Fractals, Vol. 6, No.

4 (1998) 401408 c World Scientic Publishing Company

FRACTAL MODELING APPLIED TO RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION AND FLOW SIMULATION

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JESPER M. SMIDT and DONALD M. MONRO University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, England Received May 17, 1998; Accepted June 30, 1998

Abstract
Image analysis was carried out on images of laboratory-made synthetic sandstone, which is used in air injection/in situ combustion experiments, and statistically similar sandstone was computer modeled in two (and three) dimensions. The pore space of both the synthetic and the modeled sandstones was found to be fractal. The equations governing the ow through porous rocks were developed, approximating the in situ combustion process with an immiscible displacement of resident oil by injected gas maintained at a constant pressure. A successive over-relaxation (SOR) scheme was applied to solve these equations. Finally, the similarity of simulations of ow through the laboratory-made synthetic and the computer-modeled sandstones was demonstrated.

1. INTRODUCTION
During the last decade the demand for ecient and economical exploitation of both existing and new oil and gas elds has grown ever stronger. Improved oil recovery (IOR) techniques have the potential to achieve this objective, and proper reservoir description facilitates prediction of the production, which again benets decisions on eld development and the choice and dimensioning of production facilities. This paper presents current research into the application of fractal techniques to reservoir charac

terization and computer modeling of reservoir rocks and the simulation of pore oil displacement by injected gas in these rocks. This simulation emulates laboratory experiments on air injection/in situ combustion, carried out concurrently at the University of Bath.1,2 Stauer and Aharony3 described percolation theory in detail. In his wide-ranging review paper, Sahimi4 dealt with most relevant aspects of ow in porous rock, from continuum models to fractals, percolation and recent developments. Heiba, Sahimi et al.5 extensively treated percolation theory

E-mail: d.monro@bath.ac.uk 401

402 J. M. Smidt & D. M. Monro

of two-phase relative permeability, whereas Katz and Thompson6 showed that the pore-rock interface of various sandstones is fractal. Hewett7 laid the groundwork for applying fractal geometry concepts to reservoir characterization and evaluation, and Hewett and Behrens8 showed how reservoir property distribution may be regarded as a realization of a random function. Thompson9 further developed models for rock pore geometry, identied relations between pore geometry and permeability, and argued for applying percolation concepts to study ow through such pores. Lenormand10,11 studied analog models of pattern growth and uid displacements in porous media, and showed how uid parameters and pore geometry create dierent mechanisms which can each be described by statistical theories, e.g. invasion percolation or diusion limited aggregation. Further work on reservoir characterization can be found in Ref. 12. Shook, Li and Lake,13 whilst dening scaling as extrapolation of results obtained at one scale to another scale, developed scaling procedures for homogeneous rocks; these were further developed for heterogeneous rocks by Li and Lake.14 The paper by Li, Cullick and Lake15 on global upscaling, which deals with reducing the number of data points to coarser spaced representative data points, is mentioned for completeness. Wedgwood and Monro16 suggested that uid recovery in percolation models is scale independent over a wide range of scales. Below we report image analysis carried out on images of reservoir rocks, in particular on laboratorymade synthetic sandstone which is used in air injection/in situ combustion experiments, and we describe computer modeling of such sandstone in two (and three) dimensions. The fractal characteristics of both synthetic and modeled sandstones

are investigated and conrmed. We further develop the equations governing ow through porous rocks, approximating the in situ combustion process with an immiscible displacement of resident oil by injected gas maintained at a constant pressure. A scheme applying successive over-relaxation (SOR) techniques has been devised for solving the ow governing equations. Finally, we demonstrate the similarity of simulations of ow through the laboratory-made synthetic sandstone and through the computer-modeled sandstone.

2. ROCK IMAGE ANALYSIS

Laboratory-made synthetic sandstones are used in the air injection/in situ combustion experiments. The synthetic sandstone investigated here is a consolidated sandstone; its matrix consisted of 93.5% quartz sand, 3% clay and 3.5% consolidating cement. The clay content provides an increased pore surface area, from which the chemical process of combustion benets; the permeability decreases with higher clay content, however, until at about 15% the clay blocks any ow as quoted by Korvin.17 Image analysis and processing using the image processing tool Visilog18 and in-house developed software was applied to scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of prepared samples of the synthetic sandstone. The left hand panel of Fig. 1 shows a two-dimensional SEM image of a section of the synthetic sandstone with black representing void space and grey-scales representing the matrix. The sandstone grain size distribution and the porosity were determined. The middle panel of Fig. 1 shows edge detection by Visilog ; this helps determine if the individual grains are separated and to remedy this if not.

