Zrich

ETH Master Course: 151-0854-00L

Autonomous Mobile Robots
Legged Locomotion
Roland Siegwart
Margarita Chli
Martin Rufli
Davide Scaramuzza
Zrich
Lecture Overview
Mobile Robot Control Scheme
2
raw data
position
global map
Sensing Acting
Information
Extraction
Path
Execution
Cognition
Path Planning
knowledge,
data base
mission
commands
Real World
Environment
Localization
Map Building
M
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C
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n
t
r
o
l

P
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c
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p
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actuator
commands
environment model
local map
path
2 - Legged Locomotion
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Locomotion Principles
Principles Found in Nature
3
2 - Legged Locomotion
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Locomotion Principles
Biped Walking and Pure Rolling
Biped walking mechanism approximates pure
rolling via polygonal motion

The smaller the step size, the more
the polygon tends to a disk (wheel)

Work against gravity is required

Allows to overcome larger ob-
stacles (compared to rolling)

4
2 - Legged Locomotion
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Locomotion Principles
Selection of Locomotion Concept
Selection depends on
terrain properties
robot weight and complexity
desired operating speed
maximal energy expenditure
required energy efficiency
etc.
5
2 - Legged Locomotion
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Legged Locomotion
Number of Legs vs. Control Complexity
The number of legs influences
Mechanical complexity
Control complexity

Insects can walk directly upon birth
Most mammals require several minutes to stand
Humans require more than a year to walk on two legs







6
2 - Legged Locomotion
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Legged Locomotion
Number of Distinct Gait Sequences
The gait is characterized as a distinct sequence of
lift and release events of the individual legs

The number of possible events N for a walking machine with k legs is


For a biped walker, the number of possible events becomes


For a robot with 6 legs (hexapod)






7
( )! 1 2 = k N
( ) 6 ! 3 ! 1 2 = = = k N
800 ' 916 ' 39 ! 11 = = N
2 - Legged Locomotion
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CoG
Legged Locomotion
Static Locomotion
Static Locomotion

Characteristics
Body weight supported by at
least three legs
CoG withing support triangle
Safe, slow and inefficient

8
2 - Legged Locomotion
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Legged Locomotion
Static Locomotion
9
Most widespread static sequence with 6 legs





2 - Legged Locomotion
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Legged Locomotion
Static Locomotion on ALoF
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2 - Legged Locomotion
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Legged Locomotion
Dynamic Locomotion
11
CoG
3 <
2 - Legged Locomotion
Dynamic Locomotion

Characteristics
The robot falls unless it moves
legs can be in ground contact
Fast, efficient, but demanding for
actuation and control

Zrich
Legged Locomotion
Dynamic Locomotion with 4 Legs
12
Changeover walking






Galloping
2 - Legged Locomotion
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Legged Locomotion
Dynamic Locomotion with 2 Legs






In principle only dynamic walking feasible
Large feet allow for static walking, however

Two legs (biped) allow for four different states
1. Both legs down
2. Right leg down, left leg up
3. Right leg up, left leg down
4. Both leg up

13
1 2 1
1 3 1
1 4 1
2 3 2
2 4 2
3 4 3
turning
on right leg, or
limping
hopping
with two legs
hopping on
left leg
walking,
running
hopping on
right leg
turning
on left leg, or
limping
2 - Legged Locomotion
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Legged Locomotion
(Dynamic) Locomotion on ASIMO
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Courtesy K. Moriyama
2 - Legged Locomotion
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Legged Locomotion
Energy Optimization of Gaits
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2 - Legged Locomotion
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Legged Locomotion
Energy Opt. via Series Elastic Actuation
The optimal actuator should
be back-drivable
be able to perform negative work
have a low inertia and gear ratio
be highly efficient

Series Elastic Actuators can emulate some
of these properties
16
Series Elastic Actuator
x
F
ground

u
2 - Legged Locomotion
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Legged Locomotion
Dynamic Locomotion on StarlETH
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2 - Legged Locomotion
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Legged Locomotion
From Legs to Links and Joints
A minimum of two DOF required to move leg
a lift and a swing motion.
Sliding-free motion in more than one direction not possible

Three DOF for each leg required in most cases







Additional joints (and thus DOF) increase the complexity of the design
and especially of the locomotion control


