The nitrogen cycle represents one of the most important nutrient cycles found in terrestrial ecosystems (Figure 9s-1).

Nitrogen is used by living organisms to p roduce a number of complex organic molecules like amino acids, proteins, and nuc leic acids. The store of nitrogen found in the atmosphere, where it exists as a gas (mainly N2), plays an important role for life. This store is about one milli on times larger than the total nitrogen contained in living organisms. Other maj or stores of nitrogen include organic matter in soil and the oceans. Despite its abundance in the atmosphere, nitrogen is often the most limiting nutrient for p lant growth. This problem occurs because most plants can only take up nitrogen i n two solid forms: ammonium ion (NH4+ ) and the ion nitrate (NO3- ). Most plants obtain the nitrogen they need as inorganic nitrate from the soil solution. Ammo nium is used less by plants for uptake because in large concentrations it is ext remely toxic. Animals receive the required nitrogen they need for metabolism, gr owth, and reproduction by the consumption of living or dead organic matter conta ining molecules composed partially of nitrogen. In most ecosystems nitrogen is primarily stored in living and dead organic matte r. This organic nitrogen is converted into inorganic forms when it re-enters the biogeochemical cycle via decomposition. Decomposers, found in the upper soil la yer, chemically modify the nitrogen found in organic matter from ammonia (NH3 ) to ammonium salts (NH4+ ). This process is known as mineralization and it is car ried out by a variety of bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi. Nitrogen in the form of ammonium can be absorbed onto the surfaces of clay parti cles in the soil. The ion of ammonium has a positive molecular charge is normall y held by soil colloids. This process is sometimes called micelle fixation (see Figure 9s-1). Ammonium is released from the colloids by way of cation exchange. When released, most of the ammonium is often chemically altered by a specific ty pe of autotrophic bacteria (bacteria that belong to the genus Nitrosomonas) into nitrite (NO2- ). Further modification by another type of bacteria (belonging to the genus Nitrobacter) converts the nitrite to nitrate (NO3- ). Both of these p rocesses involve chemical oxidation and are known as nitrification. However, nit rate is very soluble and it is easily lost from the soil system by leaching. Som e of this leached nitrate flows through the hydrologic system until it reaches t he oceans where it can be returned to the atmosphere by denitrification. Denitri fication is also common in anaerobic soils and is carried out by heterotrophic b acteria. The process of denitrification involves the metabolic reduction of nitr ate (NO3- ) into nitrogen (N2) or nitrous oxide (N2O) gas. Both of these gases t hen diffuse into the atmosphere. Almost all of the nitrogen found in any terrestrial ecosystem originally came fr om the atmosphere. Significant amounts enter the soil in rainfall or through the effects of lightning. The majority, however, is biochemically fixed within the soil by specialized micro-organisms like bacteria, actinomycetes, and cyanobacte ria. Members of the bean family (legumes) and some other kinds of plants form mu tualistic symbiotic relationships with nitrogen fixing bacteria. In exchange for some nitrogen, the bacteria receive from the plants carbohydrates and special s tructures (nodules) in roots where they can exist in a moist environment. Scient ists estimate that biological fixation globally adds approximately 140 million m etric tons of nitrogen to ecosystems every year. The activities of humans have severely altered the nitrogen cycle. Some of the m ajor processes involved in this alteration include: The application of nitrogen fertilizers to crops has caused increased rates of d enitrification and leaching of nitrate into groundwater. The additional nitrogen entering the groundwater system eventually flows into streams, rivers, lakes, a nd estuaries. In these systems, the added nitrogen can lead to eutrophication. Increased deposition of nitrogen from atmospheric sources because of fossil fuel combustion and forest burning. Both of these processes release a variety of sol

id forms of nitrogen through combustion. Livestock ranching. Livestock release a large amounts of ammonia into the enviro nment from their wastes. This nitrogen enters the soil system and then the hydro logic system through leaching, groundwater flow, and runoff. Sewage waste and septic tank leaching. Summary Nitrogen is arguably the most important nutrient in regulating primary productiv ity and species diversity in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems (Vitousek e t al. 2002). Microbially-driven processes such as nitrogen fixation, nitrificati on, and denitrification, constitute the bulk of nitrogen transformations, and pl ay a critical role in the fate of nitrogen in the Earth's ecosystems. However, a s human populations continue to increase, the consequences of human activities c ontinue to threaten our resources and have already significantly altered the glo bal nitrogen cycle. -Runoff Carries the nitrogen in fertilizers and manure and the nitrogen in the soil into our rivers and streams a concern for water quality. -Leaching -Carries nitrates soo deep into the soil that plants can no longer use them, pro ducing a dual concern for lost fertility and for water quality, as nitrates ente r the groundwater and the wells that provide our drinking water. Once nitrates get into the groundwater, the greatest concerns are for infants le ss than one year old and for young or pregnant animals. High levels of nitrates can be toxic to newborns, causing anoxia, or internal suffocation. Seek alternat ive water sources if nitrate levels exceed the health standard of 10 ppm nitrate -N. Do not boil water to eliminate nitrates. It increases nitrate levels rather than decreasing them. The most common symptom of nitrate poisoning in babies is a bluish color to the skin, particularly around the baby's eyes and mouth. These symptoms of nitrate toxicity are commonly referred to as the "blue-baby" syndro me. -Eutrophication - The process by which a body of water acquires a high concentrat ion of nutrients, especially phosphates and nitrates. These typically promote ex cessive growth of algae. As the algae die and decompose, high levels of organic matter and the decomposing organisms deplete the water of available oxygen, caus ing the death of other organisms, such as fish. Eutrophication is a natural, slo w-aging process for a water body, but human activity greatly speeds up the proce ss. -Acid rain-Nitric oxide can combine with oxygen gas to for nitrogen dioxide, whi ch reacts with water vapor to form a strong acid (nitric acid). This can precip itate out of the atmosphere in the form of the deadly acid rain.