Week 3 Human Body Systems

Week 3
SYCPA Regents Prep - Living Environment

Human Body Systems
Week 3 Human Body Systems
This packet provides a review of concepts that may be tested in the NYS Living Environment Regents and is based on the NYS Core Curriculum. This course will cover individual topics over 6 weeks as listed below:
Week Week Week Week Week Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 - Scientific Method - Ecology - Human Body Systems Molecular Biology & Genetics - Labs - Evolution & Human Impact
The order of these topics is chosen based on their average weight in past Living Environment Regents. The individual packets will consist of a review for the specific topic followed by past regents questions.
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Human Body Systems Review

Homeostasis Levels of Organization Living things have different levels of organization. The simplest level of organization is that of the cell. A group of cells with a similar function is called a tissue. Groups of tissues working together to perform a common function are called organs. An example of this would include the nervous, muscle, and other tissues which make up the heart. Groups of organs working together to perform a common function are referred to as a system or organ system. The blood vessels, blood, and the heart are organs which work together to form the circulatory system. Many different systems function together to allow a complex organism to function. All the components of the living things, from the cells and the organelles within them to the organ systems of complex organisms must interact to maintain a balanced internal environment within the organism. Organisms possess many control mechanisms to detect internal and external changes and make changes to correct any deviations. This maintenance of a stable internal environment by an organism is called homeostasis. Homeostasis in an organism is constantly threatened. Failure to respond effectively can result in disease or death. Homeostasis The ability to carry on the life processes allow a living thing to maintain dynamic equilibrium or homeostasis with their surroundings. Homeostasis is a state of balance or steady state between a living thing and its environment. Homeostasis in an organism is constantly threatened. Failure to respond effectively to a failure of homeostasis can result in disease or death. Feedback Mechanisms Dynamic equilibrium or homeostasis results from the ability of organisms to detect and respond to stimuli. Feedback mechanisms are specific ways which have evolved in different living things to respond to internal or external environmental changes and maintain homeostasis. A feedback mechanism is a process where the level of one substance or activity of an organ or structure influences another substance or structure in some manner. Dynamic Equilibrium and Feedback Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal state within an organism. Homeostasis is also known as steady state. Organisms must respond and maintain homeostasis in relation to many factors.
Stimulus and Response
Organisms detect changes in their environment and respond to these changes in a variety of ways. These changes may occur at the cellular or organism level. The graphic above shows the response of a human to being struck on the knee with a hammer. A change in the environment is called a stimulus. In this situation, the stimulus is the being struck with the hammer. A response is the manner in which the organism reacts to the stimulus. The knee jerk reflex which is pictured at the right is the response of this individual to being hit with this hammer. Feedback Mechanism Examples Feedback mechanisms have evolved in living things as a mechanism by which they maintain homeostasis or dynamic equilibrium. A feedback mechanism occurs when the level of one substance influences the level of another substance or activity of another organ. An example of a feedback mechanism in humans would be the increase in heart rate and respiratory rate which occurs in response to increased exercise or other increased muscle cell activity. Some other examples of feedback mechanisms in living things appear below.
Temperature Homeostasis
Humans maintain a relatively constant body temperature of about 37 C.

