Values

Explanations > Values About values | Historical values | Research on values | So what? Values is a confusing word that often gets confused with 'value' as in the value you get from buying a cheap, but well-built house. Values are, in fact powerful drivers of how we think and behave.

About values
Value categories: different spheres into which we place values. Values, Morals and Ethics: splits hairs between these three rule-sets. Value of values: what are they for? Values types: there are two types of values: instrumental and end-state. Stress values: we use different values when we are under stress. Four Social Roles: Grid with four types of person. Organismic valuing: Rogers' valuing process. Spirituality: Higher integrity. The Development of Group Norms: How groups become one. Values Development (individuals): How individual people develop values. Vulnerability: Helping the vulnerable is a common value.

Historical values
American values: A list of traditional US cultural values. Aristotle's Ethics: Values from the classical world. Four Core Company Values: Used in business. Franklin's Thirteen Virtues: Ben Franklin's advice for good people. Nicomachean Ethics: Aristotle's masterwork. Prudentius' seven virtues: Source of Christian virtues. The Seven Deadly Sins: Pope Gregory's anti-list. The Seven Virtues: The counterpoint to the sins. The Ten Commandments: Basic Christian values.

Research on values
Career Anchors: identified by Edgar Schein as shapers of what we do. Governing Values: Common 'Model 1' modern values identified by Chris Argyris at Harvard. Argyris' Model 2 Governing Values: The ideal, as opposed to the common reality of Model 1. Five Common Human Concerns: Kohl's beliefs/concerns. Schwartz's Value Inventory: research-based set of common values. Values in Action (VIA): Values from Positive Psychology.

Values are also often a significant element of culture, where they form a part of the shared ruleset of a group. When I break my values, I will feel shame and guilt. If you break my values, I will feel repulsed. If I maintain my values when tempted to break them, I will feelpride.

So what?
Know the the values to which the other person will subscribe (these are often common sense) as well as the actual values they enact in practice (watch them for this). From this:

Beware of the values in practice which can be harmful to you (will they betray you?). Know the values that if you transgress will lead to betrayal responses from them. Find values that can act as persuasion levers.

If you act in a way which supports their values they will increase their trust in you.

See also
Social Norms, Guilt, Repulsion, Pride, Shame Kohlberg's Stage Theory, Preferences, Natural Selection Theories about conforming Theories about groups Theories about trust

Blogs by subject: Values

Value categories
There are a number of different categories into which values can be placed.

Personal values
Personal values are those you take for yourself and which constitute a critical part of your values and are apparent in attitudes, beliefs, and actions. Personal values may be prioritized, such as honesty then responsibility then loyalty and so on.

Social values
Social values are those which put the rights of wider groups of people first. This may include equality, justice, liberty, freedom, and national pride. These are often instilled into us when we were young.

Political values
Political values are ideological beliefs about the best way to govern a country or organization, for example through welfare, democracy and civic responsibility.

Economic values
Economic values are those around money, and may include beliefs around ownership of property, contributing to the common good (taxes!), the balance of supply and demand and so on.

Religious values
Religious values are spiritual in nature and include beliefs in how we should behave, including caring of one another and in worship of our deity or deities.

So what?
Understand how people hold values in these areas and respond accordingly. Do not cross their values lightly. Showing you have similar values will engender trust.

Values, morals and ethics

What are the differences between values, morals and ethics? They all provide behavioral rules, after all. It may seem like splitting hairs, but the differences can be important when persuading others.

Values
Values are the rules by which we make decisions about right and wrong, should and shouldn't, good and bad. They also tell us which are more or less important, which is useful when we have to trade off meeting one value over another. Dictionary.com defines values as: n : beliefs of a person or social group in which they have an emotional investment (either for or against something); "he has very conservatives values"

Morals
Morals have a greater social element to values and tend to have a very broad acceptance. Morals are far more about good and bad than other values. We thus judge others more strongly on morals than values. A person can be described as immoral, yet there is no word for them not following values. Dictionary.com defines morals as: n : motivation based on ideas of right and wrong

Ethics
You can have professional ethics, but you seldom hear about professional morals. Ethics tend to be codified into a formal system or set of rules which are explicitly adopted by a group of people. Thus you have medical ethics. Ethics are thus internally defined and adopted, whilst morals tend to be externally imposed on other people. If you accuse someone of being unethical, it is equivalent of calling them unprofessional and may well be taken as a significant insult and perceived more personally than if you called them immoral (which of course they may also not like). Dictionary.com defines ethics as: A theory or a system of moral values: An ethic of service is at war with a craving for gain"

The rules or standards governing the conduct of a person or the members of a profession. Ethics of principled conviction asserts that intent is the most important factor. If you have good principles, then you will act ethically. Ethics of responsibility challenges this, saying that you must understand the consequences of your decisions and actions and answer to these, not just your high-minded principles. The medical maxim 'do no harm', for example, is based in the outcome-oriented ethics of responsibility.

So what?
Understand the differences between the values, morals and ethics of the other person. If there is conflict between these, then they probably have it hidden from themselves and you may carefully use these as a lever. Beware of transgressing the other person's morals, as this is particularly how they will judge you. Talking about professional ethics puts you on a high moral platform and encourages the other person to either join you or look up to you.

See also
http://junior.apk.net/~qc/mind/value/ http://www.characterunlimited.com/character_ethics.htm

Value of values
Evolution
Values are one of the human ideas that has evolved alongside such skills as hunting in groups and living in tribes. It has proved useful and so has survived along with us. It may even be that we have the need for values programmed into us, just like the ability and urge to speak. Certainly, all people and groups have values, even though they may be different. The rules of street gangs may be harmful to others, but within the gang, heaven help anyone who transgresses their values.

Shared values
In social environments from families to companies, values, or norms, provide the unwritten rules which allow us to trust one another and work together. If we share values then we can predict one another's behaviors and thus feel safe and know what to do. Members of a group will thus share an often-unwritten set of values to which adherence is a condition for belonging to the group.

Right and wrong

Values is a confusing word that often gets confused with 'value' as in the value you get from buying a cheap, but well-built house (see Values types). Values are, in fact powerful drivers of how we think and behave. They tell us what is good and bad, right and wrong. They tell us the shoulds and shouldn'ts, musts and can'ts of life. They also help us decide which is more and less important.

Decision
Values thus help us make decisions. When we are formulating intent and choosing from alternatives, our values say 'that would help us reach our goals, but it would be socially unacceptable' and so we do not choose it. They also help us decide what is more or less important (which is necessary, as values often conflict with one another).

Evaluation
When we evaluate, we are using our values to judge a person or situation against our values, thus deeming it good or bad, right or wrong. Judging other people is a favorite pastime for many people, although the basis for this can be complex and based in our own damaged self-esteem. We also evaluate our own potential decisions as we weigh up what to do in various circumstances.

Justifying sacrifice
When I work late, help a stranger or otherwise give more than I need, the values that I have enable me to feel good about what otherwise might be seen as wasteful or pointless activity. Values create heroes, enabling the heroes to feel good about themselves. They also give reason for others to admire the person who stuck to their values even though it was clearly against their personal interests.

So what?
When you are talking about 'right and wrong' be sure that these are in the other person's values. Generally work from their values, not yours.

