperplate
THIS ELEGANT SCRIPT is probably the most
Most
pen
lifts
letters can
be written
between
letters.
one stroke and there are few Minims can be slightly compressed and
in
bv using compressed minims with enclosed loops. The fine lines of the burin engraving (pp. 102-103) are difficult to replicate with
a steel nib but,
Theforward
Copperplate
about
lean of the
letter is
30"
The
ascender
Tool
selection
of the
is
not looped
flexible
variation ot thick
and
thin strokes.
enclosed
When
pen angle
as close to
90
(can
alternatively he
to
drawn
minim
it
stroke.
Begin with
a fine line.
is
enclosed
again
ac
Avoid
joining
letters close to
The
looped
of the
the baselin
ascender
Linking
Link
letters
h can be open
possible.
is
letters
wherever
or enclosed
as
high up
Try
to leave
a neat
triangle
of space
letter
between each
Internal spaces
The
loop of the
j is enclosed
should be approximately
half the internal space.
104
Copperplate
Vie
the
top loop of
can be
open or enclosed
The
Vie two
the
loops of
w are enclosed
minim
height
of
Is
Vie
loop of they
is
enclosed
usually open
Tlie
bowl of the
is
enclosed
Vie final
the z
is
loop of
enclosed
Vie
full r
has two
looped strokes
Letterjorms can be slightly
Vie small
top
can be open
Full
Half r
Copperplate
as
is
written with
few pen
lifts
as possible:
trrilten
Vie
s is
the only
letter in
this
word can be
lift C
with
Copperplate
-for
the
no
possible options
105
Post-Renaissance Scripts
Copperplate Capitals
A
is
102-103)
Carstairs:
tip
from writing masters James Lewis and Joseph "The writing hand should be lightly supported by the
little
of the
finger
in a circular
movement". This can very helpfully be applied to the drawing of Copperplate Capitals, a script in which the precise control
of pressure
on the pen
is
As
avoid
this
happening
by
controlling the
pen
f /
g
_,
pressure
^~\
g g g
'
Increase the
pressure at
this
point
Decrease the
pressure at this point
/
Incorrect S This S shows
look
if
Correct S
how
To draw
not
the
the pressure
on
the pen
is
meticulously controlled.
The
stroke
when
reaching the
italic
slope angle.
when
slope.
when moving
italic
slope angle.
Loops
Loops should balance over the
upright axis and,
Crossing strokes
As
a rule, thin strokes
when used
spirally,
However,
Capitals
and minuscules
Never use Copperplate Capitals to write a whole word. Where several
capitals
other in proportion
have to be used,
plan
such
as for initials,
When
a
used to begin
(pp.
word
104-1 OS).
When
Here, the
tail
Copperplate Capital
can be adapted to
of the L
terminating a
stroke, finish with
complement the
minuscules.
lowered
to
complement
on the pen
to
leave a blob
106
Copperplate Capitals
than
Roman
numerals
107
Scripts
Imperial Capitals
The Imperial Capital (Capitalis Monumentalis) monuments of
was the
letter
The proportions ofDiirer's
letter
are
used on the
based on compass-drawn
circles
Ancient
Rome
Dt RBR
'S
CLASSICAL
Roman Empire, and is indisputably the most stately of all scripts. The earliest examples of
mature Imperial letter date from the first century B.C., and some of the finest models are
a
The
Column
in
Diirer in 1525. demonstrates the widespread belief that the key to understanding classical letters lay in geometric dissection.
Rome
(pp.
\
'
bv the natural
movement
serifs
of the hand.
ETATElVfWi
:
had
The frequency oj the
occurrence of
text
uwi:.;' ii--/"v "tV: vei- n-'.vin/i Haei EXT1 fXrCMI'ET QVEMT! N'
:
' .
been written by the Greeks from the fourth century B.C.. However, it was
only
in latin
NFE..IX'
-
-.
;
provides a distinct
h\[
,WS
EM
when
the
Romans developed
it
from the
descending
IS FVIS
v
\
TinVfrw^'i
-V.T
IRAir
{-.
(CA'AN
became
serifs
ME&TE ESEi
>NfLEI
technically possible to
draw
and
The regulation of space
between
letters, words,
When
in
and
lines
was of primary
concern to the
Roman
scribe
proved crucial
determining the
itself
In this inscription
Detail from the Via Aim'ia Monument on the Via Appia Monument.
is
height of a
as
it is
letter.
Were
A keyJunction
In a society
with
high degree of
ease
on the Arch of Constantine (opposite), the of horizontal scan would be reduced and the letters would become jumbled.
literacy but
Roman
scribes
Compare the
inter-letter spaces
of
how
of their
work
is
fragmentary,
we do
- by
simplifying
some
strokes
the
Via
Ai'i'iA
Monument
proportions of the
the Via Appia.
letters
on
this
Rome, compare
everyday documentation.
very favourably with those on the base of the Trajan Column (opposite). Such a large amount of text would have required considerable
The Imperial Capital has proved to be the most enduring ot all scripts. Over 2,000 years after it was first used, its form remains virtually
unchanged,
as the capital letters in
forward planning. The initial allocation of words to each line may have been calculated
book
testify.
on a wax tablet or slate, before working rules were drawn to letter height on the marble. Once the position of the letters was marked in chalk between the rules, the letters were painted with a brush. Only then were the words actually carved into the stone.