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Fig. 1

SEM image of laboratory synthetic sandstone, with edge detection, and its binary image.

Fractal Modeling Applied to Reservoir Characterization and Flow Simulation 403

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The applied remedial image processing for instance consisted of manual retouching of the image to separate perceived individual grains, and a thresholding technique assigning to each pixel the value of 0 or 1, depending on the original pixel value being above or below the chosen threshold. This technique thus renders a binary image. The right-hand panel is the result of this thresholding; black represents void space and white the matrix. A virtually inevitable eect of such image processing, however, is an increase in derived porosity. The box-counting method for evaluation of the Hausdor-Besicovich or fractal dimension, D, of a geometrical structure in a metric space (e.g. twoor three-dimensional) is well-known (e.g. Ref. 19). The procedure is to fully cover the space with boxes of side length d, and count the number Nd of boxes intersecting the structure; then d is decreased and the process is repeated ad innitum, in practice till the pixel size is reached. Nd is then plotted against 1/d on a double-logarithmic grid, and the asymptotic slope (if existing) of the resulting curve is the fractal dimension. This is expressed by the formula, D = lim (log(Nd )/ log(1/d)) .
d0

(1)

Though the correlation dimension (Ref. 20, p. 738) is in general more ecient for determining the fractal dimension of an object, in this relatively simple case box-counting was considered adequate for the task.

The actual image of the synthetic sandstone has a pixel size of 512 by 512; with powers of 2 as the box side lengths, only 10 ratios can be evaluated, of which the rst half do not contribute any real information. Still the later ratios converged within 1 2 % towards 1.89 as can be seen in Fig. 2(a). This is the value we can expect from a percolation cluster, according to Sreenivasan21 or Aharony,22 and that is what this image represents, essentially. Thus the pore space is self-similar and fractal to a good approximation over a certain range of scales. The limitations in resolution, however, do not allow us to determine the precise range of scales. The left-hand panel of Fig. 3 displays the binary image with the resolution reduced to a pixel size of 128 by 128, and the middle panel displays a reduction to one quarter size of this binary image. These reductions have been applied in order to limit computer core space requirements and computer run time of ow simulation. Most ow simulation schemes (including ours) will only allow ow between nearest neighboring cells and not between cornering cells; therefore there is no communication across grain contact points in the two-dimensional representation displayed here, whereas ow in real rock and threedimensional models will by-pass such obstacles. To remedy this, a weighted moving average, including for each pixel the nearest neighbors and the corners, is applied. This opens up the pore space without further aecting the average porosity. The result of

Fig. 2 Box-counting applied to (a) the Laboratory-made synthetic sandstone, and (b) to the computer-modeled sandstone. In both cases the ratio log(Nd )/ log(1/d) is seen to converge, towards the value of 1.89 indicated by the punctured trend line.

404 J. M. Smidt & D. M. Monro

Fig. 3

Reduced-resolution binary synthetic sandstone, with quarter selection and after moving average.

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Fig. 4

Computer-modeled binary sandstone, with quarter selection, and after moving average.

this moving average is displayed as the right-hand panel of Fig. 3.

3. ROCK MODELING
Sandstones with the grain size distribution identical to that of the synthetic sandstone and with the grains spread randomly in two or three dimensions were modeled. The two-dimensional version was modeled by a Monte Carlo simulation of circular grains with the size distribution found from the synthetic sandstone, as described above. This is displayed in Fig. 4, with the left-hand panel showing the binary image reduced to 128 by 128 pixels, the middle panel displays a quarter section of that image, and the right-hand panel this quarter section after application of the weighted moving average described in the previous paragraph. Box-counting applied to the initial 512 by 512 pixel image of this computer-modeled sandstone demonstrated convergence within 1/2% towards 1.89 [see Fig. 2(b)], as in the case of the synthetic

sandstone. Though the visual resemblance could be more striking and could be helped by more sophisticated modeling (e.g. of ellipsoidal rather than the circular grains), the modeled sandstone is statistically similar to the synthetic sandstone, and with identical fractal dimension. The modeling of Darcy ow through these two sandstones is therefore expected to yield similar results.