Also understand your and their decisions, and how you are filtering in and filtering out choices based on values. Spot these values by analyzing their decisions and evaluations. If you act in a way which supports their values they will increase their trust in you.

Values types
Instrumental values
Instrumental values are values which are instrumental in getting us to desired ends. They are useful only in that they are acceptable ways of behaving. These are what we often talk about when we discuss values -- and especially the related Morals and Ethics. Instrumental values thus moderate how we go about setting and achieving our goals, ensuring we do so only in ways which are socially acceptable. Instrumental values can be viewed as having 'evolved'. Thus they are the best values we can have to create successful societies. Values such as dishonesty and selfishness destroy societies and, especially in an evolutionary light, are not good for the future of mankind (let alone the groups of people with whom I interact). Examples of instrumental values include: honesty, politeness and courage.

End-state values
End-state values are things we actually value. This is where 'values' and 'value' meet, as we seek and value endstate values. They are the destination, whilst instrumental values control the journey there. Examples of end-state values include: happiness, salvation and prosperity.

So what?
When acting to achieve end-state values, ensure you use only instrumental values. As with other values, these are levers that can be used to move other people.

Stress values
When we are faced with a stressful situation our values may change. The problem comes when we have to reconcile these later, as we return to our normal values.

Values under stress

Under stress, our values may change. The state of arousal changes our brain chemistry and leads us to act in uncharacteristic ways.

Fight or flight
When we are affected by the Fight-or-Flight reaction, we unthinkingly may become aggressive, where values that normally would prevent us from hurting others are brushed aside by our fear and anger. The basic drive in the moment carries us away and we may seek to hurt others, either physically or psychologically.

Ethical dilemmas
Would you ever kill another person? What about if your life was threatened, or killing was the only way of protecting other people? Sometimes we consciously and deliberately act in ways we would not normally do, because to do otherwise would be to break an even more important value. Thus preserving life can be more important than taking life, particularly when numbers of people are involved or when we are preserving the lives of those we know and love. We are also driven by other fundamental needs over which we may have more or less conscious control. Notably, we seem to have less control over our sex drive than we might think, as the number of illicit affairs indicates.

The force of emotion

Emotions, whether they are aggressive or passionate in other ways, act as powerful drives of behavior, and we can act out of character when we are jealous,greedy or driven to other 'deadly sins'.

Reconciling afterwards
After we have cooled down and returned to our state of considering normal values, we have to handle the cognitive dissonance of knowing that we have acted outside those values. This gives us two choices.

Regret and reparation

One thing that can happen when we are faced with having broken our normal values is to feel regret and shame. We thus seek to repair the damage we have caused and to atone for our sins. Reparation will typically include apology and possibly other compensatory actions.

Justification and explanation

A problem with reparation is that, in seeking to repair our esteem, we may also end up damaging it by placing ourselves lower than others and opening ourselves to further demands for apology. We thus seek ways of explaining and justifying what we have done. There are a number of ways in which we handle discomfort about such things, for example by objectifying the other person, casting them as deserving the punishment we handed to them.

So what?
When you are stressed, be careful about the values you display in practice. And if you switch to stress values, watch out for justification afterwards. If you provoke others into reacting and then guide them into reparation afterwards, you may be able to make demands that they would not normally fulfill.

Four Social Roles

Explanations > Values > Four Social Roles Conformance | Role level | Four roles | See also

Social norms are the unwritten rules by which societies and groups behave in a consistent and predictable manner. Obedience to the rules is important and there are rules about how you should act, both in encouraging use of the rules and in punishing transgression of the rules. Here are two dimensions and four sub-dimensions of each dimension that indicate four distinct social roles for ensuring rules are followed.

Conformance
The conformance of any act or role is an assessment of how well (or not) any individual rule is obeyed.

Positive
Positive conformance is obedience of rules. It indicates that a person is doing as they should and acting within approved roles. In theory there should be reward for all positive acts of conformance. In practice, the reward is often nonpunishment and simply continuation of an 'approved person' status.

Negative
When a person does not conform to social norms then they are acting negatively and some form of punishment is required.

Role level
There are two levels in which people may act, depending on their involvement or not in conformance with the rule.

Primary role
In the primary role, the person is in the 'first person' position, enacting the rule or breaking the rule. The basic rule for primary roles is that positive conformance is rewarded and (negative) non-conformance is punished.

Secondary role
The secondary role is taken by all people who are not involved in the primary role. An important aspect of culture is that you are not allowed to sit on the fence. You have to respond to situations and non-response is considered itself as a transgression. The basic rule for secondary roles is hence that everyone should be involved in encouraging positive conformance and punishing negative conformance.

Four roles
From the above dimensions and sub-dimensions.

Conformance Four Social Roles Positive Negative

Primary Role Level Secondary

Hero

Villain

Supporter

Punisher

Hero
The hero is a person who conforms to social rules. The first benefit of this is that they are not punished as villains. Also, if their action is particularly selfless, supporting the group at a risk or cost to themselves, then they are seen as deserving reward. Heroes are hence held up as role models for others to emulate. This can become an extrinsic motivation as people deliberately act heroically in order to gain accolade and recognition. This is not necessarily a bad thing for the group as it still leads to rules being followed. A risk for heroics occurs where the identity-based drive for esteem and status leads to manipulated and foolish heroics where people create false situations and take risks that endanger others. If a person is found to be doing this, they may be reframed as a villain.

Villain
Villains are those who transgress social rules. There has to be consequences for such acts as without action it may encourage others to also break rules. The response to villainy may be proportionate to the act and also to the individual's history. Initially, the response may be corrective, especially for relatively minor transgressions. The person is reminded of the rules and educated as to how to behave correctly. Repeat offenders and those who break more serious rules are treated increasingly harshly, with open criticism and, eventually, expulsion from the group.

Punisher
An important rule about secondary roles is that everyone who is not in the primary role must be active in a secondary role. Hence if someone is villainous, it is imperative that all others engage in the response, whether it is simple criticism or more active punishment. If a person does not engage in punishment then they themselves become villains. Hence, for example, in a society where extra-marital sex is punished by stoning, other people are obliged to engage in the act of stoning, even if they personally find this abhorrent. Failure to do so may result in themselves also being stoned.

Supporter
When a hero performs a selfless act then they seen as deserving reward, with a right to accolades from others in the group. This is the role of the supporter, to encourage, support and celebrate heroes. As with the punisher, active support is an obligation for all who are not involved in the heroic acts. For example in wars, it is a social imperative that non-combatants should verbally and actively support people in military forces. To sit on the fence is to show disapproval and invite criticism.

So what?
If you want to be accepted in a social group, then you should not only obey the rules, but you need also to engage in criticizing villains and supporting heroes, even if you do not approve of the methods by which such actions are undertaken.

See also
Extrinsic Motivation

Organismic Valuing
Carl Rogers described our actualizing tendency as being an 'organismic valuing process', where we select goals based on our inner nature and purpose.