108
Impi.rim Capitals
SENA71 s|^01>VlVSO\/E-!IOMAM \: \,N\ilinl\ INHIVAEI .NT Ira an ^ w v.'. m^ "\X\y^^ M-AXIiVU. v lKirvPOTX\ \m\V\ ICOSVIT \ PINIS API Mil \R\NPVM A \NT.\l \\
n
1
i!
77ie fetters
on
(/if
The
Father Catich
Since the Renaissance, Imperial
Capital letters have been studied,
analyzed, improved, and recreated by
//.5 centimetres (4
inches)
and M. /wi
a pointed
inches) on
probably
common
headed
".Si-.V.-i 7
'S
POP] ZVS
1)
yi liliOMA.W '("The Senate and People of Rome"). The letters were originally coloured red so that they would stand out from the
background. Words are separated by a medial inter-point and the horizontal stroke over
certain letters indicates their use as numerals.
However,
The Arch op Const an
This
ways,
i
it is
ini
monument
it
from
A.D, 315.
pioneering work of a
modern
scholar,
we
marks the degeneration ot Rome, since many of the statues and reliefs on the column have been scavenged from earlier work. The
letters are
can
now
fully
Roman
square-cut
in
shallow
relict.
was demonstrated
The words
"SI IN
QYI
bronze
letters
still
- the
on 19
line
definitive
26
letters in
Spontaneous
letters
The
be written with
letter
excessive
making the
"the
appear laboured.
in
modern scribe to work in the same way as his or her Roman forebears
and produce spontaneous
for our
letters
own
lime.
109
Scripts
Capitals,
it is
essential to use a
hairs,
mahhtick
is
useful for
which are
enough to create
when
wet. Imperial
or from a
from "pulled" or "manipulated" strokes, combination of both. In both types of stroke, die angle between
work
letter.
surface
is
rhythm
Brush movement
for "pulled" strokes
and tempo, and the increase or decrease of pressure on the tool. This
sensitivity
is
generally
(opposite).
With
directly
on the work
The
The
surface, the
movement
will
movement of about
of the brush
stroke
be very
or
The
the
stem stroke. For this, the hand moves only slightly, with the index finger drawn towards the palm of the hand,
causing the brush to be pulled downwards.
- about two
hand
on
a mahhtick
hand
the
resting
movement
can be
increased.
on the ferrule of
the brush
4.
On
letters B,
D, E,
downwards, slighdy reducing the pressure as you reach the centre of the stem - this will
give the stroke a slight waist.
Increase the pressure again
and L. the
stroke
the
is
vertical stem
continued into
bottom horizontal
In these instances,
arm.
begin to
lift
moving
to the right.
to
30 for the
1.
addition of a
at a fairly flat
Gently edge the brush to the right and begin the downward
sweep of the
stroke.
2.
into the stem, gradually pull the brush towards the palm
of your hand,
until
it is
almost upright.
Other "pulled" strokes The brush is held in a similar way on curved strokes as on vertical
strokes, but instead ot
Letters
A, M. and
<
pointed apex
hand moves
circular
semiThe
centre stroke
is
of the S
both
of the
5.
"pulled"
and
Letters
sweeping
should be about
M, N,
V, and
W have
upwards
a diagonal stroke
Small semicircular
that turns
sweeps
P,
at the baseline
occur
on B,
and P.
110
Imperial Capitals:
Brush Strokes
Top
left serif
on
T and Z
to
be able to
twirl the
this
To make
"Manipulated" strokes are used to create the four main types of serifs
Imperial Capitals: the top
left serifs
in
Tand
F,
Z (above
T
1.
the top
serifs that
terminate the
arms of letters C, ,
(right);
the
bottom
and
serifs
left serif
on the
3.
of C, E,
L,
(below);
T and Z by bringing
downwards
the brush
the
increasing the
move
the
right).
in a short stroke.
and
G are curved,
the principle
Cand
L,
P.
For the
Top
S,
right serif
on C, E, F, G,
F-inisli
left
the
arm with
the
bottom arms of E.
is
and
cower
comer
oj the brush
edge on the letter is about 150. The strokes of the top serifs are known as
"forward" and those of the bottom
serifs as
"reverse".
is
The bottom
in that the
serit
Tlie angle
of the S
unique
brush
of the brush
edge on the
letter is
30
1.
To
2. Continue
moving
the brush
3.
Continue
of C, E, F, G, S, and
hold the
its left
comer
edge
it
is
on 90 to
lifting
30
until the
move
downwards
of the ami. At
begin to
right
on the
letter at 30.
on
its
right
comer.
the
on C, E, L, and
Z
Bottom on 5
serif
Tlie angle of
the brush edge
Tlie angle of
the brush edge
oh the
about
letter is
on the
about
letter is
ISO"
150"
1.
To create
2.
On
1.
The bottom
letter.
serif
of the S
left
is
the
serif on
C, E,
then
only bottom
serif
on the
at
side
Work
carefully,
on the
letter
off, finishing
of a
serif,
Begin
part
of the stroke
will
be
move
to the right.
moving
the brush
downwards.
Fonvard"
stroke
on the top
preceded by a serif
curve of
C, G, and S
Curved
"reverse"
on
T and Z
arms of the
and F
beginning at the
tip
bottom cume
ofC
of the
on S
111
Scripts
9 letters
Column
in
(pp.
108-109).
