Downloaded on 05 November 2012 Published on 22 December 2009 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.

1039/9781847559715-FP007

Contents

Comparative Impacts of Fossil Fuels and Alternative Energy Sources Klaus S. Lackner 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Introduction Climate Change The Urgent Need for Energy The Environmental Impact of Energy Carbon Capture and Storage Stabilising Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Concentrations Geo-Engineering as a Means of Stabilising Climate Energy Sources, Energy Carriers and Energy Uses A Matter of Scales Small Carbon-Neutral Energy 10.1 Ocean Tides, Waves and Currents 10.2 Hydroenergy 10.3 Wind 10.4 Biomass 10.5 Geothermal The Three Truly Big Energy Resources 11.1 Nuclear Energy 11.2 Solar Energy 11.3 Fossil Fuels with Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage 11.4 Summary Capture of Carbon Dioxide Directly from Ambient Air A Revolution in the Energy Sector Conclusions

11

12 13 14

1 2 4 7 8 10 13 15 17 19 19 20 21 21 22 23 23 24 25 27 28 31 34

Issues in Environmental Science and Technology, 29 Carbon Capture: Sequestration and Storage Edited by R.E. Hester and R.M. Harrison r Royal Society of Chemistry 2010 Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org

vii

View Online

viii

Contents

Fossil Power Generation with Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): Policy Development for Technology Deployment Jon Gibbins and Hannah Chalmers
Downloaded on 05 November 2012 Published on 22 December 2009 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781847559715-FP007

41

1 2

3 4

5 6

Introduction Reasons for Incentivising CCS Capture Projects 2.1 Tranches Model for Commercial-Scale Development and Deployment 2.2 Classes of Climate Change Mitigation Benet with CCS Features of Eective Incentives for Power Plants with CCS Example CCS Incentives for the Electricity Sector 4.1 Site and Project-Specic Funding Options for First Tranche Plants 4.2 Electricity Emissions Performance Standards (EPSs) 4.3 A Sectoral CCS Standard Scope for Retrotting CCS and the Role for Carbon Capture Ready (CCR) Plants Conclusions Acknowledgements Appendix A Carbon Dioxide Capture Technologies Closest to Commercial Deployment

41 43 44 46 47 50 50 52 54 57 59 60 60 65

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) in Australia Allen Lowe, Burt Beasley and Thomas Berly 1 2 Background CCS Programs and Strategies 2.1 General Policy 2.2 Governmental CCS Initiatives and Funding 2.3 Black Coal Mining Industry Initiatives CCS R&D Activities in Australia 3.1 Australias Commonwealth Scientic and Research Organisation (CSIRO) 3.2 Cooperative Research Centre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies (CO2CRC) 3.3 Centre for Low Emission Technology (cLET) 3.4 University Research Activities CCS Projects in Australia 4.1 Commercial-Scale Projects Incorporating CCS 4.2 Large-Scale Demonstration Projects 4.3 Pilot-Scale Demonstrations 4.4 Storage Projects CCS Legislation and Regulation 5.1 Regulatory Guiding Principles

65 67 67 71 73 74 75 76 78 79 80 80 83 85 86 91 91

View Online

Contents

ix

Downloaded on 05 November 2012 Published on 22 December 2009 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781847559715-FP007

Commonwealth Oshore Petroleum and Greenhouse Gas Storage Act 2006 (OPA) 5.3 State CCS Legislation CCS Challenges in Australia

5.2

92 94 96

Underground Coal Gasication (UCG) with Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) Dermot Roddy and Gerardo Gonzalez 1 2 3 4 Introduction A Brief History of UCG The Economic Case for UCG An Introduction to UCG Technology 4.1 Gasication Conguration and Control 4.2 Directional Drilling 5 Current Status of UCG Deployment Worldwide 5.1 UK and Europe 5.2 North America 5.3 Asia 5.4 Australia 5.5 Africa 6 Mechanism for Carbon Dioxide Storage in Gasied Coal Seam Voids 7 Approaches to Environmental Risk Assessment 8 Linking UCG to CCS 9 North East England Case Study 10 Concluding Remarks on Scale of Opportunity and Challenges

102

102 103 105 107 108 108 110 110 110 111 111 111 111 115 118 121 123

Towards Zero Emission Production Potential of Carbon Capture in Energy Intensive Industry David Pocklington and Richard Leese 1 Overview 1.1 Greenhouse Gas Reduction/Issues for Energy Intensive Industry Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Cement Manufacture 2.1 Cement Manufacture 2.2 Incentives for Carbon Reduction 2.3 Costs Associated with Carbon Emissions Options for Mitigation 3.1 Mitigation in Cement Manufacture 3.2 Carbon Capture and Cement Manufacture 3.3 Removing Barriers to Development Conclusions

126

126 126 129 129 131 135 138 138 140 145 150

View Online

Contents

Geological Storage of Carbon Dioxide Nick Riley

Downloaded on 05 November 2012 Published on 22 December 2009 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781847559715-FP007