This process may include any of the following principles:

Authenticity: Getting away from defensive superficiality and being oneself. Autonomy: Moving away from what you 'should' to and making your own decisions. Internal locus of evaluation: Judgement based on one's own view, rather than seeking the approval of others. Unconditional positive self-regard: Judging and accepting yourself as valuable and worthwhile, including all thoughts and emotional reactions. Process living: Recognising that we are in a constant state of becoming and never reach a final end point. Relatedness: Seeking close and deep relationships where you can truly appreciate and understand other people. Openness to inner and outer experience: Being able to perceive and accept how others and oneself behaves and feels.

If the process of organismic valuing is continued over time then the person will become more closely aligned with their natural values. In doing so, they will become more relaxed and at ease with their life.

So what?
Use Rogers' methods and criteria to help set goals and align with your purpose. You can also, of course, facilitate others in this process.

See also
Alignment principle Rogers, C. R. (1964). Toward a modern approach to values: The valuing process in the mature person. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 68, 160-167.

Spirituality
What is spirituality?
Spirituality is an interesting phenomenon that is connected with both experience and how we behave.

Definition
Common words used in descriptions of spirituality include: integrity, alignment, contentment, harmony, love, compassion, concern, patience, tolerance, forgiveness, unity, piety, religious and connection. The detail of definitions vary but it seems spirituality includes some combination of inner harmony, concern for others and connection to a higher order.

The feeling of spirituality

Spirituality may be felt in both intense and calm ways that, paradoxically, may both be felt at the same time. Intensely, the body may tingle all over and a strong feeling of love experienced. It can seem as a natural 'high' and meaning may be found in the smallest of things. Spirituality may also be felt as a a deep calm, a lack of tension that is experienced as a complete harmony. When we lack tensions that distract us, perhaps we can experience greater things.

The appearance of spirituality

A person who is considered by others as spiritual often has an appearance of great calm and happiness. They may speak wise words and show deep concern for others and the world at large. Unsurprisingly, spirituality usually appears as a desirable state to other people, who may wish to associate with the spiritual person, perhaps in hope that they may somehow gain some of the benefits of this state. This attractiveness can make spiritual people effective leaders, although not all may desire a following. This benefit may also result in would-be leaders (including incults) to seek the appearance of spirituality.

Spirituality and science

The term spiritual implies connection with, or being like, a spirit. This takes the definition out of the scientific domain, which is concerned solely with the physical, natural world. Scientists would hence describe spirituality as super-natural and have no interest in it. Psychologists and phenomenologists, however, may show an interest as it is a described human experience. To measure it would first require a clear definition and then a questionnaire that was developed to give reliable and valid results.

Spirituality and religion

The 'spirit' in spirituality usually means it is closely related to religion, although being spiritual and being religious are not the same. A religious person follows the beliefs and codes of a defined religion. What is called 'religious experience' is connected with spirituality. This occurs where a person feels connected with God or another religious being, and may even see or converse with them. It is typically assumed that such experiences could only happen to highly spiritual people. Perhaps worryingly, people on drugs have reported similar experiences.

Three levels
Sheldrake (2007) links spirituality with values, defining it as the 'deepest values and meanings by which people live'. This provides a useful way of thinking about spirituality in terms of alignment with values. The three levels below can be thought of as circles that may be concentric or overlap. In a concentric sense, the personal spirituality is an inner core. If the circles overlap, then a person can have any or all of these qualities, with a sweet spot in the middle where they converge.

Personal spirituality
Personal spirituality is an internal state where the person is has a strong sense of alignment with their values and feels at one with their true self. One reason for the alignment is that their values are strongly held to the point where they would not consider transgressing them. Such a person may be considered to have high integrity. The lack of inner tension leads to a strong sense of calm and a clear certainty in thoughts and actions, even when others are uncertain or disagree.

Social spirituality
A person with social spirituality also has alignment with social norms, which typically are based in the sustaining of the local group and wider society through trust and concern for others. Aligning with social norms by definition makes a person good. A socially spiritual person is particularly attractive as the prosocial behavior creates a sense of safety and their attractiveness gives them a position of esteem. When aligned also with inner personal spirituality, the person has no need for others to stroke their identity which, paradoxically, serves to increase their attractiveness. This concern, attractiveness and lack of need for admiration can make the socially spiritual person an effective leader.

Universal spirituality
In an even wider sense, a person with universal spirituality feels connected with an external essence, whether that is a named deity or a general connection to humanity, nature or the universe. In such a sense, the person may feel themselves as a vessel or channel through which that greater force communicates or acts. In this way prophets and agents of change have added weight to their edicts by citing a higher purpose and authority.

So what?
Being spiritual is easier said than done, but if you want to change minds it can certainly help. It can also be constraining as being spiritual implies a certain self-denial. Also watch out for people who appear spiritual and seek to draw you into cult-like commitments. Just because they appear to be spiritual does not always mean they have your best interests at heart.

See also
Leadership Philip Sheldrake, P. (2007). A Brief History of Spirituality, Wiley-Blackwell

The Development of Group Norms

Norms and values generally develop within groups across a process that is described below.

1. Latent conflict
The process starts with an underlying issue which includes some form of conflict, for example between different interests within the group.

Example
In a college dorm, different sleeping patterns lead to an unspoken irritation when individuals are woken by others.

2. Triggering event
The unspoken conflict or problem continues for a while until some event occurs which brings it to the fore, turning from an unspoken to a spoken issue that needs resolving.

Example
A student in the dorm who goes to bed early has been woken often at night by others and becomes irritable, eventually exploding in a whole tirade against one of the culprits.

3. Opposing debate
Once the issue is in the open, there is public debate, quite possibly with people choosing sides and taking positions for and against various solutions.

Example
Students who go to bed early want a curfew. Those who get up late want early rises to go and work in the library or just be quiet.

4. Emerging consensus
With discussion and eventual understanding of the broader problem, a workable solution gradually emerges. This may be facilitated by people acting as leaders or social mediators.

Example
The students agree that sleep is important for everyone, especially with exams coming up. They agree a 'quiet time' at either end of the day, from 10pm to 10am.

5. General adoption
With the solution agreed, the rule is generally adopted by all. There may be some transgressions which may cause revision of rules or punishment of some kind for the offenders.

Example
Now and again people come in drunk or are a bit noisy clattering around in the sleepy morning. The offenders are spoken to by one of the group social leaders and subsequently apologize.

6. Social propagation
The rule is not written down, so it has to be taught verbally to new people. This is typically done by transgressors being taken aside and quietly told something like 'you don't do that around here'.

Example
A new person arrives in the dorm and arrives noisily back from a night out. The next day one of the dorm members tells them in a friendly way about the ten-to-ten quiet rule.

So what?
Watch for underlying things that may become norms. You can force the issue by causing a triggering event and then facilitate the process towards a norm that makes best sense.

See also
Values Development (individuals)

Values Development
We are not born with values, so how do people develop their values? There are three periods during which values are developed as we grow.

Periods of development
Sociologist Morris Massey has described three major periods during which values are developed.

The Imprint Period

Up to the age of seven, we are like sponges, absorbing everything around us and accepting much of it as true, especially when it comes from our parents. The confusion and blind belief of this period can also lead to the early formation of trauma and other deep problems. The critical thing here is to learn a sense of right and wrong, good and bad. This is a human construction which we nevertheless often assume would exist even if we were not here (which is an indication of how deeply imprinted it has become).