4. FLOW GOVERNING EQUATIONS

Flow through porous media can be modeled in one of two ways, in part depending on the scale: One is Navier-Stokes ow honoring explicitly the geometry of the void space formed by microscopical pores and any other void space up to the scale of large ssures and faults; the other is Darcy ow approximating the pore space with a continuum of the properties, porosity and permeability. Depending on scale, gravity eects may be modeled as well. In terms of computer modeling, Darcy ow implies partitioning of the reservoir by means of a grid, with

Fractal Modeling Applied to Reservoir Characterization and Flow Simulation 405

a single value of each property assigned to each grid block. Mass continuity (i.e. conservation of matter) is maintained by applying the continuity equation, /t + (v) = 0 , (2)

5. NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS
The ow through the reservoir sandstones which we attempt to model is that of in situ combustion (Ref. 1), whereby gas (air) is injected into the reservoir via an injector well. The injected gas provides an initial pressure dierential and the supply of oxygen necessary for the in situ combustion, which is either spontaneous or brought about by some igniting device. The combustion then provides the drive to mobilize and squeeze out the oil ahead of the combustion front and into the producer well. This is all modeled as an immiscible replacement of resident oil by injected gas with the pressure of the gas front maintained at a constant level. To achieve this, nite dierence approximations were applied to the two partial dierential equations [Eqs. (8) and (9)], and the resulting algorithms were coded for running on a massively parallel Distributed Array Processor (DAP). Both porosity and permeability distributions as well as uid (oil) density and viscosity are given initially, and the pressure distribution within the reservoir model is calculated by solving the dierenced pressure equation [Eq. (9)] utilizing an SOR (successive over relaxation) scheme (Ref. 24). The ow rate distribution is then calculated by the application of another SOR scheme to solve the differenced reduced Darcys law [Eq. (8)], and the gas front is advanced till the rst grid cell has been drained of its oil contents. The calculated pressure and ow rate distributions are maintained for the duration of the cell replacement process. The process of calculating the pressure distribution and subsequently the ow rate distribution is repeated iteratively and each time the gas front is advanced till the next cell has been drained, whilst various parameters are monitored, e.g. elapsed time, oil replacement, oil production and mass error. The iterations are continued till gas break-through, i.e. the instant when the gas front reaches the producer well; then the nal recovery is calculated, in accordance with usual practice.

where v is (vectorial) uid ow rate, t time, and density. For an incompressible medium (/t = 0) the continuity equation reduces to v = 0. (3)

For large scale ow, where gravity and inertial effects are apparent, the full Navier-Stokes equation is applicable: ( v/t + v v) = p + 2 v
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+ (/3 + v )( v) + g , (4)

where and v are shear viscosity and bulk viscosity, respectively, of the uid, p is pressure and g (vectorial) gravity. The reduced continuity equation [Eq. (3)] for an incompressible uid is substituted and the NavierStokes equation is then written as v/t + (v )v = (1/)p + (/)2 v + g . (5) For small scale ow the inertial and gravitational eects are negligible, however, and the resulting Navier-Stokes equation is thus p = 2 v . (6)

From the Navier-Stokes equations [Eqs. (4) or (5)], King Hubbert23 derived Darcys Law, v = k/ (p g) , (7)

where k is uid permeability of the rock. Ignoring gravity Darcys Law reduces to v = k/ p . (8)

Taking the divergence on both sides of the reduced Darcys law, and substituting the reduced continuity equation [Eq. (3)], yields the equation for pressure, (k p) = 0 . (9) In this study we model pressure with the latter pressure equation [Eq. (9)] and ow with the reduced Darcys law [Eq. (8)].

6. FLOW SIMULATIONS
Flow simulations have been carried out for dierent well geometries and various reservoirs, based on either SEM images or computer models. Below, we present ow simulations using the laboratory-made synthetic and the computer-modeled sandstones which were described above. In either case, both

406 J. M. Smidt & D. M. Monro

Fig. 5

Laboratory-made synthetic sandstone: initial pressure and ow, and ow at gas break-through.