when we "heat up" we sweat if possible the evaporation of this perspiration returns the body to its original temperature
Blood Sugar Regulation
The pancreas is an endocrine gland which produces hormones which regulate blood glucose (sugar) levels An increase in blood sugar level triggers the release of the hormone insulin by the pancreas the hormone insulin lowers blood sugar level restoring the body to its original blood glucose level in two major ways:

it increases the ability of body cells to take in glucose from the blood it converts blood glucose to the compound glycogen -this compound is also called animal starch and is stored in our liver and muscles
Reproductive System
Cell Membrane Receptors Cell Membrane Receptors Many cell membranes have receptor molecules on their surface. These receptor sites play an important role in allowing cells and organs to communicate with one another. Hormonal Regulation Hormones provide a primary way for cells to communicate with each other. A hormone is a chemical messenger with a specific shape that travels through the bloodstream influencing another target cell or target organ. Upon reaching the cell the hormone is targeted for, the hormone often activates a gene within a cell to make another necessary compound. One example of this is provided by the pituitary gland. This gland at the base of the brain makes a hormone called LH (luteinizing hormone). This hormone travels through the bloodstream and stimulates the ovary to produce yellow tissue that produces the hormone progesterone, which maintains the thickness of the uterus lining. The graphic below ill ustrates how this kind of hormonal regulation can work in a plant cell. Animal cell hormonal regulation involves a similar mechanism. A Hormonal Feedback Mechanism The animation at the right illustrates how a hormone can bind to receptors on a cell membrane and trigger that cell to produce a needed compound.
Any change in nerve or hormone signals will change the communication between cells and organs in an organism and thus may cause problems for organisms stability and ability to maintain homeostasis.
Asexual Reproduction Species are maintained in existence through the life spans process of reproduction. Asexual reproduction produces genetically identical offspring from a single parent cell. The process of mitosis is associated with asexual reproduction and the growth and repair of cells in sexually reproducing organisms. Sexual Reproduction Sexual reproduction produces offspring that have a combination of genes inherited from two parents sex cells or gametes. These gametes are produced by the process of meiosis. The single cell formed by the union of egg and sperm is called a zygote. The zygote contains all the information necessary for growth, development, and eventual reproduction of the organism. Human Reproduction Human sexual reproduction occurs in a very similar manner to other sexually reproducing animals. Both males and females contain specialized reproductive structures designed to produce gametes and facilitate development. Both the male and female have specialized chemicals or hormones which aid this process as well. Human Development The development of humans and other sexually reproducing organisms is a highly regulated process involving mitosis and differentiation. Reproduction and development are subject to environmental impact. The general process of birth, human development, and aging involves a predictable series of events. Reproductive technology has medical, agricultural, and ecological applications. This technology has also stirred ethical concerns as well, especially where this technology applies to humans.
Male System The structure and function of the human male reproductive system, is very similar to that of many other mammals. The male system is designed to make sperm or male gametes and is adapted to provide for the delivery of these gametes to the female to allow for fertilization.
Male Reproductive System
Male Reproductive System Structures 1. testes -- produces sperm and the hormone testosterone 2. scrotum -- pouch enclosing the testes keeping the sperm at an optimum temperature for development 3. vas deferens -- tube carrying sperm away from the testes 4. prostate gland -- the largest of several glands which add lubricating and other fluids to the sperm -- this combination of sperm and fluids is called semen 5. urethra -- tube through the penis carrying sperm to the outside of the body 6. penis -- adaptation for internal fertilization of the female Female System The structure and function of the human female reproductive system, is very similar to that of many other mammals. It is designed to produce female gametes or eggs, allow for internal fertilization, support the internal development of the embryo and fetus, and provide nutrition through milk for the newborn.