The Modeling Period

Between the ages of eight and thirteen, we copy people, often our parents, but also others. Rather than blind acceptance of their values, we are trying them on like a suit of clothes, to see how they feel. At this age we may be much impressed with religion or our teachers. You may remember being particularly influenced by junior school teachers who seemed so knowledgeable--maybe even more so than your parents.

The Socialization Period

Between 13 and 21, we are very largely influenced by our peers. As we develop as individuals and look for ways to get away from the earlier programming, we naturally turn to people who seem more like us. Other influences at these ages include the media, especially those parts which seem to resonate with our the values of our peer groups.

Becoming principled
It's tough to have high moral values, but some people get there.

Pre-moral
In the pre-moral state, we have no real values (we are thus 'amoral'). Young children are premoral. So also are psychopaths. Our basic nature tells us to be Machiavellian, doing whatever it takes to achieve our goals, even if it means hurting other people.

Conventional
Most people have conventional values, as learned from their parents, teachers and peers. These basically say 'here are the rules to live in reasonable harmony with other people.' The bottom line of this state is that we will follow them just so long as we think we need to. We will break our values occasionally, and especially if our needs are threatened or we are pretty sure we can get away with breaking values with nobody else knowing about it.

Principled
When we are truly principled, we believe in our values to the point where they are an integral and subconscious part of our person. Right and wrong are absolute things beyond the person, for example as defined by a religion. The test of a principled person is that they will stick to their values through thick and thin, and even will sacrifice themselves rather than break their principles. Many great leaders were principled (Martin Luther King, Gandhi, etc.).

So what?
If you can understand how people's values develop, then you can guide the process. This is well understood by dictators and religious sects around the world. Dictators regularly take over the education system and brainwash the children in their ideals. An old Jesuit saying is not that far off: 'Give me the child and I will give you the man.' Being principled is a very powerful method of influence. But beware: this is a one way street -- it also means there are many things you cannot do.

See also
Learning stage theories, The Development of Group Norms

Vulnerability and Values

Description
When we are choosing and prioritizing values, in particular when the values affect other people, a common criterion is the vulnerability of those people in question. There are two primary values that are common across cultures:

1. Do no harm: Do not use your superior strength or ability to harm the vulnerable. 2. Actively help: You should positively act to help vulnerable people where they are in need of assistance.
These may be applied in two situations, which correlate with the two primary values above:

1. Relational: When interacting directly with the vulnerable person, you should not harm them. 2. Situational: When you are a bystander and the vulnerable person needs assistance, you should help them. This includes: (a) Defensive: When the vulnerable person is being abused by another person. (b) Natural: Where the person is in difficulties with something in their general environment.
As with all values, there is also a social rule that violators should be punished. With strong values such as those around vulnerable people, it also becomes an imperative that everyone should be actively involved in the punishment. To sit on the sidelines is seen to condone the action of the perpetrator. There are four classic groups of vulnerable people who are affected by this:

Children: Who are smaller, innocent and understand less.

Elderly: Who are physically frail and may be cognitively fading. Disabled: Who have particular aspects where they have difficulties. Women: Who are physically weaker than men.

Other groups who may be affected include:

Destitute: Those who have no money or home. Weaker: Those who are not disabled but who are shorter, weaker and otherwise less able to defend themselves physically. Outcasts: Those who are reviled for some aspect of their person, including sexual and religious preferences. Minorities: Any small group within a bigger group.

Example
A company has a strong policy on equality that goes beyond legislated requirements. This helps make the organization appear 'good' and attracts employees with strong integrity who also work hard to help with company success. A man slaps a woman in public. Another man nearby steps in to defend the woman, standing in front of her and readying to fight. He feels this is his duty, even though he is putting himself at risk. A person in a wheelchair asks for help from a stranger in getting through a door. The stranger hurries to help.

Discussion
When two people interact, there is always a difference in power, such that one person is, to some degree, more vulnerable. Vulnerability values help compensate for this difference by restricting the actions of the more powerful person, particularly if the less vulnerable person falls into one of the four main categories above. It is perhaps not surprising that there are significant laws and policies to protect the vulnerable. In organizations, this includes protection for employees who may be harassed by those in power above them. The first vulnerability value, to 'do no harm' is relatively easy to comply with, as it is a passive act that only requires self-control. For example where a teacher holds back his anger when a child has misbehaved. The second vulnerability value, to 'actively help' can be harder as it takes time and may lead to embarrassment or even putting oneself in harm's way to protect the vulnerable. While we may instinctively do this for our own family, it can be a difficult choice to put oneself out for a stranger. There is a danger that vulnerable people who understand this value may take excessive advantage of it, trying to force others to help them when they could perhaps be more independent and do things for themselves. Children, for example, naturally appeal to the 'nurturing parent' in adults for help, even when the child is older. Other groups may also play to their weakness, even to the point of being explicit about this ('You can't touch me, I'm ...'). This seems selfish as witnesses to this abuse of rights may be motivated to avoid helping other vulnerable people in the future.

So what?
If you are vulnerable, ask for support rather than hoping someone will help. Values will force others to give you the assistance you need. It can also help to band together with other vulnerable people. If you have power, beware of using this to harm vulnerable people in any way as this may result in a wider majority castigating you for you abuse. If you are persuading, then be particularly careful with vulnerable groups and individuals. It is easy for what seems like a normal persuasive approach to appear as taking advantage of the vulnerable person and so result in you being socially punished. If you want to publicly criticize another person, you may be able to find where they have abused vulnerable people or at least been less than helpful.

See also
Powerlessness, Transactional Analysis

Historical values
American values: A list of traditional US cultural values. Aristotle's Ethics: Values from the classical world. Four Core Company Values: Used in business. Franklin's Thirteen Virtues: Ben Franklin's advice for good people. Nicomachean Ethics: Aristotle's masterwork. Prudentius' seven virtues: Source of Christian virtues. The Seven Deadly Sins: Pope Gregory's anti-list. The Seven Virtues: The counterpoint to the sins. The Ten Commandments: Basic Christian values.

American Values
An early study, based on an investigation into political speeches, was published in 1961 by Edward Steele and Charles Redding that identified a set of archetypical American values.

Puritan and pioneer morality

The world is made up of people who are good and bad, foul and fair. You are either one of the good guys or you are one of the bad guys. If you are not with us, you are against us.

Value of the individual

The individual has rights above that of general society and government. Success occurs at the level of the individual. People should not have to fight for their rights. The government should protect the rights of the individual, not the other way around.

Achievement and success

Success is measured by the accumulation of power, status, wealth and property. What you already have is not as important as what you continue to accumulate. A retired wealthy person was successful, but is now less admirable.

Change and progress

Change is inevitable. Progress is good and leads to success. If you do not keep up, you will fall behind. Newer is always better. The next version will be better than the last.

Ethical equality
All people are equal, both spiritually and in the opportunities they deserve. This includes differences in race, gender, disability, age, sexual preference and so on.

Effort and optimism

Hard work and striving is the key to success. The great American Dream of fame and fortune comes to those who work hard and never give up.

Efficiency, practicality and pragmatism

Solution is more important than ideology. Utility is more important than show. A key question to any idea is 'Will it work?'

