INTRODUCTION William Shakespeare`s (1564-1616) Othello is often considered Shakespeare's most perfectly constructed play.

The direct source of the play is not known,but it derived from a story in the Hecatomithi of Giraldi Cinthio. He transformed an ugly little tale of sexual jealousy into a character study of a good man who, for all his virtue, is caught in a trap of evil and can't escape.There are three early versions:a quarto of 1622,the text of the First Folio of 1623 and a later quarto of 1630. Shakespeare's story of jealousy, betrayal, and murder begins on a street in Venice in the middle of the night. Roderigo has just learned that Desdemona, the woman he loves, has eloped with Othello, a Moorish general hired to lead the Venetian army against the Turks. Roderigo is angry at Iago, the young Venetian he's been paying to play "matchmaker-" for him and Desdemona. But Iago has other problems. He's furious with Othello for having chosen Michael Cassio as his Lieutenant instead of himself, who has served loyally as Othello's ensign. Iago hides an evil nature under a mask of honesty, and he delights in the suffering of others. With his jealousy as a partial excuse, he sets out to arrange Othello's downfall. As the characters make moves and countermoves, the plot is propelled forward and conflicts intensify. In Act II, Iago is responsible for most of the rising action. He plans to work revenge against Othello through Cassio. To this end, he gets Cassio drunk, for which Othello fires him. Iago then convinces Cassio to seek Desdemona's help in winning back Othello's respect. Everything, as controlled by Iago's actions, leads inevitably to the climax. The climax of Othello comes in Act III, scene iii when Iago succeeds in convincing Othello that Desdemona is guilty of adultery. By the end of the scene, Othello has vowed to kill his wife.Iagos grand scheme is brought to its climactic conclusion when Othellos rage and jealousy manifests itself in physical brutality. He strangles her to death in one of the most intense theatrical scenes ever to be shown on stage. Iago 1

succeeds in master plan and exacts revenge on all those who seemingly thwarted him. Indeed, Othello discovers only too late that he was nothing more than a victim of a great and heinous deception. With the blood of his innocent wife on his hands and the knowledge that he betrayed the loyalty of one of his own officers by suspecting him of such a crime, Othello takes the only route to absolution that he can find--death. After Desdemona's death, there is a great deal that has to be resolved: Emilia's discovery of Iago's treachery, her death, Othello's realization of his horrible deception, his suicide, Iago's punishment, and the restoration of order by Lodovico. Evil has been conquered and goodness regained, but the price was terribly high. IAGO`S MOTIVES What is Iago's motivation in ruining Othello's life? This question has puzzled readers and scholars for centuries. Iago is a fascinating, complex character who can't be analyzed in simple terms. Here are some of the facts we know about Iago: He is a 28-year-old Venetian who is Othello's "ancient" or "ensign," a comparatively low-ranked commissioned officer. He seems to have no history of dirty deeds; in fact, almost every character in the play calls him "honest." (The word is applied to Iago 15 times in the play.) He's married to Emilia, a salty outspoken woman; they seem to tolerate each other. If theirs was a love match, we're never told, and it's difficult to guess. Let's look at some possibilities that might explaining Iago's behavior.He is motivated by jealousy. Iago's resentment of Cassio is the first reason we are given for Iago's behavior. Iago is jealous that this man has something he feels he himself deserves. Yet Iago has more than simple jealousy on his mind, and he's not the only character in the play to be infected by jealousy's sting. The intention of jealousy in the first scene tells us that it's crucial to the development of Shakespeare's scheme.