155

1 2

7 8

Introduction Geology and CO2 Storage 2.1 Rock Characteristics 2.2 CO2 Properties and Geological Storage 2.3 Pressure CO2 Storage through Enhanced Hydrocarbon Recovery 3.1 Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) 3.2 Enhanced Gas Recovery (EGS) 3.3 Enhanced Coal Bed Methane Recovery (ECBM) 3.4 Shale Gas Storage Options 4.1 CO2 Storage in Salt Caverns 4.2 Underground Coal Gasication Cavities 4.3 CO2 Storage as CO2 Hydrates 4.4 CO2 Storage in Igneous/Metamorphic Rocks Storage Capacity 5.1 The Resource Pyramid 5.2 Estimating Storage Capacity Storage Site Operation 6.1 Geological Characterisation 6.2 Risk Assessment 6.3 Measurement, Monitoring and Verication (MMV) 6.4 Leakage Public Awareness of CO2 Storage Conclusions Acknowledgements

155 156 156 158 162 165 165 166 167 167 168 168 168 169 169 169 169 170 171 171 172 172 173 174 174 175 179

Carbon Sequestration in Soils Stephen J. Chapman 1 Introduction to the Carbon Cycle in Soil 1.1 Plant Production 1.2 Decomposition 1.3 Soil Organic Matter 1.4 Characteristics and Age of Soil Carbon 1.5 Losses to Water Factors Inuencing Carbon Accumulation 2.1 Climate 2.2 Plant Inputs 2.3 Other Organic Inputs 2.4 Tillage

179 180 180 182 183 183 184 185 185 186 187

View Online

Contents

xi

Downloaded on 05 November 2012 Published on 22 December 2009 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781847559715-FP007

2.5 Grazing 2.6 Drainage/Irrigation 2.7 Erosion 2.8 Fire Cycles Land-Cover Classes and their Carbon-Sequestration Characteristics 3.1 Arable 3.2 Grassland 3.3 Forest/Woodland 3.4 Semi-Natural 3.5 Land-Use Change Climatic Zones other than Cool Temperate 4.1 Warm Temperate 4.2 Tropical The Quantication of Carbon-Sequestration Strategies 5.1 Worldwide Soil Carbon Sequestration Potential 5.2 Soil Carbon Sequestration Potential for Europe 5.3 Soil Carbon Sequestration Potential for the UK 5.4 Biochar Additions 5.5 Other Greenhouse Gases and Carbon Equivalents 5.6 Whole Cycle Analysis Limitations and Challenges 6.1 Realistic Goals 6.2 Upper Limits and Timescales 6.3 Competing Processes

187 187 188 188 189 189 190 190 190 190 191 191 191 191 192 193 195 195 197 198 198 198 200 200

Carbon Capture and Storage in Forests Maria Nijnik 1 2 3 Introduction: The Role of Forestry in Climate Change Mitigation Carbon Pools and Flows in Forests Carbon Sink and Storage in Forests: Several Implications from Europe 3.1 A Focus on the United Kingdom 3.2 A Focus on Transitional Countries of Ukraine and Slovakia 3.3 A Focus on The Netherlands A Focus on Tropical Forests Economic Considerations of Carbon Sink and Storage in Forests Uncertainties Pertaining to Carbon Sink and Storage in Forests Social Considerations of Carbon Sink and Storage in Forests Conclusions

203

203 206 211 212 214 217 219 221 226 229 232

4 5 6 7 8

View Online

xii

Contents

Downloaded on 05 November 2012 Published on 22 December 2009 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781847559715-FP007

Carbon Uptake, Transport and Storage by Oceans and the Consequences of Change C. Turley, J. Blackford, N. Hardman-Mountford, E. Litt, C. Llewellyn, D. Lowe, P. Miller, P. Nightingale, A. Rees, T. Smyth, G. Tilstone and S. Widdicombe 1 2 Summary Carbon Uptake by Oceans 2.1 AirSea Exchange of Carbon Dioxide and the Chemistry of Carbon in Seawater 2.2 Carbon Fixation and Controlling Factors Carbon Transport and Storage by Oceans 3.1 The Solubility Pump 3.2 The Biological Pumps Consequences of Too Little Uptake 4.1 Slow Down of the Physical Ocean Sink and Feedbacks to Climate 4.2 Changes in Net Primary Productivity Consequences of Too Much Uptake 5.1 Ocean Acidication 5.2 Oxygen Depletion and Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs)

240

240 241 241 243 250 250 255 256 256 257 260 260 269

Methane Biogeochemistry and Carbon Stores in the Arctic Ocean: Hydrates and Permafrost Vassilis Kitidis 1 Introduction 1.1 Methane: Marine Sources and Sinks 1.2 Arctic Ocean Methane and Global Warming Methane Hydrates 2.1 Methane Hydrates and Hydrate Stability 2.2 The Clathrate Gun Hypothesis 2.3 Methane Hydrates Arctic Ocean 2.4 Methane Hydrate Exploitation in the Arctic Permafrost 3.1 Permafrost Relevance to Methane 3.2 Permafrost and Global Warming Methane in the Arctic Ocean 4.1 Distribution, Sources and Sinks 4.2 Methane and Sea-Ice Conclusions

285

285 286 286 287 287 289 289 290 291 291 292 292 292 294 295 301

Subject Index