So what?
Are these values still apparent? Values change very little. If you think they do, then this may give you an insight into how to communicate effectively with Americans. If you embody these values, they are more likely to look up to you. If you appeal to these values, they are likely to buy into your message. If you think this is a damn fine set of values, they are probably your values -- and maybe you are an American (or at least you will easily agree with a lot of Americans).

See also
Culture Steele, E.D. and Redding, W.C. (1962). The American Value System: Premises for Persuasion, Western Speech, 26, 83-91

Aristotle's Ethics
Aristotle made note (and Plato agreed) that moral virtue is about the exercise of control over natural feelings, and that good values is indicated through the use of good judgment in finding an effective balance between extremes. Aristotle thus had a personal value of moderation. In his Nicomachean Ethics, he gave examples:

VICE (Defect) Cowardice (too little confidence) Foolhardiness (too little fear) Insensibility (too little pleasure) Meanness or Stinginess (too little giving) Niggardliness (in giving out large sums of money) Undue Humility (too little honor) Inirascibility (too little anger) Shamelessness (too little shame) Surliness

VIRTUE (Mean) Courage Courage

VICE (Excess) Rashness (too much confidence) Cowardice (too much fear)

Temperance Self-indulgence (too much pleasure) Liberality Prodigality or Wastefulness (too much giving)

Magnificence Tastlessness and Vulgarity (giving out large sums) Proper Pride Empty Vanity (too much honor) Good Temper Irascible (too much anger) Modesty Bashfulness (too much shame) Friendliness Flattery

So what?
If you want to be like Aristotle, be moderate. More generally, moderation is a pretty good guide to acceptable behavior.

See also
Nicomachean Ethics

Four Core Company Values

If you were going to set four core values for an organization, what would they be? Here is one possible set. In summary, Contribution is a powerful and ever-present guiding value that works well as a primary driver. Understanding and knowledge is a core competence of many companies. Collaboration turns this into a joint affair and moderates selfishness. Integrity brings it all together in the individual.

Contribution
At the end of each day, we ask ourselves: What did I contribute today? When looking ahead, we seek ways that will contribute most. We can contribute on many levels, to society, customers, company, team, product and service. We contribute through our daily jobs and also through improving our approaches and adding to the bigger picture. With attention to detail, we produce consistently high quality results. With flexibility and innovation, we produce new value.

Understanding
We develop a deeper understanding of business and of people in order to work better together and maximize our total contribution. It is not enough to 'know', we must also understand. If we do not understand, how can we contribute? And if we understand well, we can contribute so much more. To achieve this, understanding is important for each of us. To contribute more we must understand our business and our customers. To collaborate well we must understand ourselves and each other. Going beyond ignorance and assumption means we have a learning approach, always seeking to understand better.

Collaboration
Through collaboration we multiply our contribution.

Together, we are stronger and can contribute more. Shared goals and mutual support lead to greater success than isolated work and individual focus. Trust and care are important for collaboration. Without trust, we waste time waiting and chasing one another. Without personal care, one person may gain but at a cost to others, leading to a net loss of contribution.

Integrity
Underpinning all our work, we think and act with integrity. To achieve the above requires personal and collective integrity. Our brand is both fragile and powerful and requires our constant attention. We take to heart our values, vision and mission. We are honest, reliable and caring in our dealings with other people, both within the organization and with customers and others stakeholders. Who we are is what our company is.

So what?
Review these, think about them, decide what works for you and adopt/adapt for your organization.

See also
American values The original HP Way

Franklin's Thirteen Virtues

When Benjamin Franklin was 20, he wrote a 13-point plan for how he would live his life. It was so successful that he stuck to it for many years. He would focus on one point each week, such that he would cycle through the whole set once every 13 weeks and four times per year. He kept track of progress with a chart in which he would put a red dot for each fault against each virtue committed that day. These are a set of values he defined in 1741, in his own words (plus his added commentary).

Temperance. Eat not to dullness; drink not to elevation. Silence. Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself; avoid trifling conversation. Order. Let all your things have their places; let each part of your business have its time. Resolution. Resolve to perform what you ought; perform without fail what you resolve. Frugality. Make no expense but to do good to others or yourself; i.e., waste nothing. Industry. Lose no time; be always employ'd in something useful; cut off all unnecessary actions. Sincerity. Use no hurtful deceit; think innocently and justly, and, if you speak, speak accordingly. Justice. Wrong none by doing injuries, or omitting the benefits that are your duty. Moderation. Avoid extreams; forbear resenting injuries so much as you think they deserve. Cleanliness. Tolerate no uncleanliness in body, cloaths, or habitation. Tranquillity. Be not disturbed at trifles, or at accidents common or unavoidable. Chastity. Rarely use venery but for health or offspring, never to dulness, weakness, or the injury of your own or another's peace or reputation. Humility. Imitate Jesus and Socrates.
"It may be well my posterity should be informed that to this little artifice, with the blessing of God, their ancestor ow'd the constant felicity of his life, down to his 79th year, in which this is written. What reverses may attend the remainder is in the hand of Providence; but, if they arrive, the reflection on past happiness enjoy'd ought to help his bearing them with more resignation. To Temperance he ascribes his long-continued health, and what is still left to him of a good constitution; to Industry and Frugality, the early easiness of his circumstances and acquisition of his fortune, with all that knowledge that enabled him to be a useful citizen, and obtained for him some degree of reputation among the learned; to Sincerity and Justice, the confidence of his country, and the honorable employs it conferred upon him; and to the joint influence of the whole mass of the virtues, even in the imperfect state he was able to acquire them, all that evenness of temper, and that cheerfulness in conversation, which makes his company still sought for, and agreeable even to his younger acquaintance. I hope, therefore, that some of my descendants may follow the example and reap the benefit. "In this piece it was my design to have endeavored to convince young persons that no qualities were so likely to make a poor man's fortune as those of probity and integrity.

"My list of virtues contain'd at first but twelve; but a Quaker friend having kindly informed me that I was generally thought proud; that my pride show'd itself frequently in conversation; that I was not content with being in the right when discussing any point, but was overbearing, and rather insolent, of which he convinc'd me by mentioning several instances; I determined endeavouring to cure myself, if I could, of this vice or folly among the rest, and I added Humility to my list. "In reality, there is, perhaps, no one of our natural passions so hard to subdue as pride. Disguise it, struggle with it, beat it down, stifle it, mortify it as much as one pleases, it is still alive, and will every now and then peep out and show itself; you will see it, perhaps, often in this history; for, even if I could conceive that I had compleatly overcome it, I should probably be proud of my humility."

So what?
So if you live your life by these, you will probably be considered to be a good person by many others. You will probably also be a saint. In persuasion, take note of them: if you shows these values, you are more likely to be trusted. You are also likely to trust others who demonstrate these values.

See also
The Seven Virtues

Nicomachean Ethics
The Greep Philosopher Aristotle wrote a great work in ten books, Nicomachean Ethics in which he expounds on a set of values.