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Fig. 6

Computer-modeled sandstone: initial pressure and ow, and ow at gas break-through.

injector and producer wells are horizontal (line) wells, represented by the left- and right-hand vertical edges of the reservoir image, respectively. Proportionality between porosity and the grey-shade of the image was assumed, whereas the permeability was derived from the gray-shades using an arbitrary conversion scale ranging from 0 to a maximum value and eventually scaled to match the laboratory measured average permeability of the synthetic sandstone. Figures 5 and 6 both display, from left to right, the initial pressure distribution, the initial ow distribution, and the nal ow at gas break-through at the well. In all panels black signies impermeable rock matrix. In the pressure display the grayshades exhibit the pressure variation: the lighter the gray-shade is, the higher the pressure. In the ow images, white denotes total gas saturation, and the gray-shades display ow rates: the lighter the gray-shade, the higher the ow rate. Figure 5 displays ow through the laboratory-made synthetic sandstone and Fig. 6 displays ow through the computer-modeled sandstone.

Table 1

Simulation results.

% Laboratory-made Synthetic sandstone Computer-modeled Sandstone

Eective Porosity Recovery Permeability 47.5 49.7 27 22 100 149

The simulations of ow through the two reservoirs both display typical fractal ngering, and they are similar to one another, though not identical, both in appearances, as seen on Figs. 5 and 6, and in terms of nal recovery and eective (overall average) permeability. Table 1 presents the porosity, eective permeability and recovery at gas breakthrough, for the two sandstones. Because of the arbitrary character of their modeled distribution, the permeabilities are given only in percentage relative to that of the laboratory-made synthetic sandstone. The small dierence of a few percent in the porosities is due to the reduction of the image pixel

Fractal Modeling Applied to Reservoir Characterization and Flow Simulation 407

size and the choice of a quarter of the image size for the ow modeling. The modeled circular grain shape apparently yields a higher eective permeability and eventually a lower recovery due to earlier gas break-through.

7. DISCUSSION
The image analysis of real SEM rock images (i.e. of the laboratory-made synthetic sandstones) allowed computer-modeling of statistically similar sandstone. The porosities of both sandstones are higher than would normally be expected in a natural sandstone; this could either be caused by limited consolidation, or by the image processing applied, or both. The box-counting does not reveal the range over which sandstone pore space is fractal, though with a width of a few millimetres of the image and a pixel length of a 1/512 of the image width, the range from a few micrometers to a millimeter is covered. The crucial question is the upper limit, which for a sandstone will hardly approach the decimeter range. For fractured limestone the case could be dramatically dierent with fractal characteristics applying all the way up to gridblock scale, i.e. to tens or hundreds of meters. A more rened modeling, e.g. by including simple elipticity or a more complicated Feret diameter dependence, could improve the apparent similarity between the synthetic and the computer modeled sandstones, and better the match between their modeled relative ow parameters. We cannot derive absolute values of permeability from images, though, this has to be provided otherwise, say, from rock core measurements. The ow simulations were, nevertheless, statistically similar, arguably as a result of the identical fractal dimensions of the two sandstones. As regards up-scaling permeability, this question has yet to be resolved; qualitatively, it was found from the simulations that the eective (i.e. overall average) permeability of both sandstones was an order of magnitude lower than the average pore space permeability. Previous work by Wedgwood and Monro16 suggests that uid recovery from percolation models is independent of scale. They based their ndings on ow simulation through a percolation model with constant or slowly varying permeability within the pore space; this led them to a Laplace equation governing the pressure distribution. In our sandstones, the assumption of a constant or slowly varying

permeability cannot be maintained and the more complicated pressure equation [Eq. (9)] needed to be solved. For the same reason also the reduced Darcys law [Eq. (8)] turned more complicated in its dierenced guise. This resulted in increased computer core space requirements and processing run time, which in turn led to a limitation of the image resolution which could practically be achieved.

8. CONCLUSION
Laboratory-made synthetic sandstones are being used for air injection/in situ combustion experiments. The pore space of these, as imaged by a scanning electron microscope, was found to be fractal within the range of scales covered by the data. It was possible to computer model sandstones with similar grain size distribution and fractal pore space, and simulations of ow through either of these sandstones proved similar in appearance and recovery. Though the upper limit for which the sandstone pore space is fractal is uncertain, upscaling will facilitate estimating realistic eective permeability of reservoir rocks.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research formed part of a joint IOR research project between the School of Electronic and Electrical Engineering and the School of Chemical Engineering, both at the University of Bath. The support from the Engineering and Physical Science Research Council (EPSRC) is gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES
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408 J. M. Smidt & D. M. Monro

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