Female Reproductive System
Female Reproductive System Structures 1. ovary -- (females have two of these) -- produce female gametes or eggs and the hormone estrogen 2. oviduct (fallopian tube) -- carries the egg away from the uterus -- internal fertilization normally occurs here 3. uterus -- implantation and development of the embryo and fetus before birth occurs here 4. vagina or birth canal -- entry point for sperm from the male and exit tube for the baby when it is born Endocrine Interactions
testosterone
produced by the testes in the male and stimulates the development of male secondary sex characteristics (like facial hair and deeper voice). produced by ovaries in the female and stimulates the development of female
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estrogen
secondary sex characteristics (wider hips and mammary glands) as well as starting the thickening of the uterus lining in preparation for a possible pregnancy after the egg is released by the female each month. progesterone produced by yellow tissue calledcorpus luteum in the empty ovarian follicle(place in ovary producing and releasing the egg) -- this hormone maintains the thickness of the uterus lining in case fertilization occurs and development of a fetus occurs. In human females of reproductive age, these hormones interact in a cyclic pattern called the menstrual cycle. This pattern of events repeats itself on average every 28 days unless a pregnancy or other disruption occurs. A graphic representation and written description of the stages of the human menstrual cycle is provided below. Human Menstrual Cycle
Note the influence of the hormone progesterone in beginning the thickening of the uterus lining and the role of the hormone estrogen in maintaining the thickness of that lining. Ovulation or release of the egg occurs at the midpoint of this cycle, while the uterine lining thins and is shed
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(menstruation) when the level of estrogen begins to decline to a large extent. Menstrual Cycle Stages 1. follicle stage (10-14 days average duration)

production of ova/eggs occurs in tiny cavities in the ovary called follicles enlarging follicle produces estrogen which causes the uterus to get ready for embryo implantation (uterus thickens its lining)
2. ovulation (1 day)

follicle enlarges and ruptures ovary wall egg is released to the oviduct (usually only 1 is released at a time)
3. corpus luteum stage (10 -14 days average duration)

yellow tissue fills the follicle after ovulation called the corpus luteum "yellow body" secretes progesterone which maintains the thickness of the uterus in case a pregnancy occurs
4. menstruation (3-5 days average duration)
periodic shedding of the thickened lining of the uterus which occurs if fertilization does not occur
Initial Development and Differentiation The processes of gamete production, fertilization, and development follow an orderly sequence of events. Zygotes contain all the information necessary for growth, development, and eventual reproduction of the organism. The zygote, which is a fertilized egg consisting of one cell, will begin to divide rapidly by mitosis forming the early developing human embryo. Fertilization and the initial stages of this mitotic cell division occur in the oviduct. The early embryo is migrates down the fallopian tube and completes most of its development in the wall of the uterus.
Fertilization and Initial Development of the Embryo
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The placenta is a combination of maternal and fetal tissue which allows for the exchange of materials with the fetus and mother. Needed materials such as food and oxygen diffuse through the placenta to the fetus, while wastes from the fetus diffuse to the mother. The umbilical cord is a fetal structure containing blood vessels which allows materials to be carried between the fetus and placenta in both directions. The amniotic fluid surrounds the fetus and helps to provide a shock absorber to protect the fetus against mechanical injury in the event the mother is shaken or injured in some manner.
Fetal Development in the Uterus
The embryo will eventually develop into a three cell layered structure. This structure is called a gastrula and will eventually differentiate to form the specialized cells. Differentiation means that the cells will develop specific jobs and develop into specific tissues in the maturing organism. An example of this is that the outer cell layer of the developing gastrula will develop into the skin and nervous system of a mature human organisms. Most multicellular animals undergo a similar pattern of development and differentiation.
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Fetal Development Development is a highly regulated process. After this small cluster of cells called the gastrula forms in humans, tissues begin to form. In humans, the embryonic development of essential organs occurs in early stages of pregnancy. During the first three months of human development, organs begin to form. The human embryo is usually referred to as afetus when human like features become visible in its structure. All organs and body features are developed by the end of the sixth month. During the last three months of pregnancy, organs and features develop well enough to function after birth. The embryo (or fetus) may encounter risks from faults in its genes and from its mother's exposure to environmental factors such as inadequate diet, use of alcohol, tobacco, drugs, other toxins, or infections. While the patterns of development discussed previously hold true for humans, these developmental patterns vary between different plants and different animals. Aging is a complex series of developmental changes which occur with the passage of time. This process is influenced by both heredity and the environment. This process eventually leads to the death of the organism. Reproduction and development are subject to environmental impact. Human development, birth, and aging should be viewed as a predictable pattern of events. Reproductive Technologies Reproductive technology has medical, agricultural, and ecological applications. In many instances, these technologies have progressed at a faster rate than the ethical considerations resulting from these technologies. Some of these techniques include birth control methods used to block the process of fertilization. Many technologies now exist to enhance the process of fertilization and development in humans and other organisms. Hormone therapy can cause increased egg production. Surgery can open blocked fallopian tubes in females and the vas deferens in males. In vitro fertilization (test-tube babies) is a widely used technique to aid infertile couples, allowing them to have children where this otherwise would not be possible.