Book 1: The study of the good

Aristotle defined goal-directed (teleological) ethics in terms of purpose and achievement of those ends. Thus a sword that has the purpose of killing is a good sword if it achieves this well. In this sense, Aristotle translates 'good' as 'effective'. The definition allows also allows for the separation out of virtue, or 'character-centered' ethics, in which ethics are based in the person and their innate character. Thus we can talk about a 'good' person. For a happy life, Aristotle says you need health, good fortune and a good character. He also highlights rational choice: a person is not just innately good, but alsodecides to be good.

Book 2: Moral virtue

What Aristotle classified as moral virtues are most closely aligned with Western, Christian-based virtues, such as the Seven Virtues, and likely have similar roots. For moral virtues, he named:

Courage: Overcoming fear to to what is right. Temperance: Acting in moderation in all things. Liberality: Being moderate in money matters, including using, borrowing and lending. Magnificence: Making fair use of wealth or power. Pride: Claiming what is yours by right. Gentleness: With a slow recourse to anger. Agreeableness: Being pleasant with all people. Truthfulness: In all things. Wit: Intelligence and humor.

Note how pride was considered a virtue, yet in a Christian setting became one of the Seven Deadly Sins. Perhaps these are two ends of the same spectrum: One can be justly proud of one's achievements whilst excessive pride puts oneself too far above others. In all things, Aristotle generally preached moderation, finding the mean between extremes.

Book 3: Courage and temperance

Aristotle described actions as voluntary, involuntary and nonvoluntary. Praise and blame are given for voluntary actions. Other actions may be admired or pitied. When a person does something wrong by accident and apologizes, then the act is involuntary. If they are not sorry or ashamed, then the act is called non-voluntary. He describes courage as overcoming fears such as death in battle. Temperance is described as not indulging oneself, not acting like a spoiled child.

Book 4: Other virtues

Other virtues described include liberality, amiability, sincerity, wit, and modesty.

Magnanimity is seen as as being layered on top of other virtues and based in understanding them both in oneself and others. Virtues generally are seen as a relative thing, and a 'good' person is only so in relation to others who who are better or worse.

Book 5: Justice
Aristotle saw justice as the cornerstone of society and, to be dispensed well, requires a very strong understanding of the other virtues. He describes general justice as the simple compliance or non-compliance with stated laws. More complex is particular justice, which deals with situations where a person achieves a gain which appears excessive and hence may be considered unfair. These vices thus lead to 'unjust profits'. Particular justice includes fair distribution of goods and righting situations where individuals have been wronged.

Book 6: Intellectual virtue

In complement to moral virtues, intellectual virtues are attributes of intelligence, and Aristotle defined five:

Knowledge: The accumulation of fact. Art: The appreciation and creation of art. Prudence: Discretion and foresight in practical affairs. Intuition: Knowing without conscious thinking. Wisdom: Knowing what is right.

Book 7: Evil and pleasure

Aristotle describes three types of evil in a person's character:

Vice: Extremes of behavior that are based in selfishness. Incontinence: Understanding ethics but not exercising this. Brutality: Physical threat or assault of others.

He also noted that some pleasures are good whilst others are not, and that pleasure is an outcome of actions.

Books 8 and 9: Friendship

Just as exercising virtues improves the self, so also can friendship. Aristotle identifies three types of friendship:

Friendship of utility: A relationship of convenience. Friendship of pleasure: Delight in the company of another. Friendship of the good: Enjoyment of one another's character.

Book 10: Pleasure and politics

Aristotle describes politics and ethics as virtually the same thing, and that politics is effectively ethics 'writ large', typically at the national or international level. Politics should thus be an honorable profession, befitting great people of noble stature.

So what?
Use principles that Aristotle understood so long ago, for example seeking the friendship of good that delights in the company and personality of others.

See also
Aristotle's Ethics, The Seven Virtues, The Seven Deadly Sins

Prudentius' seven virtues

Aurelius Clemens Prudentius identified seven virtues in his 'Psychomachia' ('Battle for the Soul'), written in AD 410. These were later were adapted by the Christian church.

1. Chastity (opposite of Lust): Seeking moral wholesomeness and purity of body and thought through education and general betterment. 2. Temperance (opposite of Gluttony): Practicing self-control, abstention and moderation. 3. Charity (opposite of Greed): Giving to the needy. Nobility in thought and action. 4. Diligence (opposite of Sloth): Zeal and care in action. Working hard to create valuable achievement. 5. Patience (opposite of Wrath): Holding back anger, forgiving and showing mercy. Seeking peace over conflict.

6. Kindness (opposite of Envy): Compassion support of others without seeking reciprocation. 7. Humility (opposite of Pride): Modesty and selflessness. Respecting others and giving, rather than taking, credit.

So what?
If the Romans could do it, perhaps you could too. Or maybe you can also help others think about these.

See also
Aristotle's Ethics, The Seven Virtues

The Seven Deadly Sins

Sins have always been popular areas of focus in the church. An early 2nd century document, the Didache, contains a list of five. Origen produced a sevenfold list and at the end of the 4th century Cassian amended this sevenfold list. Eventually, the Seven Deadly Sins (or Vices) we know today were defined in the 6th century by Pope Gregory the Great, as a set of negative values: the values that you are supposed to adopt is that you will avoid these things and actually adopt their opposites.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Pride is an excessive belief in one's own abilities. Envy is wanting what others have, be it status, abilities, or possessions. Gluttony is the desire to eat or consume more than you require. Lust is a powerful craving for such as sex, power and money. Anger is the loss of rational self-control and the desire to harm others. Greed is the desire for material wealth or gain. Sloth is laziness and the avoidance of work.

Note how many of these are very similar: envy, gluttony, lust and greed are all about desire. There is also a hidden lack of concern for others in at least envy and anger. As with other religious rule-sets, these pretty much hit the nail on the head in terms of a system for social harmonization or social control (depending on your viewpoint). Few people will openly admit to any of them (which attests to the success in the inculcation of these as anti-values in the Christian world). The number seven, by the way, is not only a cabbalistic magical number, it also just happens to be the size of our short-term memory, which is a real limit to the number of things we can hold in mind at one time.

So what?
Do not demonstrate these values yourself. Suggest that the other person is succumbing to one or more of these values and they will likely head in the opposite direction. Another approach is to play the Devil and encourage the other person to give in to these natural tendencies. You can then either use this 'rule-breaking' as evidence that they can do things they previously would not consider. You can even use it then as a guilt lever, maybe even as a form of blackmail (this is far more common than may be supposed).

See also
The Ten Commandments, The Seven Virtues, Attraction-avoidance, Greed http://www.whitestonejournal.com/seven/, http://deadlysins.com/

The Seven Virtues

When Pope Gregory defined the seven deadly sins that we should avoid, he also included a counter-balancing set of values that we should espouse and adopt. These are:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Faith is belief in the right things (including the virtues!). Hope is taking a positive future view, that good will prevail. Charity is concern for, and active helping of, others. Fortitude is never giving up. Justice is being fair and equitable with others. Prudence is care of and moderation with money.