Roman
letters, J, U,
open
in his
book The
is
individually
demonstrated bv stroke sequence and brush angle. The pressure on the brush and
the speed
at
will vary
of
one calligrapher
Tilt' first
stroke
the
is
rhythm
that suits
key
to
the letter
drawn in pink
Five stem
widths
Six
sum
Seven
stent
Nine
stent
Nine stem
widths
Ten
stent
widths
widths
widths
widths
It is
that the
One
stent width
Colour coding
letter has
Each
5 stem
widths
the fourth.
The
frequently changing
series
of white
Letter weight
generally assumed
weight - the
Letter proportions
Tlw
is
created
front
two
Is joined
10:1.
1
balance
with a crossbar
of
is
generally
considered acceptable.
weight
is
about 9.5:1.
Tltc
fillet
between the
of an
JC Y
HV
When
it is
essential to
know
Capital to another.
serifs
The width of a
in
letter- including
is
measured
in
discrepancy
letters is optical:
rounder
our
letters
straight ones.
To
modem
is
"corrected" by the
more
formal
natural
achieved
in
more
Arabic numerals
Numerals
Although Arabic numerals were not
introduced into Europe until the
13th century, avoiding their use in
favour of
Roman
in
numerals can be an
1234567890
Stroke order
for
incumbrance
a similar
modern
calligraphy.
drawn using
numerals
The
is
if
j
used singly,
can be
made
wider,
I Iff).
resembling a
letter
(p.
112
A
Flat-hcadcd
Imperial Capital A Although most Roman As were flatheaded, all of the As on the Trajan inscription {pp. 108- 1119) are pointed.
When
In
serif, it
is
essential to
first.
You
will
modem
left
between
letters, this
of the
lends to be positioned
and
Historically,
on stone-cut
chisel.
letter,
left
^^
hi post-Renaissance times, an
i
as
or
it
can
be, filled
in
Edge
ofj
the
serif
A can
stroke
of the
omitted i"
drawn as a
first
continuation of the
The
is
right axis
of the
arc
third
Imperial Capital
B
between the stem
is
On
the
li.
the
fillet
an
will
never
at
the top.
The
top bowl
is
always
bottom and the joining stroke always above the stem's centre. The bottom bowl can alternatively be
smaller than the
more along
the baseline
90
to
draw
the top
serif of the
Imperial Capital
C
strokes of the
C are
The
axis of tin
is
do
Tum
draw
and
twist
not curve inwards. The two serifed anus are very similar in construction
to those
the arc
below
vertical to
on the
/:'
(p.
14).
which
horizontal
should be used
as a
difference
is
that the
anus on the
Remember
the
bottom
stroke.
113
Scripts
before
commencing the
arc
Imperial Capital As on the letter B {p. I 13), the stem and rounded stroke of the D are
connected with a fillet. This is always at the bottom of the letter - never
at the top.
letter
presents a
connecting
modern
is
upright.
30 and pull
it
along the
Tlie
is
constructed from
the stem
30
to
90
to create
Serif,
Catich
regards the
E as
is
This
owing
strokes
most
E is
start
an ideal
letter
with which to
aming
The
F is created
without the
same way
as
is
E but
made
while the
foot of the
To
G, 90
pull
from 30
to
Imperial Capital
G
/ (p.
For practical purposes, the G is the C (p. / 13) combined with the upper
half of the stem of the
IIS).
The
arm of E
{above).
114
Imperial
Capitals H,
J, /
and J
arc very
The H,
As
the
a
/
I.
and
modern
letterfonn.
own
instance, the
can be
The
all
the
serifed. in the
stemmed
letters
hand.
The
is
I
Tltis
The
tail
ami
is
similar to
US)
Imperial Capital The ami and leg ol the K conned to the stem with a point. It is acceptable to leave a small gap between arm and leg juncture and the stem. This is
preferable to connecting the leg to a
point on the length of the arm. Alter the angle ot the brush on the third
stroke to finish at the horizontal.
Turn
mate
The pointed
is
in
the doumstroke
hamiony with
(p.
the
A
116j
l\i)amlN(p.
is
inscription.
The
first
and
the
first
legs incline
inner
V (p.
IIS).
Hi
Capitals
Draw
the
apex of
the Idler
first
he
completed
are often
as the crossbar
(p.
1 13).
curve at
The
flat-topped or serifed.
Vie
Imperial Capitals
Oand Q
The same ductus
the
is
used for
bowl of the
letter
letter
is
Q as for the
key
left
each
O. The
natural
The
well
tail
occurrence
formality of an otherwise
bilinear script.
Construct the
a
Q by adding
O
Slightly turn the brush to
horizontal on the
tail
of the
The
The
basic form
axis of the
of
arc
is
above the
the letter
is
the
horizontal
same as
the
^opposite,)
Imperial Capital
The curved
stroke of
Although the bowl of the P appears to be smaller than that on the corresponding letter R, they are, in fact, the same size.
The
illusion
is
of the connecting stroke to the stem of the P, In modern usage, a connecting bar is often added, and
in
type
it
nearly always
is.
The bowl
line.
finishes just
116
is
above
the horizontal
is
the
I'
mat of the
(opposite^
Imperial Capital
It
The R,
is a
E (p.
114),
useful letter
on which
to practise
brush-drawn Imperials because it contains more elements of other letters than any other character. The juncture of the
Tiie tail of the
continues
line
an imaginary diagonal
a valuable
origins
of
removed by
scribes in an attempt to
letter.