In the play he expresses openly his jealousy of Cassio and Othello. He is also jealous of Othello's success as a soldier and with Desdemona. He is seeking revenge. The rumors that Othello has slept with Emilia and the possibility that Cassio has also slept with her hurt Iago's pride and make him want to see both men ruined. Iago does have qualities on which everyone can agree.He is a wonderful actor. For years, he has fooled everyone into thinking he's honest. Even if Emilia suspects him of being a rascal, she has no idea that he's truly evil. He is amoral. An amoral person has no moral standards at all. Iago never thinks twice about his behavior. He plunges ahead without a twinge of guilt or regret. Even when the innocent Desdemona becomes a victim of the plot, Iago has no pangs of conscience. He moves to satisfy himself, no matter who suffers. And he goes to his death without a word of regret! He is highly intelligent. Iago plots his actions knowing how everyone will respond. His insight into the behavior of others is practically perfect; he can adapt himself to the personality of whoever he is with- from Roderigo to Desdemona to Cassio to Othello, knowing just how to "play" him or her. Ironically, the one person he misreads is Emilia; he doesn't suspect her loyalty to Desdemona outweighs her feelings for him. He is an egotist. His opinion of everyone except himself is very low. He laughs at Othello's trusting nature, thinks Roderigo is a gullible fool, treats Emilia as a shrew, and scorns Cassio's honest virtues. The only person he respects is himself, and everything he does in the play is for the satisfaction of his own ego. He is a cynic. He shows contempt for all conventional standards of decency. He is loyal only when it serves his own needs. He delights in dishonesty. He doesn't believe in romantic love, attributing it to a sexual itch. His opinion of the human race is so low that he allows innocent people to die without a word of regret. He is extremely proud. Suspicions that Othello has slept with Emilia eat away at him. Othello's appointment of Cassio makes him furious. Iago sees anything that threatens his self-

esteem as a personal insult, which must be avenged. He isn't angered by the thought of Othello in bed with Emilia because he loves her, but because another man has gotten the best of him! Iago is an extremely subtle character in the play. Comparing him to an iceberg is an excellent analysis because only a tiny part of his personality is above the surface on view to all. His true self is kept hidden and is only known by himself. He is a mysterious person who works on the inside and keeps his true thoughts to himself in order to conceal his wickedness. He admits to himself that he is two-faced as he says By Janus I think so.

Iago creates tension and fear in the beginning by insisting that Othello isn't to be trusted because he is a foreigner. As a man from a different country and race, Othello is open to the hostility that many outsiders face, even today. As we shall see, Othello's role as an outsider will have a great deal to do with how he is treated and how he behaves. In the course of one conversation Iago convinces a man who loves his wife completely that she is in fact having an affair with one of his most trusted subjects without using one shred of proof or any real basis. This is a man who can make the most innocent of people guilty and the most loved, hated. He uses many tactics to persuade Othello that Desdemona is cheating on him with Cassio, the reason, is revenge. At the beginning of the play we hear of Iagos rage at the fact that Cassio was made lieutenant instead of him. Iago feels that he was the better candidate and deserves the position. Iago isnt hard pushed to find a way of getting revenge. Othello often says that without Desdemona he would be in chaos. Iago uses this, because he wants to create chaos, which is one of the major themes of the play. Other major themes include relationships, jealousy, love and deceit. Luck provides him with the opportunity to stage an affair between Cassio and Desdemona, driving Othello to insanity and resulting in the death of

Janus is the God with two faces and Iago swears on him. Also, he even says at the beginning of the play I am not what I am, admitting that he is two faced.

Desdemona and Othello. . As for Cassio, Iago says: He hath a daily beauty in his life that makes me ugly.(Act V, Scene i, lines 21-22) We learn a great deal about Iago in these few lines. Cassio's "beauty"- his goodness, his honesty- is a constant thorn in Iago's side. Evil men often seek a world where everyone is as wicked as they. They're uncomfortable with the virtuous. Iago therefore is determined that Cassio be killed. Iago proves to be very good at manipulating people and how they feel. At the beginning of the play Iago successfully gets Roderigo to wake Brabantio and tell him of the relationship between Othello and Desdemona. Brabantio learns of Roderigos name but not of Iagos. Iago tells Roderigo several truths about himself; he even trusts Roderigo with the knowledge that Iago serves Othello, but only to further himself. It is ironic that after Iagos lengthy confession of betrayal, Roderigo still does not suspect him of double-crossing or manipulation. Exactly how long Iago has been capitalising upon the trustfulness of Roderigo we do not know, however it is apparent that Iago has no value for Roderigos intelligence. He directs the likes of Roderigo with flippant disdain, the resentful malcontent revealing all in Iagos soliloquies. Iago might not be what he seems as far as the other characters are concerned, but the audience enjoys the privileged exhibit of Iagos intricate plot as he intertwines his network of lies around the rest of the unsuspecting characters. . Iago turns Othello into the same kind of evil person he is. It is almost like a possessive type of evil, like in the old morality When Iago weaves his spell over Othello, the theme begins to dominate the play. Jealous of Othello for what he is, what he has accomplished, and because of Desdemona, Iago sets out to destroy him. In order to do so, he plays upon the emotion he knows bestjealousy. He arouses such intense sexual jealousy in Othello (by making Cassio seem superior to Othello in almost every way) that Othello is ready to kill the person he loves most. It's no wonder that Shakespeare calls jealousy a monster- twice- in this play. He finds it easy enough to kill his own wife at the end of the play, yet is constantly reaffirming his love for Othello. We 5