7. Temperance is moderation of needed things and abstinence from things which are not needed.
The first three of these are known as the Spiritual Virtues, whilst the last four are called the Chief or Natural Virtues. The Natural Virtues had already been defined by Greek philosophers, whilst the Spiritual Virtues are a slight variation on St. Paul's trio of Love, Hope and Faith (due to variation in translation from the original: Charity and Love arguably have a high level of overlap). There are also a number of other sets of virtues, including:

The Seven Contrary Virtues which are specific opposites to the Seven Deadly Sins: Humility against pride, Kindness against envy, Abstinence against gluttony, Chastity against lust, Patience against anger, Liberality against greed, and Diligence against sloth. The Theological Virtues: Love, Hope and Faith, as defined by St. Paul (who placed love as the greatest of them all). The four Cardinal Virtues: Prudence, Temperance, Courage and Justice. The Seven Heavenly Virtues: Faith, Hope, Charity, Fortitude, Justice, Temperance, Prudence. The Seven Corporal Works of Mercy are a medieval list of things you can do to help others: feed the hungry, give drink to the thirsty, give shelter to strangers, clothe the naked, visit the sick, minister to prisoners, and bury the dead. The Seven Bushido Virtues: Right decisions, Valor, Benevolence, Respect, Honesty, Honor, and Loyalty.

So what?
If you follow the virtues, you will be seen as a good person who is to be trusted. If you assume and act as if others follow the virtues, then they are more likely to do so. You can also be seen as being bold and daring if you break the virtues. Many modern groups (most notably youth) deliberately form their own identity by going against the values of others, so be aware of the other person's real values.

See also
The Ten Commandments, The Seven Deadly Sins, Hope http://www.newadvent.org/summa/3.htm, http://www.takase.com/MartialArts/Bushido/Bushido.htm, http://www .utm.edu/research/iep/v/virtue.htm,http://www.virtualsalt.com/think/xtrseven.htm

The Ten Commandments

One of the oldest and most commonly adopted set of values that have held together communities for thousands of years are the ten commandments. They are not even Christian, going back to Moses, who went up Mount Sinai and came down with these basic rules for peaceful living.

1. I am the Lord your God Who has taken you out of the land of Egypt, from the house of slavery. 2. You shall have no other gods but me. 3. You shall not take the name of your Lord in vain. 4. You shall remember and keep the Sabbath day holy. 5. Honor your father and mother. 6. You shall not kill. 7. You shall not commit adultery. 8. You shall not steal. 9. You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor. 10. You shall not covet your neighbor's goods. You shall not covet your neighbor's house. You shall not covet your neighbor's wife, nor his manservant, nor his maidservant, nor his bull, nor his donkey, nor anything that is your neighbor's.
Very few people brought up around the Christian/Old Testament tradition will disagree with these values even if they are not God-fearing church-goers. The whole of the Western society is permeated with these rules.

Note also that these values are elsewhere than just Christian Bible: they are found in the Jewish Torah the Moslem Koran.

So what?
Beware of transgressing these rules. In fact in most cases you are unlikely to come anywhere near any of them except the last two or three. If you live by the rules, then You can also use them as levers, for example pointing out that it is not a good idea to tell tales about you. If the other person is a professed Christian, then you can be more direct, perhaps even bringing them up. You might impress them with your knowledge of biblical matter (few but the most devout can recite all ten commandments).

See also
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_Commandments

Research on values
Career Anchors: identified by Edgar Schein as shapers of what we do. Governing Values: Common 'Model 1' modern values identified by Chris Argyris at Harvard. Argyris' Model 2 Governing Values: The ideal, as opposed to the common reality of Model 1. Five Common Human Concerns: Kohl's beliefs/concerns. Schwartz's Value Inventory: research-based set of common values. Values in Action (VIA): Values from Positive Psychology.

Schein's Career Anchors

Edgar Schein at MIT has identified eight themes and has shown that people will have prioritized preferences for these. For example a person with a primary theme of Security/Stability will seek secure and stable employment over, say, employment that is challenging and riskier. People tend to stay anchored in one area and their career will echo this in many ways.

Technical/Functional competence
This kind of person likes being good at something and will work to become a guru or expert. They like to be challenged and then use their skill to meet the challenge, doing the job properly and better than almost anyone else.

General Managerial competence

Unlike technical/functional people, these folks want to be managers (and not just to get more money, although this may be used as a metric of success). They like problem-solving and dealing with other people. They thrive on responsibility. To be successful, they also need emotional competence.

Autonomy/Independence
These people have a primary need to work under their own rules and steam. They avoid standards and prefer to work alone.

Security/Stability
Security-focused people seek stability and continuity as a primary factor of their lives. They avoid risks and are generally 'lifers' in their job.

Entrepreneurial Creativity
These folks like to invent things, be creative and, most of all, to run their own businesses. They differ from those who seek autonomy in that they will share the workload. They find ownership very important. They easily get bored. Wealth, for them, is a sign of success.

Service/Dedication to a cause
Service-oriented people are driven by how they can help other people more than using their talents (which may fall in other areas). They may well work in public services or in such as HR.

Pure Challenge
People driven by challenge seek constant stimulation and difficult problems that they can tackle. Such people will change jobs when the current one gets boring and their career can be very varied.

Lifestyle

Those who are focused first on lifestyle look at their whole pattern of living. They not so much balance work and life as integrate it. They may even take long periods off work in which to indulge in passions such as sailing or traveling.

So what?
So find the other person's career anchor and priorities and then pitch your persuasion in the right direction.

See also
http://web.mit.edu/scheine/www/home.html

References
Schein, Edgar H, (1990). Career Anchors (discovering your real values), Jossey-Bass Pfeiffer, San Francisco

Argyris' Model 2 Values

Chris Argyris at Harvard identified four common values that drive people that he called the Model 1 Theory-inuse, to differentiate it from the more saintly Espoused Theory where which we tell other people (and ourselves) how wonderful we are. He consequently described a Model 2, as discussed here, with an alternative set of values that are more selfless and lead to a better way of behaving that is nearer to an honest espoused theory.

Valid information
We should base our decisions on information that is relevant to the situation and which is as full and correct as possible. Any omissions and limitations are understood and taken into account. If plans are based on invalid information, then everything else will be invalid, including decisions, communications and actions. We hence need to invest up-front to get valid information rather than base decisions on hearsay, opinion or limited data.

Free and informed choice

When we make decisions, it should be without explicit or implicit pressure from others. The decision should be based on the valid information available rather than social reasons such as avoiding criticism or avoiding harm to others. In practice this can be very difficult as organizations are social institutions staffed with people who have their own desires and agendas that may well not align well with higher strategies and decisions of the organization.

Internal commitment to choices

When we make decisions, this should not be lip-service. We should believe that they are valid and good decisions, and that we should actively pursue the consequent actions. When people are truly committed to decisions, they will naturally act on them with passion and energy, as opposed to half-hearted efforts that can easily fail through a simple lack of commitment. This is true also of group decisions and where a leader makes a decision that requires others to act. If they can show that this was an informed decision, based on valid information, then they have a far greater chance of gaining the commitment of others than if the decision appears to be self-serving or based on weak data.

Constant monitoring
Even when we make commitment to good choices, it is easy for actions to be less than is needed to make things work in practice. As a result, we should be careful to ensure implementation of sound choices is executed correctly. Monitoring should also follow the Model 2 values, being done in a way that provides valid information about how things are going and leads to sensible course corrections that are followed through to make things work better.