'"improve" the
The
tail is
very
producing
thickening.of the
30
90
awesome
the
.S"
prospect to the
beginner. In
fact,
/
once the
E has been
mastered
difficult.
(/).
14),
The
Trajan
Commence
tip
at the
which
of the
slightly interferes
the script.
The
tail
serif
is
brush backwards,
letter that
It is
may
require additional
and pull
it
along
practice.
the only
tip first,
ami
serif that
is
the baseline
constructed
and aggravated
first
stroke.
essential to
draw
\
Each arm
is
the
of the
serif as the
second stroke.
stroke finished.
the
same length
arms of the
as the
E and
F(p. 114;
The
right
exactly the
is
top
arm of the.
E (p.
14)
Imperial Capital
T T
is
The
an extremely
angle between
serifs,
and
a gradual
away from the serifs. The arm starts with a slight downwards movement
with the edge of the brush twisting
back to
3(1
before
moving along
the
arm and
finishing at 9(1.
On
an
would be
filled in
by the
chisel.
Ill
Roman
S^Latf.
Roman
Scripts
Imperial Capital
V sounds.
scripts, the
were
differentiated and
It is a
used separately.
as to
should be adapted. to
languages other than Latin.
The bottom
serif of the
At
the
stroke.
am
tlie
to the right
and
Imperial Capital
V
I
The
the
first
stroke of the
'begins in
same way
as a vertical stroke
and
finishes
reflected in
second stroke
The 'can end in a flat base when used with flat-headed .-1. M. and iV, but make sure this base is no
stroke.
I
Imperial
Capital
W
1
crossed
The
letter II 'first
appeared in the
Ith
apex
century. In principle.
two
another or join
a single
in
apex
in the
letter.
centre of the
118
The
Imperial Capital
X
as
The
a
letter
numeral to represent
The
slope
/I
There
is
no
is
more
serif on the
right inner leg
and
ideally, the
make
serif
of the
is
no
on the
be included on the
Imperial Capital Y The letter V was used by the Romans for words of Greek derivation, and it
appears only occasionally in Latin
inscriptions.
This construction
is
based on
Greek
inscription ot
It is
also correct
on
the
X (above).
to
30 and move
is
Imperial Capital
The
is
an interesting construction,
which combines the top arm of the Tand the bottom ami of the , separated by an awkward diagonal stroke - awkward in the sense that a
the brush over
to
Turn
and
twist
stroke
moving
to the
1 13).
left is
naturally
a thin
from 150
90 to draw
the
thin (see A, p.
However,
bottom stroke
stroke
would make
119
Script Rf.ff.rfsce
Chart
'.ipit.lls
ABC
Rustic
R< IM \N
Uiui.il
Square
Capitals
Halt" Uncial
Insular
Majuscule
Insular
Minuscule
Caroline
INI
CAROl
&
Eari v
Minuscule
Early
Gothic
Scripts
Gothic
Textura
Quadra ta
Textura
Prescisus
GothicCapitals
Lombardic
Capitals
Gothic
Si R.IPTS
ll.i~t.nd
Secretary
Bastard
Capitals
Batarde
Fraktur
Rotunda
I I
\1
IAN
&
Rotunda
Capitals
ll'MANIM
S( HII' IS
Humanist Minuscule
Italic
Humanist
Capitals
Copperplate PostKtNAISSANl
I
Si
hums
Copperplate
Capitals
Glossary
Capital letter See majuscule.
line
Glossary
Ampersand
word "and".
which upper-case
capital line
is
letters rise.
such
The The
character
often slightly
line.
Expanded
lettering in
letter
style
of
which the
characters
Capsa
and
than
wider
Anthropomorphic decoration
letter
of
scrolls.
usual.
human
Compressed
lettering in
tip
letter
style
of
Filigree
in
Elaborate decoration
lines.
which the
characters
of the pen
nib
and
often
Apex The
Arch
pointed
of a
letter, as in
A.
Fillet
filled
The name
given to the
a stroke
The
a
It
angle that
is
formed between
and
formed by
stem, as in
Conjoined
letters
its serif.
and
n.
Floriated
Arm A
at
Copperplate
An
and
/'.
developed from
letter
Folio
Ascender
letter, as in
The upper
/>.
of copper.
stem of a lower-case
d,
Ornamental designs
that can
and
/.'.
Counter
within
Any
space
woven
are
The
simplest
fret patterns
Ascender
upper
line
or
partially enclosed.
composed
writing line to
steins
Crossbar
letter, as in
The
on
a
I
Gilding
The
horizontal stroke
writing surface.
Axis
In
Roman
is
and H. Also
Capitals, this
the
known
as
the "bar".
Gothic
scripts
The
and 1500.
a
of a
letter.
Also
known
as
Gouache
of chalk
letter.
to the letter,
letters
made
either
to achieve an
type
from
to
left
to right or right
Baseline
line
The
writing
left,
such as on the
/:'.
/'.
Hairline
decorate
letters
and
V.
terminate strokes,
letters.
large counters,
and
spine of
letter.
to describe a script
De
Headline
point of descenders -
The
two
a letter
imaginary writing
Descender
/),
as
rises.
Also
known
as
the "waistline".
q,
and J.
line
Black Letter
See Textura.
Descender
The
rest.
line
on which
a letter's
"Hierarchy of scripts" The name given to the code of practice whereby different scripts
Bookhand
in
The generic term for scripts used books before the age of printing. Bookhands include Uncial and Caroline Minuscule.
descender should
Display capitals
words of a
text
Decorated
capitals
word or
as versals.