The in vitro Fertilization Process
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Immune System
Disease Homeostasis in an organism is constantly threatened. Failure to respond effectively can result in disease or death. Disease is a disturbance of homeostasis or steady state within an organism. Many organisms, such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites may cause disease. Disease also results from factors which are not living organisms. The immune response is the defensive reaction of the body to foreign substances or organisms. The immune system also protects against some cancer cells which may arise in the body. Some Causes of Disease Living organisms which cause disease are known as pathogens. Some viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites are examples of living things which are pathogens causing disease. Other factors may be involved which contribute to or cause the body to develop disease. Some of these factors include heredity, exposure to poisonous (toxic) substances, poor nutrition, organ failure or malfunction, and poor personal behavior and choices. Smoking, obesity, and over consumption of alcoholic beverages would be a few examples of poor personal choices which may have immediate or long term consequences for our health. Immunity and Disease Immunity describes the ability of an organism to resist foreign organisms or invaders which enter its body. The immune system is designed to protect against microscopic organisms (bacteria, viruses) and foreign substances which enter an organism from outside its body. The immune system also protects from many cancer cells which arise within our bodies. An antigen is any foreign substance which invades the body of an organism, while a pathogen is a living antigen (such as viruses or bacteria) which invade an organism. Many different kinds of white blood cells exist which are able to help the body fight foreign invaders in various ways. These various ways include:

engulfing (eating) invaders (phagocytes are white blood cells doing this) producing antibodies (chemicals which destroy or neutralize antigens) (lymphocytes are the kind of white blood cells which produce antibodies) marking antigens for attack and killing by other white blood cells
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Below are graphics of two different categories of white blood cells in action: Phagocytic White Blood Cells in Action
Lymphocyte White Blood Cell Function
It is important to note that an antibody has a specific shape to destroy a specific antigen. Immune System Memory and Vaccinations When organisms are exposed to disease, they make specific antibodies which destroy that antigen during their first exposure to it. This first exposure to a disease and our making of antibodies in reaction to this to defend ourselves is sometimes called the primary immune response. Our immune system has a memory. This means that if we ever are exposed to that
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same particular disease antigen again, our immune system has a memory and will make antibodies so rapidly in response to another exposure that we will not get the disease. Our immune memory is sometimes called the secondary immune response. Immune System Memory
Vaccinations use dead or weakened microbes or parts of them to stimulate the primary immune response or first production of antibodies. Using dead or weakened microbes has the advantage of not making the organism sick as they would become if they caught and recovered from a disease. Because the vaccine has stimulated the immune system, the organism will now have a memory to subsequent exposures to that disease causing antigen. Allergies and Auto-immune Diseases In allergies, the body's immune system produces chemicals in response to normally harmless substances which do not trouble other individuals. These chemicals make people with allergies feel sick. In auto-immune diseases, the body's immune system for usually unknown reasons may attack and destroy some its own cells. Some kinds of arthritis and degenerative diseases result from auto-immune diseases. AIDS, Cancer, and Disease Research Some viral diseases damage the immune system which leaves it unable to cope with many antigens and other infectious agents. AIDS is a viral disease which destroys the ability of the immune system to produce antibodies, so the afflicted individual is unable to cope with infections and cancer cells which arise within the body. Disease may also be caused by inheritance, toxic substances, poor nutrition, organ malfunction, and some personal behavior. Some effects show up right away; others may not show up for many years. Cancer is a group of diseases resulting from gene mutations which cause cells to divide uncontrollably. Exposure of cells to certain chemicals and radiation appears to increase the chance of mutations and thus cancer. Biological research is constantly ongoing to find knowledge about diagnosing, preventing, treating, controlling and curing diseases in plants and animals. The human genome project has provided a great deal of information of the genetic basis of many diseases.