know he uses this as a tactic for Othello to gain faith in Iago, but could there be more? This plot is an obsession for Iago, his jealousy rules him. Could this mission be his only love? To understand how Iago convinces Othello that Desdemona is having an affair with Cassio we must look at the events beforehand which Iago directs to his own advantage. It starts when Cassio and Desdemona greet each other; Iago forms the plan that Cassio will be target. Cassio and Desdemona are friendly to each other and Iago can see how this could appear to be more than just friendship. By claiming that Cassio was stroking Desdemonas hand, he is suggesting that they are a couple or intimate with each other. In Elizabethan times this was deemed as highly intimate and personal, this would have been an activity that only a couple would engage in. Iago sees the opportunity and uses his knowledge of Cassio to get him into a fight with Roderigo. Iago knows that this will outrage Othello and Cassio will want to redeem himself. Iago has planted the circumstances for Cassio to plead with Desdemona so that she will speak to Othello on Cassios behalf. Iago knows that Desdemona will take up Cassios plight for she is a good person. Desdemona doesnt realise that Iago is abusing her goodwill so that it will bring about her own downfall. Othello doesnt see it as strange that Desdemona is supporting Cassio for he knows what type of person she is. It is Iago that uses this as a basis for an affair between Cassio and Desdemona. Iago believes that there is no such thing as love, and that everything boils down to lust. This is shown many times, often in a subtle manor. This trait along with others, infects Othello, and this is shown where he mentions blood. With blood being a symbol of lust. Another sign that Iago does not understand love is in the fact that Iago does not seem to care whether Emilia has had an affair with Cassio, but sees it as a possible motive. If he loved her even half as much as Othello loved Desdemona, he would be very upset, and certainly not use it to his advantage. The success of Iago can be attributed to his ruthless motivation fueled by his emotions. From the outset, Iago sets up his plan and motivations. With 6

tenacity, he sticks to it.Even when flaws start to appear in his plan he still goes on with it. Iago fools many of the main characters. He only gets away with this because they trust him and this protects him from any questioning. His cunning means that the events can occur, building the play. He is an idyllic picture, a man who is loyal and trustworthy, they could never imagine that he is capable of deceit. IAGO`S TECHNIQUES The famous corruption scene in Othello is Act III Scene III. It reveals most of the techniques Iago uses to encourage Othello's suspicions. The scene revolves around the skilful manner in which Iago insinuates that Cassio and Desdemona are having an affair, ultimately making Othello mad with jealousy. Iago sees Cassio leaving Desdemona and says, "Ha! I like not that"(l.34). By saying this Iago is planting a seed of doubt in Othello's mind, he then nurtures this throughout the rest of the scene. Othello then questions Iago but he pretends it's nothing. Othello asks if it was Cassio that was leaving and Iago replies by stating the figure he saw leaving could not have been Cassio as he is a honourable man who wouldn't stoop to such sneaking, dishonest behaviour. Iago cleverly appears to be reluctant to speak ill against others. This is a technique Iago uses so that in Othello's eyes he is seen to be of good and honest nature, someone who doesn't speak about other people behind their backs. Therefore it also makes Othello not suspect Iago of any dishonest behaviour. By suggesting that an action which might seem innocent may in reality conceal something altogether more suspicious, Iago hints that Cassio has a guilty conscious. This gets Othello thinking, turning over in his mind doubting Cassio's behaviour. Iago is very evocative, he gives a clue to what he thinks then draws away denying the idea, this feeds Othello's paranoia. There is more evidence of this behaviour further on in the scene. Again when Iago is speaking to Othello about Cassio."Though I perchance am vicious in my guess"(l.145).