I'Lolto
(ipnormio
e.
iuifando a Oucllaj
ft)
Bowl
The curved stroke attached to the letter stem that creates an enclosed space (counter), as in letters />, d. and.i;. Also known as "bow".
Bracketed serif
fillet
romptfle,
Qualchc pcna
Quatchchifk
coji
Downstroke
directed
stroke that
is
oo ne
rno/i
re
ISc^da jA-Jia
(i
o co a da
abbrefib
downwards.
ufa
Ductus
and
The
k)cauaiii Quelle
Italic script
is
aflfticeoon
l/o o
n\tc
Built-up letters
filled,
or constructed
section at a time.
Ear A
Burin
engraving.
Cadel
An
brush-drawn letters to describe the technique of removing the edge of the brush from the
writing surface, with the
left
strict
appearing in the same manuscript adhere to a order of use: the most regal hand is used
for the titles
and important
first
details,
corner
lifted last.
lilts.
Edge on The
Capital height
(capital) letter.
height of a majuscule
technique of gradually placing edge of the brush onto the surface, with the right corner touching the surface first.
the
full
Historiated
letters that are
human
figures
described in the
122
Glossary
Illumination
Originally, the term referred
Movable type
Individual letters
made from
Stipple
To
only to gilded decoration, but it is now used to dcs< nbe .my form of text decoration.
"Straight" pen
A pen
Palaeography
Insular
Originating from the Latin
The
word
for
an upright stem.
it
When
positioned horizontally,
"island", this
term
is
applied by palaeographers
will
produce
and
Papyrus
The
earliest
known
as
"shading".
Stroke
Interlace
Any
straight
form of decoration
of
in
which
lines
weave
in
and out
each other.
penned or
Inter-letter space
characters.
The
space between
Tail asey-rig
that
diagonal line
connects to the
Interlinear gloss
interlinear space
Words
text or
written in the
text to
letter at
a
one end,
y.
as
of the main
a
provide
3=
cj;\::r^
in
Q and
commentary on the
contents.
translation ot
its
Terminal
that
a serif.
stroke
Interlinear space
baseline
ot
The space between the of one line of text and the headline the line below it. A Humanist
style ot
Text
script
script
Italic
writing
in
which
t
,-t
J
manuscript
is
that
is
particularly
"
of
owing
to
its
a book
or
clarity
and lack of
to the
first
decoration. Also
known
as
and
n.
plant.
"body
The shape of a
letter.
Parchment
mammalian
writing surface
made from
or goatskin.
the
tail
Textura
this
is
the
From the Latin word for "woven", name given to a style of Gothic script
The
more
strokes.
Quill
writing implement
made from
as
turkey or goose.
Thorn
sign
The Anglo-Saxon
sign resembling
Reed pen
writing tool
made from
a y that
was used
sound.
hollow-stemmed marsh
plant.
Uncial
tx bo
Where the bowls
letters
Roman
The
Latin alphabet.
The term
letter.
is
also
ascenders.
A late Roman script with rudimentary The name means "inch high".
See majuscule.
type of writing surface
Upper
Rubricated
or within
a
case
word
heading
Vellum
calfskin.
made from
are referred
J>
",
enjoined"
Rune Any
Link The stroke that connects the top and bottom ot the minuscule ?.
alphabet.
letter in the
ancient Germanic
Versal
The
characters contain
no curved
tew horizontal
strokes.
Loop
The enclosed
ini>.
space in an ascender or
Sable
the
tail
made from
descender, as
hairs
of the
mammal.
Lower
case
See minuscule
Serif
Majuscule
letters are ot
bilinear script in
which the
the stroke of a
Many
serif
equal height.
capital letter.
sent.
Manuscript A handwritten book or document pre-dating the invention ot Can be abbreviated to "MS".
printing.
Skate The technique of gently pulling the wet ink from one stroke to create another stroke,
often a hairline.
RS
Decorative abbreviated strokes known as
"serifs"
styles
is
as
tall
as the
"Slanted" pen
position of the nib
A
is
Waistline
See headline.
relationship of a letter's nib width
Weight The
to
its
height The height of a minuscule letter, excluding the ascender and descender. Also known as "x height" or "body height".
height.
Spur
main
stroke.
Word
Stem
The main
vertical stroke ot a letter.
It
space
words.
Minuscule
Any
non-capital
can be drawn
at an angle for a slanted script, and can be the main diagonal stroke of the letter, as in and Z.
Zoomorphic decoration A
style
of decoration
123
Bibliography
Bibliography
The Decorated
Letter, J.J.G.
Bible,
Manuscripts hi Oxford
la
Exhibition, Edited
Library, Ox-ford,
by A.C. de 1980
British
Eyewitness Guide
Library,
London, 1993
The Golden Age of English Manuscript Painting 1200-1500, Richard Marks and Nigel Morgan/Book Club Associates. London, 1981
Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts, Michelle
P.
Writing,
Das
Schreib-Biichlein von
Thesauro de
Nattali
Scrittorio
1535,
Ugo
Edward Johnston,
originally published
1906, reprinted by A.
&
Yeandle/State
University.
New
York, 1992
to
1600, Michelle P.
The Booh ofKclls, Selected and introduced bv Peter Brown/Thames and Hudson, 1980 The Lindisfame Gospels, Janet Backhouse/Phaidon, Oxford. 1981
77ic Universal
Publications Inc..