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Nervous System
Nervous Regulation Nerve cells or neurons also allow cells to communicate with each other. Neuron communications are one way organism can detect and respond to stimuli at both the cellular and organism level. This detection and response to stimuli helps to maintain homeostasis in the cell or organism. Neurons may stimulate other nerve cells or muscle cells, thus causing the later to contract and produce movement. Structure and Function of a Nerve Cell
Structures and their Functions 1. dendrite -- neuron branch which detects stimuli (changes in the environment) 2. cell body -- body of the neuron where normal metabolic activities occur 3. axon -- longest branch covered by a myelin sheath(which provides electrical insulation) -- carries nerve message or impulse to the axon terminals 4. axon terminals -- release nerve chemicals calledneurotransmitters which stimulate adjacent dendrites on the next neuron or a muscle cell Any change in nerve or hormone signals will change the communication between cells and organs in an organism and thus may cause problems for organisms stability and a bility to maintain homeostasis.
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Skeletal and Muscular Systems

Skeletal System Your skeletal system isn't just your bones; it's your bone marrow, cartilage, and ligaments all make up this important body system. As an embryo, you are made up almost completely of cartilage. Cartilage is tough, yet elastic connective tissue. As the embryo develops, the cartilage is replaced with bone. The body of an adult still contains some cartilage on the nose, the rib cage, the spine and in the pelvic area. Cartilage is particularly useful because it allows for some movement in the area, yet still provides protection and structure. Humans have an endoskeleton, which means our bones are inside our bodies. Our bones are made up up two parts: compact bone (found on the outside of the bone) and spongy bone (the inner part of the bone). Bones give support to our bodies and protect our internal organs. Bones also help us move, store minerals like calcium, and are where blood cells form. Joints are areas where two bones meet, and bones are held together with a connective tissue called ligaments. Muscular System The muscular system is made up of three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, smooth and cardiac. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones and help us move. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of structures like the intestines and stomach, and are not generally able to be controlled voluntarily. Cardiac muscle makes up the heart, and is also not generally under voluntary control. In order for skeletal muscles to contract and move, the nervous system is involved. Motor neurons from the central nervous system make connections with the skeletal muscles. The neuron and muscle cells have a small gap called a neuromuscular junction or synaptic cleft in between them. A neurotransmitter (chemical messenger) called acetylcholine diffuses across the synapse, delivering the impulse to the muscle cells. Tendons connect muscles to bones. The way the tendons connect to the bone helps the bone act like a lever for the muscles to be pulled. Skeletal muscles can pull in only one direction, so usually they work with another muscle that is pulling in the opposite direction. Oxygen is delivered to the muscles via the circulatory system. Oxygen is needed in the muscles in order for cellular respiration to occur. Cellular respiration produces the ATP (energy) needed to power the muscles and help us move. During heavy exercise, the muscles may not receive enough oxygen to keep with the energy demands. In this case, lactic acid fermentation would occur, which produces energy in the absence of oxygen. This can lead to a burning sensation in the muscles due to the build up of lactic acid.
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Integumentary System The integumentary system includes the skin, glands (sweat and oil), hair and nails. Your skin is your largest organ, as it covers your entire body. The skin plays many roles in helping your body maintain homeostasis. It aids in blocking out UV radiation from the sun and keeps out potential microorganisms that could cause disease. Also, the skin helps to regulate your body temperature through sweating, which also excretes wastes. There is a layer of fat under your skin that helps protect your body from injury. Your skin can even sense things, like temperature and pain, because of the nerves found in the dermal layer.