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2 - Legged Locomotion
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Forward Kinematics
Definition and Introduction
Forward Kinematics
Given is a set of joint angles
Determine resulting end-effector position

19
0
y
0
x
) , (
g g
y x
g
u
3 2 1
3 2 1 3 2 1 2 1 1
3 2 1 3 2 1 2 1 1
) sin( ) sin( sin
) cos( ) cos( cos
u u u u
u u u u u u
u u u u u u
+ + =
+ + + + + =
+ + + + + =
g
g
g
a a a y
a a a x
1
a
2
a
3
a
2 - Legged Locomotion
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0
y
0
x
Forward Kinematics
Chain of Coordinate Frames
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2 - Legged Locomotion
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Forward Kinematics
Homogeneous Transformation Matrix
21
0
y
0
x
) , (
g g
y x
1
1 0
0
1 1
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
g
g
g
g
y
x
T y
x
: any two frames can be connected via
at most 1 rotation and 2 translation parameter
1
y
1
x
2
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2 - Legged Locomotion
a
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Forward Kinematics
Homogeneous Transformation Matrix
22
: any two frames can be connected via
at most 3 rotation and 3 translation parameter
i
g
g
g
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
g
g
g
z
y
x
z
y
x
z
y
x
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
(
(
(
(
(

=
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

1
1 0 0 0
1
1
1
1
1
1
i i
R
1
(
(
(

u u
u u
cos sin 0
sin cos 0
0 0 1
1 i i
x
R
(
(
(

u u
u u
cos 0 sin
0 1 0
sin 0 cos
1 i i
y
R
(
(
(

1 0 0
0 cos sin
0 sin cos
1
u u
u u
i i
z
R
3
9
2 - Legged Locomotion
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Forward Kinematics
Denavit-Hartenberg Convention
23
Denavit-Hartenberg (DH) reference frame layout
Adds structure into kinematic chains
Involves 4 parameter only (instead of 6 for the general case)

Procedure

C
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e
s
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E
.

T
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-
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p
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2 - Legged Locomotion
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Forward Kinematics
Denavit-Hartenberg Convention
24
Resulting Denavit-Hartenberg transform. matrix






(joint angle): rotation about . Angle of w.r.t.
(twist angle): rotation about . Angle of w.r.t.
(link length): distance between axis and axis (i.e., and )
(link offset ): offset along axis

(
(
(
(

1 0 0 0
cos sin 0
sin sin cos cos cos sin
cos sin sin cos sin cos
1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1
i i i
i i i i i i i
i i i i i i i
i i
d
a
a
T
o o
u o u o u u
u o u o u u
i
u
1 i
z
1 i
x
1 i
o
i
x
1 i
a 1 i i
i
d
1 i
z
1 i
z
i
z
i
x
i
z
1 i
z
2 - Legged Locomotion
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Forward Kinematics
DH Coordinate Frames on a PUMA Arm
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2 - Legged Locomotion
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Inverse Kinematics
Definition and Introduction
26
Inverse Kinematics
Given is a desired end-effector position
Determine corresponding joint angles

Problem is non-trivial and generally not well-posed










No Solution One Solution >1 Solution
2 - Legged Locomotion
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For 2-link manipulators employ e.g. cosine law
(and solve for )
Inverse Kinematics
Solution via Closed-form Approach
27
0
x
0
y
) , (
g g
y x
2 2 1
2
2
2
1
2 2
cos 2 u a a a a y x
g g
+ + = + ) , (
2 1
u u
2
a
1
a
2 - Legged Locomotion
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Inverse Kinematics
Solution via Iterative Search
28
From forward kinematics we know


h is often not easily invertible in closed form

Approach: iteratively perform the following steps
1. Start from a known forward-kinematic solution (e.g., via
sampling).
2. Linearize around , resulting in the Jacobian
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
........
3. Invert the Jacobian to obtain
4. Move by in direction
| | ) , , (
1 n
T
g g g
h z y x u u =
h ) , , (
1 n
u u
| | | |
T
i i i
T
z y x J A A A = A A
1
2 1
u u
| | ) , , (
1 n
T
i i i
h z y x u u =
| |
T
i g i g i g
z z y y x x
2 - Legged Locomotion
A
i
n
m m
n
h h
h h
J
u u
u u
u u
=
(
(
(
(
(

c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
=

1
1
1
1