Iago again uses the extremely effective device of appearing to be very reluctant to speak ill of others whilst at the same time managing to suggest that he knows much which would distress Othello if he were to tell him. This of course makes Othello very curious so he continues questioning Iago persistently looking for answers. Another method Iago uses is that he is very evasive, where possible he tries to avoid direct questions. This is apparent from l.100-l.110. Othello is asking Iago questions about Cassio and Iago replies by using rhetorical questions such as "Honest, my lord?"(l.102) and "Think, my lord?"(l.104). This plants suspicion in Othello's mind as Iago is hinting that he is unwilling to give his opinion. Making Othello think that what Iago is hiding is perhaps deeply distressing for him so he is only trying to minimise the hurt to his master. A very important technique that Iago uses is that he makes Othello trust him, if he didn't then Iago's scheming and plotting would be a complete waste of time and result in failure. Through their exchange Iago emphasises the extent of his loyalty and love for Othello. Othello completely regards these feelings as being absolutely genuine. "My lord, you know I love you."(l.115).To ensure, Othello won't suspect Iago of plotting against him Iago is very self-effacing. He puts himself down which is complete irony as he is to blame but Othello doesn't know he is"But I am much to blame, / I humbly do beseech you of your pardon"(l.209/210) Iago accuses himself and preempts criticism as to deflect the suspicion away from himself which is and extremely clever device and works successfully as Othello doesn't suspect a thing. Iago adopts a sympathetic tone towards Othello yet it is false sympathy. This is an effective technique as Othello believes that Iago is a true genuine friend who is concerned about his master's welfare. But of course he is not, he is only pretending to make Othello think this. Iago also offers guidance but again it is false as he is pretending. "I fear it has. / I hope you will consider what is spoke / Comes from my love. But I do see you're moved"(l.214/215)

Here Iago is offering false concern which is all part of his act, he is being very sycophantic. He is using flattery to win favour from Othello to gain influence. It is apparent the power shift that takes place, Othello looks to Iago and believes every word he says and goes as far as saying, "I am bound to thee for ever."(l.212). Iago also advises Othello; he says to be aware of jealousy and refers to it as 'the green-eyed monster' (l.164). This cleverly plants the idea of being jealous in his mind. To fuel Othello's suspicions further Iago fabricates and tells outright lies. Iago realises that he has awakened Othello's wrath and that if he cannot support his suggestions of Desdemona's infidelity he will pay dearly for it. So Iago tells Othello that Cassio has been talking in his sleep about Desdemona:"In sleep I heard him say: 'Sweet Desdemona, / Let us be wary, let us hide our loves'"(l.416/417) Othello is so desperate that he seems almost keen to pounce upon Iago's account as true. Again we see Iago planting an idea into Othello's mind and then trying to deny it. Othello is convinced of Desdemona's betrayal and Iago argues in support of Cassio that it was only a dream. But Othello's passion has now overtaken Iago's plotting and sweeps the action along. By saying this about Cassio, Iago links it in with another part of his evil plan-the handkerchief.The event that finally convinces the Moor that the honestly nonexistent affair is truly happening right under his nose, is the loss of the handkerchief. In the culture of the Moors, it is customary to provide the brideto-be with a token of ones love. The capturing of the handkerchief provides the ocular proof, Othello had been demanding. She should always protect and nurture this gift, as it came from the heart of her intended, however, Desdemonas gift from Othello--his mothers hanky--mysteriously comes up missing, and Othellos doubt weariness begins to take hold. It is no surprise to the reader when he/she discovers that Iago is in possession of the small but meaningful trinket, and that he plans to further his vengeance by planting it strategically in Cassios chamber. When the seemingly insignificant piece of 9

linen is located there, Othellos rage is evident, and he shows that he has lost all trust for his wife--the person he once considered his most loyal friend.Iago is exceptionally calculating in his strategies, nothing is spontaneous everything is meticulously planned. We see how the language of Iago and Othello has been interchanged with their roles. Iago manipulates not only Othello but most of the other characters in the play so they fit into his plan. In Act II Scene III Iago plants the notion in Cassio's mind that Desdemona would be his best ambassador to pay his suit with Othello. Desdemona tells Cassio she will do everything she can to persuade Othello to reinstate him before Cassio himself even asks her to help him. Iago exploits the natural actions of his victims to their disadvantage. In Act III Scene III l.60-75 she pleads with Othello and Iago skilfully gets Othello to misinterpret Desdemona's pleading as evidence for her secret love for Cassio. Iago also uses lurid, crude descriptions to enrage Othello further. In Act VI Scene he describes Desdemona and Cassio in bed together and this poison's Othello's mind, he then attempts to persuade him that it may only be innocent pleasure."To be naked with her friend in bed / An hour or more, not meaning any harm?"(l.4/5) Othello finds this suggestion ludicrous and we see how skilfully Iago allows Othello's imagination to do his dirty work for him. Othello pictures Desdemona with Cassio and it inflames his passions. Also we see how much bolder Iago is, since he has passed the dangerous moment when Othello swayed between trust in his wife's infidelity and suspicion of her honour. This means he can be even cruder than he normally is to infuriate Othello. Iago has a masterful use of psychology. He uses Othello's reactions and inborn insecurities against him. Iago plays on the fact that Othello is not of Venetian society. He explains that there are differences in social attitudes. Othello cannot question this as he is from a different background and already feels compromised.