So what?
Try to follow these values yourself and encourage them in others. Particularly if business people follow these, they will end up with a lot more success. They may seem obvious, but they are not common. A reason for this is that it requires a collaborative culture where people feel open enough to allow difference of opinion and where high integrity is valued over shorter-term personal gain.

See also
Argyris' Governing Values, Consistency Theory, Decisions

References
Argyris, C. and Schon, D. A. (1996), Organizational Learning II, Reading, Mass: Addison Wesley

Five Common Human Concerns

Kohls (1981) identified five common human concerns, plus three possible responses to each one, based on the Value Orientations of Kluckhohn, and Strodtbeck (1961).

Concern Human Nature What is the basic nature of people? Evil People are basically bad, selfish, untrustworthy and need to be controlled. Subordinate to Nature

Possible Responses Mixed Everyone has some degree of good and evil, so figure them out before trusting them. Harmony with Nature Good Most people are basically pretty good at heart; they are born good. Dominant over Nature

Man-Nature Relationship How should people relate to nature?

Nature is driven by We should learn to Nature is there to be external forces. What cohabit, living in dominated, plundered happens was meant to harmony with nature. and controlled. happen. Past Present Future

Time Sense

What part of time is We should learn from most important? history and continue traditions. Activity Being

Live for today. Now is Plan for tomorrow. Be all there is. prepared. Sacrifice now for a better future. Becoming Doing Become what you are Action speaks louder. capable of becoming. Reward comes from Reach your potential. what you achieve. Collateral Act as a group. Everyone shares decisions and outcomes. Individual Individuals should decide for themselves. We are in charge of our own destiny.

How should we act? Just 'be'. There is no point in striving for false goals. You are enough already. Social Relations What is the best form of social organization? Hierarchical There is a natural order. Some people are superior and others want to follow. Those in charge decide and get more.

So what?
When working with people, understand their position on this table and hence what their values in action will be. From this, you can determine how to converse and interact with them.

See also
Beliefs about people, Kluckholn and Strodtbeck's Dimensions of Culture Kohls, L. R. (1981). Developing intercultural awareness. Washington, D.C.: Sietar Press. Kluckhohn, F. R., & F. L. Strodtbeck. (1961). Variations in value orientations. Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson

Schwartz's Value Inventory

Shalom Schwartz (1992, 1994) used his 'Schwartz Value Inventory' (SVI) with a wide survey of over 60,000 people to identify common values that acted as 'guiding principles for one's life'. He identified ten 'value types' that gather multiple values into a single category.

Power
This takes value from social status and prestige. The ability to control others is important and power will be actively sought through dominance of others and control over resources.

Achievement

Value here comes from setting goals and then achieving them. The more challenge, the greater the sense of achievement. When others have achieved the same thing, status is reduced and greater goals are sought.

Hedonism
Hedonists simply enjoy themselves. They seek pleasure above all things and may, according to the view of others, sink into debauchery.

Stimulation
The need for stimulation is close to hedonism, though the goal is slightly different. Pleasure here comes more specifically from excitement and thrills and a person with this driver is more likely to be found doing extreme sports than propping up a bar.

Self-direction
Those who seek self-direction enjoy being independent and outside the control of others. The prefer freedom and may have a particular creative or artistic bent, which they seek to indulge whenever possible.

Universalism
The universalist seeks social justice and tolerance for all. They promote peace and equality and find war anathema except perhaps in pursuit of lasting peace.

Benevolence
Those who tend towards benevolence are very giving, seeking to help others and provide general welfare. They are the 'earth mothers' who nurture all.

Tradition
The traditionalist respects that which has gone before, doing things simply because they are customary. They are conservatives in the original sense, seeking to preserve the world order as is. Any change makes them uncomfortable.

Conformity
The person who values conformity seeks obedience to clear rules and structures. They gain a sense of control through doing what they are told and conforming to agreed laws and statutes.

Security
Those who seek security seek health and safety to a greater degree than other people (perhaps because of childhood woes). Though they may worry about the potential of military force, they welcome the comfort that their existence brings.

Super-grouping
Note how these values form something of a spectrum, with successive values often having a close relationship. This is perhaps unsurprising as they are groupings of a larger number of values. They can also be collated into larger super-groups:

Openness to change: Stimulation, self-direction and some hedonism. Self-enhancement: Achievement, power and some hedonism. Conservation: Security, tradition and conformity. Self-transcendence: Universalism and benevolence.

These can be arranged in a circle or square, as below, with these four variables forming two dimensions of focus on the self or not, and seeking stability or change.

Conservation Security, Tradition, Conformity Achievement, SelfUniversalism, SelfPower, enhancement benevolence transcendence Hedonism Stimulation, Self-direction, Hedonism Openness to change

So what?
This model is useful both in understanding values and also in understanding culture.

See also
Schwartz, S.H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, M. Zanna, San Diego: Academic Press Schwartz, S.H. (1994). Beyond individualism/collectivism: New dimensions of values. Individualism and Collectivism: Theory Application and Methods. U. Kim, H.C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S.C. Choi and G. Yoon, Newbury Park, CA: Sage

Values in Action (VIA)

In the relatively new field of positive psychology, a piece of work has been done with the field's founder, Martin Seligman, and others to identify core character strengths. In summary, the twenty-four values are:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Creativity: New ways of thinking and acting. Curiosity Exploring and seeking for its own sake. Open-mindedness: Seeing things objectively and fairly, from all sides. Love of learning: Constantly developing skills and knowledge. Perspective: Seeing in ways that make sense and giving wise counsel. Bravery: Not shrinking from threat, challenge, difficulty, or pain; acting on convictions even if unpopular. 7. Persistence: Seeing things through, despite difficulties. 8. Integrity: Presenting oneself in a genuine way; taking responsibility for ones feeling and actions 9. Vitality: A zest and enthusiasm for life and living. 10. Love: Valuing, sharing and caring for others. 11. Kindness: Doing things for others without requiring reciprocation. 12. Social intelligence: Being aware of how yourself and others are motivated, and acting accordingly. 13. Citizenship: Being socially responsible and loyal. 14. Fairness: Treating everyone in a similar way. Being just and without bias. 15. Leadership: Driving achievement whilst maintaining harmony. 16. Forgiveness and mercy: Forgiving wrong-doers rather than seeking punishment or revenge. 17. Humility / Modesty: Not putting oneself above others. Letting achievements speak for themselves. 18. Prudence: Not taking undue risks or doing what you will regret. 19. Self-regulation: Controlling one's emotions and actions according to one's values. 20. Wonder: Appreciating beauty and excellence. 21. Gratitude: Knowing, feeling and being thankful for all the good things in life. 22. Hope: Positively expecting the best and working to achieve it. 23. Humor: Enjoying laughter and making people laugh. Seeing the lighter side of life. 24. Spirituality: Having coherent beliefs higher purpose and the meaning of life.
Note that the name is 'Values in Action'. Many people have aspirational values, but the ones that really count are those that you enact every day.

So what?
Go take the free test (requires registration) here. Understand your strengths and try to build on them. Understand the strengths of others and try to work with them. Also understand weaknesses and seek to shore them up or work around the.

See also
http://www.viasurvey.org/ http://www.ppc.sas.upenn.edu/publications.htm