Circulatory System
The circulatory system consists of the heart, blood, and blood vessels. There are three types of blood vessels: arteries, veins and capillaries. The heart is an organ made of cardiac muscle and it acts like a pump. The muscles of the heart contract and pump blood away from the heart (through the aorta) and to the tissues of the body. Diffusion occurs at the tissues, allowing for nutrients and oxygen to enter the cells, and for carbon dioxide and other wastes to be removes from the cells. Your heart beats when the pacemaker (sinoatrial node located in the right atrium) sends an impulse that causes muscle contractions to occur. The heartbeat is partly controlled by neurotransmitters released by the nervous system. When your heart pumps, it produces a pressure in your arteries called blood pressure. Your body helps regulate your blood pressure by communicating with the brain. The brain releases neurotransmitters that can raise or lower the blood pressure by relaxing or contracting the smooth muscles of the blood vessels. Your kidneys also play a role in regulating blood pressure by removing water from the blood and releasing it as urine.
Cardiovascular Diseases
High blood pressure can lead to many problems. High blood pressure makes the heart work harder. This can lead to damage or weakening of the blood vessels and heart muscle. Also, if you have high blood pressure, you are more susceptible to heart attack, stroke, coronary artery disease, and other circulatory system diseases.
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Atherosclerosis occurs when fatty plaque deposits build up on the walls of blood vessels. If this condition occurs in the coronary arteries, it can block the flow of blood that supplies the heart with oxygen and nutrients. The part of the heart that isn't getting the supply of oxygen it needs can start to die, causing a heart attack. If the plaque buildup causes a blood clot and the clot breaks free, it can get stuck in other blood vessels. If that happens in the brain, it can cause a stroke. Cardiovascular diseases can be prevented through the avoidance of smoking, regular exercise and balanced diets. Blood Blood is composed of 55% plasma and 45% red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs) and platelets. Plasma is made up primarily of water, but also contains salts, nutrients, hormones, and many other substances. Red blood cells transport oxygen. Hemoglobin is a protein located on RBCs that binds to oxygen in the lungs and transports it to the tissues where the oxygen gets released. White blood cells are produced from stem cells in bone marrow. The number of WBCs in the blood is much less than that of RBCs. When you are sick, the number of WBCs int he blood increases to help fight infection. There are many types of WBCs and they each have a different job (ex: engulfing microorganisms that cause disease, releasing chemicals, etc.). Some WBCs make antibodies to help destroy pathogens ("bad guys") that provides you with immunity to several diseases. WBCs leak out of the circulatory system into the lymphatic system where they are able to provide defense within the tissues of the body. Blood Clotting Platelets are fragments of blood cells that aid in clotting the blood. Platelets circulate around the body and become sticky when they come into contact with broken blood vessels. This causes proteins called clotting factors to be released, which can produce microscopic filaments called fibrins. The strands of fibrin act like a net and form a blood clot, which prevents continued loss of blood from the body. Hemophilia is a genetic disorder that causes defected clotting factor proteins, leading to the inability to clot blood.
Respiratory System
The circulatory system has a close interrelationship with the respiratory system. The main organ of the respiratory system is the lungs. The diaphragm is a muscle located underneath the heart and lungs that contracts to pull air into the lungs and relaxes to force air out of the lungs. When the air enters the lungs, it travels through the bronchi to tiny air sacs called alveoli. In the alveoli, oxygen diffuses into the blood stream through capillaries that surround each alveoli. The newly oxygen rich blood then travels back towards the heart, where it will then get pumped to the rest of the body.
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Breathing is not a completely voluntary action. The nervous system (medulla oblongata) can regulate breathing by monitoring the levels of carbon dioxide in the blood. If the levels get too high, the brain sends impulses to the diaphragm and chest muscles that increase the breathing rate. This rids the body of the excess carbon dioxide while bringing more oxygen to the blood. Tobacco Nicotine, carbon monoxide and tar are just three of the substances that makes smoking dangerous to the body. Nicotine is a stimulant drug that causes an increase in blood pressure and heart rate. Cilia that line the respiratory tract become paralyzed, leaving them unable to sweep mucus away from the lungs. Many respiratory diseases can be caused by smoking. Chronic bronchitis is when the bronchi become swollen and clogged with mucus. Emphysema is when your lungs lose their elasticity, making it extremely difficult to breathe. Smoking can also lead to lung cancer.