Othello is called The Moor- a native of North Africa, part Berber, part Arab.

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Although when in Venice, he appears to be a strong-minded character, proves to have low self-esteem, this low opinion of himself may stem from being racially self-conscious. But some may argue that race would not have been an issue, it is more to do with the fact that he comes from a different society, an outsider who knows little of how their expectations. Although no mention is ever made of it, Othello views himself as different, which he is, from the rest of Venetian society. In was shock to everyone and probably even Othello that one of the most eligible women in Venice has fallen in love with him. So when Iago starts telling Othello of a relationship between Cassio and his wife, the rumours about Desdemona and the fact that she had refused men of higher status than Othello,he believes it may be true. Also he reminds Othello of what her father said when he first found out about Desdemona planning to marry Othello without his consent- Look to her Moor, if thou hast eyes to see: She has deceived her father and may thee. To which Othello replies My life upon her faith. Much of Othello deals with pride and reputation, for Othello now to hear about Desdemonas unfaithfulness, after he replied so convincingly that he trusts her completely, would certainly start to worry him. After all, if what Iago had been telling Othello was true, then Othello had been made to look a complete fool by Desdemona in a very short period of time. Iago's style of speech and use of language also make it possible for him to convince Othello, such as by making himself seem genuine when he is lying. He is devious in that he understates information's importance, therefore making it seem more important. He also 'plays hard to get', and adds words making some things he just said sound as if he doesn't truly believe them. For example Iago says that he thinks that Cassio is honest,where think is the operative word. In other words, Iago is saying that Cassio might or might not be honest. Statements like this mislead Othello, making it seem as though his 'honest' Ancient really doesn't want to get Cassio in trouble.The language used by Iago reflects the kind of person that he is supposed to be. Sentences like, 'I am not what I am,' reverse the Bible's teachings, and in Shakespearean times

Act I,scene 3-Iago,in the background,observes these words and later reminds Othello of them with deadly effect.

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heathens were seen as evil, which the Turks were as well. Some of the ideas expressed by Shakespeare must have been quite surprising to an Elizabethan audience, and in some many ways challenges the thoughts of the church and people. It is not the Turks that the Venetians should be afraid of, but the enemy within, which is obviously Iago. Othello, who is a Moor from Africa, and therefore not seen as a good man to Elizabethans in the beginning, in fact is the most reasonable of them all. When Brabrantio claims Iago has stolen his daughter, Othello is the first one to ask for the other side of the story when he says, 'Send for the Lady.'In Othello, Language is used to reveal the potency of evil. Shakespeare uses lies and the way they are told, such as where Iago, after telling Othello what to look for says, 'Much will be seen in that'. Iago uses clever hidden lies like that to make Othello believe the evil, which is being spoon-fed to him. And when Iago then tells us of his next plan, making us coconspirators, it makes us appreciate the irony and devices that are actually used. Iago is coarse and foul-mouthed as he tries to turn Brabantio against Othello: Even now, now, very now, an old black ram Is tupping your white ewe. Arise, arise! Awake the snorting citizens with the bell, Or else the devil will make a grandsire of you. (Act I, Scene i, lines 96-99) It's been suggested that Iago needn't look any further than his own dirty mind and nasty mouth to discover why Othello chose someone else as his lieutenant. As the play progresses, and as Othello becomes more and more Iago's victim, he begins to lose the poetic gift that blessed him earlier. As evidence that he is being ruined by Iago, Othello begins to use the animal images that are typical of Iago's speech. These are generally images of common or repulsive animalsflies, baboons, goats, monkeys, wolves, wildcats, etc. Othello also begins to take on Iago's fondness for references to the demonic- hell, the devil, damnation. Iago admits allegiance to Hell in Act I, scene iii, line 421, and by Act V, Scene ii, Othello realizes that he, too, is damned. He looks on 12