The Art of Calligraphy, Western Europe and America, Joyce Irene Whalley/ Blooinsbury Books. London. 1980 The Story of Writing, Donald Jackson/Studio
Vista. 1981
Medieval Calligraphy, Its History and Technique, Associated Publishers Ltd.. London, 1980
Calligraphy:
Marc Drogin/George
Prior
Hie Art
of
Written Forms,
Donald M. Anderson/Dover
Publications Inc.,
New
York, 1992
Caller)'. St.
Ambrose
Italic Letter,
Kathryn A. Atkins/Penguin
Press.
London. 1988
The
Inc.,
Italic
London, 1991
Books of Hours and
Lettering
their
c.1930
Ornamental Alphabets and
Celtic
Initials,
124
Index
Brown, Denis,
11, 31
8-13
diamond,
letter
Ind ex
A
Adam
and Eve, 67
H
anatomy, 6
Haanes, Christopher, 95
hackle, letter anatomy, 6
brushes, 14
108
Durham
Gospels, 30
c
Cadeaux
history
see
anatomy, 6 anatomy, 6
Cadels
Eadfrith, Bishop,
ear, letter
hairline
tail,
letter
Alcuin of York, 9, 38
Cadels, 59, 94
Half Uncial:
Anglo-Saxon minuscules,
history
and development, 9
anatomy, 6
practical,
30
anatomy, 6
Cambrensis, Giraldus, 31
Cancellaresca Corsica see Italic
capital letter, letter
Early Gothic:
history and development, 9,
12
anatomy, 6
anatomy, 6
Halliday, Peter, 17
handmade
papers, 14,
47
Echternach Gospels, 30
English Bastard Secretary see
Imperial Capitals
Capitalis Quadrata see
Arts
Square
Bastard Secretary
95
ascender:
letter
Capitals
51
42
Etruscan alphabet, 8
anatomy, 6
90
Early Gothic and, 46, 47
35
height, 7
Exeter Book, 35
9,
ascender
line, letter
anatomy, 6
history
12,
Aubert, David, 71
Humanist
practical,
Capitals, 91
98-9
50,
Augustine,
St.,
24
practical, 7,
Humanist Minuscule,
fibre-tipped pens, 14
history
13,
94
Carstairs, Joseph,
Flamel, Jean, 81
flourish, letter
B
baseline, letter
Chancery, 66
anatomy, 6
practical,
92-3
anatomy, 6
78-9
foot, letter
anatomy, 6
Foundational Hand:
history
and development,
0,
Bastard Secretary:
history
42-3
practical,
90
44-5
brush strokes,
1 1
0-1
66-7
practical,
68-9
13,
fountain pens, 14
Fraktur, 67
history and development, 13,
construction, 112-19
history
13,
Batarde, 7, 11
history
and development,
Columba,
St.,
34
74-5
practical,
In
8,
70-1
practical,
"Command
72-3
of hand", 103
76-7
Copperplate, 10
history and development, 11,
Franciscus, Ricardus, 81
Froissart,Jean, 71
Froissart Chronicle,
6
Insular Display Capitals, history
Bede, Venerable, 34
70-1
and development, 13
Insular Majuscule:
90
Copperplate Capitals,
practical,
history
and development,
12,
Bernard,
Berry,
St.,
47
106-7
Gellone Sacramentary, 63
29-31
practical,
Due
de, 81
Corbie, 9
counter, letter anatomy, 6
cross stroke, letter
crossbar, letter
32-3
German
history
calligraphic revival,
Insular Minuscule:
anatomy, 6
and development, 13
Letter see Fraktur
history
12,
and development,
9,
anatomy, 6
German
Bobbio, 9
Cultural Decomposition, 31
Gill, Eric,
43
body
Gothic Capitals, 10
history and development,
Bonaventura,
66
and development, 12
curved stroke,
letter
interlaced patterning, 81
inter-letter space, letter
anatomy, 6
58-9
practical,
60-1
anatomy, 6
D
Dadd, Richard, 102 descender, letter anatomy, 6
descender
line, letter
Gothic
scripts, history
and
anatomy,
development,
9,
10
6
Iona,
34
9
bracketed
serif, letter
6
British calligraphic revival,
anatomy, 6
Irish scripts,
Italic:
history
and development,
13,
development of Western
script.