Digestive System
The digestive system, also known as the alimentary canal, consists of many organs. The job of the digestive system is to break down our food into small particles so they are able to diffuse into our cells easily.
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Your mouth is the first site of digestion. The food enters here and your teeth help to grind the food into a paste. The paste is made when saliva mixes with the food with the help of the tongue. The saliva contains an enzyme that starts to break down carbohydrates into smaller sugars. The esophagus is a tube that leads from the mouth to the stomach. The movement of food through the esophagus is caused by contractions of the smooth muscle that lines the esophagus. These muscle contractions are known as peristalsis. Once the food reaches the stomach, the muscles of the stomach churn the food, mixing it with stomach acid. The acidity of the stomach helps to activate an enzyme in the stomach that breaks down proteins into amino acids. When the food leaves the stomach, it enters the small intestine. In the small intestine, enzymes from the pancreas and liver/gall bladder are released and mix with the food to help break it down even further. Lipids are broken into fatty acids and glycerol, carbohydrates are broken down into sugars, and proteins are broken down into amino acids. Now that the food is broken down into particles small enough to diffuse, they are able to enter the bloodstream to circulate around the body to the cells and tissues that need them. The small intestine is lined with tinyvilli that help with the absorption of nutrients by adding surface area. The capillaries of the villi allow for the diffusion of the nutrients into the bloodstream. The food passes to the large intestine after it leaves the small intestine. In the large intestine, many vitamins and minerals are absorbed, as well as water. The waste becomes more solid at this point, and the remains pass through the rectum and anus as feces. Excretory System The excretory system is a way for humans to get rid of chemical wastes, which plays a role in maintaining homeostasis. Many of the chemicals we rid from our bodies can be toxic if they are not removed. Some of the wastes we produce in our cells are carbon dioxide, urea, and salts. Liver The liver, while part of the digestive system, also plays a role in the excretory system. Excess amino acids are often found in the bloodstream from the foods that we eat. The liver converts excess amino acids in our bloodstream into other compounds the body can use. Urea, a waste product, is produced as a result. The urea then gets removed from the bloodstream by the kidneys. Kidneys The kidneys help to maintain homeostasis by filtering wastes out of the blood. They also remove excess water from the bloodstream, which maintains the blood's volume and blood pressure. The pH of the blood is kept in check when urea is removed from the body, as well.
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Humans have two kidneys located in the lower back. A tube called a ureter leaves each kidney and they connect to the urinary bladder, where urine collects. The urine is held in the bladder until it is ready to be released from the body. The urethra is the pathway that urine takes from the bladder to the outside of the body.
The kidneys have millions of filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron has arteries, veins and capillaries connected to them. As the blood passes through the nephron, water, urea, amino acids, and other materials are filtered out of the blood. Most of these materials make their way back into the bloodstream, but the excess materials form urine and eventually find their way out of the body.
Since many materials are filtered out of the body by the kidneys and released in urine, testing urine has proved useful in seeing if substances like drugs have been in a person's system recently. Also, finding certain substances in the urine, like glucose, can indicate a problem with the body like diabetes. As long as a person has at least one kidney, their body can maintain homeostasis. If a person has no fully functioning kidney, they may need to have their blood filtered by dialysis to remove the wastes that could build up in the body. Kidney dialysis can be done with a machine, but it is expensive and time consuming.
Review provided by regentsprep.org and NYS Core Curriculum
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Human Body Systems Regents Questions Aug 2011
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Week 3

SYCPA Regents Prep - Living Environment