Desdemona's corpse and says: This look of thine will hurl my soul from heaven and fiends will snatch at it. (Act V, Scene ii, lines 321-322) There are other patterns of imagery that recur throughout the play. Of course, the main way Iago fools Othello is by pure luck. That luck being that a lot of the things that Cassio and Desdemona say and do fall right into the trap and further convince Othello of a relationship between the two of them. When he first sees them together and Cassio scurries away, Iago jumps on the opportunity. Another example of this is found further on in the play when by controlling the circumstances Iago gets Cassio to talk disparagingly about Bianca, while Othello thinks the conversation is about Desdemona. The luck of this situation is gargantuan; one mention of the name Bianca and Othello would realise that Cassio was really speaking about her, fortuitously for Iago, Cassio does not mention Biancas name once. -The role of soliloquies Iagos soliloquies are a very constructive way to divulge the audience in his plans. Shakespeare uses this to keep them incorporated and informed because Iago lies and deceives all the time. His first soliloquy is used as the basis of his plan for revenge. He says that Cassio is a proper man, which tells the audience that even a proper man who is described as a great mathematician can fall victim to his power. As he starts to pace up his ideas a bit towards the end he uses images of the natural world. This is an atmospheric way of saying that his terrible plan has been born and is ready to set foot on the Earth causing emotional destruction. The audience have revealed to them his wickedness and the extent of it when he speaks in soliloquies because he is speaking like his true, evil self and not hiding it away as an act. His second soliloquy is there to remind the audience that his motive for the plan is that he is so jealous and actually has a reason for causing emotional breakdown.Iago is turning into a control freak and wants the Moor to look up to him as a sovereign. He is clearly drunk on his sense of domination over 13

the helpless Othello. He has to provide a cause to convince the audience that he is at least sane. In his third soliloquy, he talks about the way he totally warps the truth and turns it black, evil and detestable. He says virtue into pitch to represent the way he turns positive incidents into negative ones and messes with Othellos mind to confuse him. He sustains the black and white imagery as used earlier in the play by saying, When devils will the blackest sins put on. (II.2/353)He also says And out of her own goodness make the net.(II.2/363) He is basically saying here that he is so terrible and that hell take Desdemonas innocence and use that as a way of distorting the truth to Othello. CONCLUSION Iago, such an important and fundamental character to the play is often incorrectly cast as just being pure evil. His success can mainly be attributed to his sagacious temperament and masterful wit. However, Iago's achievement also hinges on his ability to exploit the character's innate weaknesses. Iago perceives the protagonists 'seeds' of self-destruction and merely fertilisers them with base bestial language and non-'ocular' proof. This ability to find and exploit weakness has made him such an accomplished villain. His total egotism feeds his hatred, and this hatred lays a waste of his abilities, and to the lives of those around him. Although there is contention surrounding Iago's significance in the downfall of Othello, one thing remains true: Iago is one of Shakespeare's most complex, intriguing and malignant characters.He is an embodiment of professional manipulators, he always wins, but at what cost? How can he enjoy his revenge in prison or dead? He cannot, which begs one wonder as to whether Machiavelli was correct in his hypothesis. Does the end justify the means? REFERENCES

Some critics think that Iago can be taken to exemplify the popular Elizabethan idea of a disciple of Machiavelli (Machiavellian" has become a term for vicious opportunism)

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Bradley,A.C. Shakesperean Tragedy:Lectures on Hamlet,Othello,King Lear,Macbeth, 2nd ed. London:Macmillan,1905. Clemen,Wolfgang Shakespeare`s soliloquies,Routledge,1987. Rosenberg,Marvin The Masks of Othello:the Search for the Identity of Othello,Iago and Desdemona by Three Centuries of Actors and Critics,University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles,1961. Hall,J.L. Othello:A Guide to the Play,Greenwood Press,1999. Shakespeare,W. Othello,Penguin Books,1994. Shakespeare on the Internet: www.allshakespeare.com www.questia.com www.sparknotes.com www.gradesaver.com

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