95
94-5 125
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Index
967 98-9
Capitals,
practical,
Italic Italic
manuscript sources, 7
Capitals, practical,
Manutius, Aldus, 95
Matth&us Evangelium, 75
Q
Quadrata
see
Textura Quadrata,
10,
94
Textura Quadrata
Swash
quill pens, 7,
14-15
and development,
2,
practical,
100-1
Maximilian, Emperor, 75
Meditations on the Life of
Christ,
50-1
practical,
52-3
anatomy, 6
108-9, 112
66
J
Jarrow, 25, 29 Jenson, Nicholas, 38, 90
Mercian prayer-book, 34
Merovingian
script,
R
Ramsey
Psalter,
tongue,
tools, 7,
letter
42-3
14-15
8,
Ratdolt, Erhard, 85
Trajan Column,
Treatise on
Jerome,
St.,
24, 31
reed pen, 14
Hawking, 94
Rochester Priory, 46
Trewhiddle, 35
turned foot,
letter
Roman
history
Imperial Capital, 7
anatomy, 6
anatomy, 6
and development, 8
scripts, history
development, 8
K
Kane Medieval Manuscript, 66 Kippax, W., 103 Koch, Rudolf, 11,74-5
Roman
and
origin,
24 47
development, 8
Moralia
in Job,
u
Uncials:
Moro, Francesco, 94
Morris, William, 43, 95
25
Rotunda:
history and development,
1 1
N
Larisch,
12,
84-5 86-7
Rudolf von,
11
practical,
upper-case
letter, letter
74,75
Gothic
Late Uncial, 25
New Roman
nibs,
Rotunda 88-9
Runic
Capitals, practical,
anatomy, 6
Cursive, history
Capitals, history
and development, 12
and
left-handed calligraphy, 7
14-15
development, 13
Rustic Capitals, 8
history and development, 13,
Vaast, St., 59
Lethaby,
W.R., 42
anatomy, 7
103
see
Niccoli, Niccolo, 94
V
Vatican Basilicanus, 38
16-17
letterpress printing,
Lettre
Boutguignonne
o
Old
English see Textura
practical,
18-19
Batarde
Lewis, James, 106
ligature, letter
Quadrata
La Vengeance de
71
history
la
Mort
Ihesa,
anatomy, 6
Lindisfarne,
29-31,34
St Ambrose, De
d',
Misteriis
I,
46
Orgemont, Guillaume
51
anatomy, 6
see
Ormesby
Psalter,
55
Vaast Bible, 59
Anliqua
Humanist
Minuscule
Liltera di
95
Monument, 108
Breva see
Italic
Schwabacher, 50, 67
papers, 14
history
16,21
and development,
Lombardic
history
13,
Capitals,
88
handmade, 47
Papyrus, 17
76-7
Sherbourne, Bishop, 51
"slanted" pens, 15
sources, 7
and development,
9,
12
parchment,
Patrick, St.,
7, 14,
20
practical,
64-5
anatomy, 6
29
anatomy,
6, 7
Lowe, Nicholas, 66
lower counter,
lower-case
letter
letter, letter
pattern books, 59
spring-loaded pens, 14
w
waistline, letter
anatomy, 6
letter letter
Square Capitals:
history
anatomy, 6
and development,
Waters, Sheila, 39
anatomy, 6
Luttrell Psalter,
13,20-1
practical,
55
Philip the
Good, Duke of
scripts,
22-3
Luxeuil, 9
Burgundy, 71
Phoenician
Phoenix,
Pliny, 10
1
"straight" pens, 15
and development, 12
stroke sequence, 7
Windmill
Psalter,
10,55
M
Macrobius, Ambrosius
Pointed Minuscule, 34
Poligny family, 70
Prescisus see Textura Prescisus
printing,
T
Tara brooch, 30
Textura Prescisus, 10, 50
history
Theodosius, 95
majuscule, letter anatomy, 6
103
see
,
X
x-height, letter anatomy, 6
x-line, letter
Proto-Gothic
Pugin,
Early Gothic
manipulated strokes,
1 1
A.W.N. 62
and development, 55
anatomy, 6
127
Acknowledgments
College. Dublin p30:
tl:
Acknowledgments
PICTURE CREDITS
Even'
effort has
T.ira
Brooch. National
tr /detail):
Museum
of
Ireland. Dublin: b.
Lindisfanie
t:
Pages 74-75: Fraktur & Schwabacher p74: d (detail): MS Lat 2 F384 v. Berlin.
Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin
Cospels F29
COTT
Nero
DIV
b:
f29,
BL p31:
MS
Pretiliischer Kulturbesitz
b:
COTT
been made to
trace the copyright
Cultural Decomposition,
landschrirtenabteiluug
pp74-75:
MS 64/35v
p75:
r,
eV
r
holders and
apologize in advance tor any would be pleased to unintentional omissions. insert the appropriate acknowledgment in any
we
We
Subsequent edition
ot* this
publication.
Andy Williams: a /detail): Bedes Commentary- on the Book of Proverbs. MS 819 folio 29/BO: kr, hcl /detail), b (detail): Royal 2 Axx fl7 Prayer-hook. English Mercian, lil p35:
tr:
am Main
Pages 80-81: Cadels
p80: D54/107 &380 Page de Garde. BN p81: /: MS Ashmolean 789 fol. 4v/BO; tr: Initial Letter, Speedball Textbook 1952. Ross F. George; br: An example ot
tine initials
Key:
I:
top b: bottom
c:
centre
r,
right
/:
left
/detail),
til,
bcl /detail):
Anglorum
COTT TIB CI
f5v. BL;
1
bcr.
Vie
84b.
Spirit
Abbreviations: AA: Ancient Art and Architecture Collection BL: By Permission of the British Library, London BN: C Cliche Bibliotheque Nationale de France. Paris
of Men
1.1-13
fol
in 1682.
George
BO: The
IK: Ikona.
Rome
VA: By Courtesy of the Hoard of Trustees of the Victoria and Albert Museum. London
Jacket: Calligraphy by Carol
Arch.
S. Pietro
D182
fol.
159v. Bascicicaims
tl:
D1S2
tl:
Kemp back
jacket:
Sally-Anne Reason: lr: Cloud Conceptionsfrom Above, 1st verse. Sheila Waters: b: Moatiev C.randval Bible
f.27r Verona Antiphoner. mid- 5th century, VA p85: /: L.2384-I9IO f.203r Epistle Book. Italian Book of Hours. VA; h: Sheet of printed Rotunda. Author's own copy-
p84:
Worksheet. Author's own copy: tr. Harl 2904 06, BL: re (detail): R-eid MS 64 f. 33, VA: />; Historia Ecclesiastics Gem's Anglomm, COTT
Add 4213
f 73. BL:
lr.
ADD/MS
10546 f 25 B-26, BL
Reid
TlbCUfSv.
Pages 2-3
p2: Rcid
14th
1(1
Pages 42-43: Foundational Hand p42: hi: I /detail): Harl 2904 201v, lil p43:
Worksheet. Author's
f96v-97r,
tl:
VA:
c.
b:
Petrarch's
own
copy:
tr:
Photograph of
Annotation. Author's
own copy
MS. 64 f. 33, VA p3: Met? Pontifical, early century. MS. 298X1 38v/FitzwiUiam Museum.
Edward Johnston. 1 lolbiirne Museum and Crafts Study Centre, Bath: b: Edward Johnston's Winchester Formal Writing Sheet C.778. Holburnc Museum and
Crafts Study Centre. Bath
Pages 94-95:
p94:
Page.
h:
Italic
MS
University of Cambridge
VA
p95:
Skrirt Katalog.
Christopher Haanes.
f.l
Oslo;
lr /detail):
MS
LI 769- 952
1
I3r.
VA;
b:
Lat
BO
BL
p46:
r.
Winchester Bible,
.\/.>m/r.r in Job.
A A:
C)07 6Bvl. BL
173.
p47: W:
Lib
XVII-XXXV. MS
tr:
lb 41. Bibliotheque
c. 122(1.
Municipale de Dijon;
Inc..
The
b: 77lf L'liit'ersal
Scriptorium
New York
New York
pl03:
I.
Tower of the Monastery of Tavara. The Pierpont Morgan Library. New York. M.429. f.lS3
Pages 8-11: The Development of Western Script r: Terracotta Marker, inscribed with Oscan script.
Italy.
Dover Publications
Pages 50-51: Textura Quadrata
p50: p51:
(>:
Inc..
New
b:
Met/
I
Pontifical, Early
Nth
century.
MS
298
I'l38v/Fitzwilliaiii
t,
Museum.
I
University of Cambridge
I
p8:
/detail):
Chichester Cathedral,
lenry VIII
The
Museum. London:
ot the
Lettering from
On
the Just
Shaping of Letters,
Inc..
b /detail):
Inscription
on the Base
p9:
f:
Traiana. Monti.
Rome/IK
Fotomas Index:
New
York:
MS
Raw]
liturg.e.
40
fol
40v/BO
Alcuin.
Mary Evans
Picture Library;
Msc.
I'atr.
f.lv. Staatsbibliothek
f.lv-2.
Bamberg plO: /detail): M 102. The Pierpont Morgan Library. New York: '>:
t
Appian Way: Inscription, De Luca, Rome IK pl09: t: Inscription on the Base of Colonna Traiana. Monti. Rome/IK; b: The Arch
c /detail):
Morgan
l54r/BO
I:
Add
New
cl /detail):
fol
Ms.Lat 9474.
BN: k
Phoenix. Denis
Brown. 1993
(detail):
p P 16-17:
\ 'ergilius
lr, I
/detail),
/detail):
1
VAT 3867
f.3v,
Pages 58-59: Gothic Capitals & Versals MS 2981. Sets of Capitals. Magdalene College, Cambridge p59: //. MS 55 G vol3 F52V. Bible of St.
p58:
Vaast. Bibliotheque Municipale d'Arras;
r (detail):
Cambridge
Kulturbesitz
Romanus
be:
Ecloga
c:
& 4,
Biblioteca
fo].62r,
MS
Special photography: Michael Dunning: p6: fi Peter Hayinan: pl7: bl
BO
pl7:
Eclogue VII. 43 x 31.5 cm, 1983, black ink on cream paper, translation by the scribe
Author's acknowledgments:
Pages 20-21: Square Capitals p20: I,: The Parchment Maker. Dover Publications
Inc..
p62:
/detail):
AAp63:
To my
and the
help
1
wife Nancy
who
corrected
my
manuscript pages.
the
To
Miss Pemberton
Liz
New
staff of the
York:
c:
pp20-21:
b /detail): Pontificia
/:
de Archeologia Sacra/IK
Pages 66-67: Bastard Secretary p66: a: Kane Medieval MS 21 folio 6r, Grcnvillc Kane Collection of Medieval Manuscripts, Manuscripts )ivision, )epartnient ot Rare Books and
I
beyond
call
of duty, and to
Brown and
stopped
finally
who
me
to family
and
friends
last
who
a little
with
me
over the
years.
Pages 24-25: Uncial & Artificial Uncial p24: r: MS E Museo 100 t7v/BO; b: Ceolfrid Bible. AA p25: t. b /detail): COTT VESP Al 30v-3l. BL Pages 28-31: Insular Majuscule p28: The Book of Rolls MS 58 fol. 40v, The Board
of Trinity College, Dublin p29: In /detail): The Book of Kells MS 58 fol. I79v, The Board of Trinity
ibraries:
W: E
MS
like to thank:
t,
c (detail):
Stephen Croucher. and Mark Johnson Davies for design assistance; Lol lenderson and Helen Castle for editorial assistance: Jo. Simon. Liz. and Louise for
I
Roy
16 Gill
IX.
Bl
their hands:
128