Introduction

SOIL COMPACTION

Generally, soil consists of solid particles, water and air;

Compaction of the soil, usually by mechanical means, reduces the air voids with the aim of : Achieving a state of increased unit weight Increasing the shear strength of the soil Reducing the permeability Making the soil less susceptible to settlement under loading (Self weight and especially repeated loading e.g. traffic)

In order to achieve any of these aims when constructing dams, embankments, retaining walls, roads or runways, strict control of the construction methods is required. If compaction is not carried out thoroughly during construction, future loading of the soil (when it forms part of a permanent structure) will cause further undesirable settlement with associated deformation and likely damage. Definitions Compaction Compaction is the process of increasing the density of the soil by packing the solid particles closer together by reducing the volume of the air. The degree of compaction is measured in terms of dry density, d. This represents the mass of solid particles in a given volume of soil, i.e. 1m3. Compaction should aim to achieve as high a dry density as possible. Laboratory compaction tests and field tests provide values for soil density, , and water content, w. Dry density can be calculated from soil density and water content as shown below:

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Relationship between soil bulk density (b) and dry density(d); b M V MS V M MS

d
but

therefore;

M= MS + MW and MW = w MS (See (1) in Basic Properties) M = MS + wMS

d
therefore;

MS + w MS = 1+w MS

b d = 1 + w

N.B.: Water content, w, is used as a ratio Relates dry density to soil density - important when considering compaction (see later section) The dry density after compaction depends on; type of soil water content of the soil amount of effort supplied by the compactive equipment.

At low water content most soils tend to be stiff and are difficult to compact. As the water content is increased the soil becomes more workable, improving compaction and resulting in higher dry densities. At high water content the dry density decreases with increasing water content, an increasing proportion of the soil volume being occupied by water.

Air
-2-

Voids
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Content, AV AV = Where; VA VW V Volume of air VA VV - VW = = Total volume V V = volume of air voids = volume of water = total volume of soil

VA is usually expressed as a % but used in equations as a ratio e.g. 5% air voids = 0.05 AV = e w GS 1+e

The air voids content, Av, of a soil after laboratory or on-site compaction is an important parameter: If all the air could be expelled by compaction the soil would be fully saturated and the dry density would be the maximum possible value for the given water content. However, this degree of compaction is not attainable in practice. The maximum possible value of dry density is referred to as the zero air voids dry density or the saturated dry density (i.e. mass of solids when there is only water in the soils voids) and can be found from: -

d =
NOTE:

Gs(1 - AV)W (1 + w Gs)

AV and w are expressed as ratios e.g. 5% air voids = 0.05 W = 1000kg/m3

The relationship between zero air voids dry density and water content produces a curve, known as the zero air voids line or the saturation line. Curves relating to dry density at air contents of 5% and 10% with water content can also be drawn, see next page.

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NOTE: 1.463 Mg/m3 = 1463 kg/m3 0.5 kg/m3 These curves enable the air content at any point on the experimental dry density/ water content curve to be found by inspection. Laboratory compaction tests Since the degree of compaction is influenced by the compactive effort applied there are three laboratory tests which attempt to reflect the compactive effort available on site: 1. BS Light Compaction Method [2.5kg rammer] (cohesive soils), or 2. BS Heavy Compaction Method [4.5 kg rammer] (cohesive soils) 3. Vibrating hammer methods (granular soils). Cohesive soils Light Compaction Test Heavy Compaction Test Rammer Drop No. of Layers No. of blow per layer 2.5 kg 300 mm 3 27 4.5 kg 450 mm 5 27

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NOTE: 1.621 Mg/m3 = 1621 kg/m3 Note: A greater compactive effort results in a higher max dry density and a lower optimum water content, however, the values of air content at max dry density are approx the same. Granular soils The vibrating hammer method consists of an electrical vibrating hammer with a tamper attached. The soil is compacted in three layers, each layer is subjected to vibration from the hammer under a constant downward force for 60 seconds. The test is intended to reflect the compaction obtainable on site using vibratory plant (applies to granular soils/fill). Class example 1 In a BS compaction test the following data was collected:
Water content % Soil density kg/m3 5 1870 8 2040 10 2130 13 2200 16 2160 19 2090

Specific gravity, Gs, of the soil particles was found to be 2.7 a) b) Draw a graph of dry density against water content and from it determine the maximum dry density and optimum water content. On the same axes, draw the d/w curves for zero and 5% air content and hence determine, by inspection, the air content at maximum dry density. (HINT: Try water content, w, values of 10, 14, and 18 %) Ans: 1955 kg/m3 ; 12% ; 4%

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Specifications for compaction

NOTE: Specifications for Earthworks in the UK exclusively refer to the MANUAL OF CONTRACT DOCUMENTS FOR HIGHWAY WORKS VOLUME 1 SPECIFICATION FOR HIGHWAY WORKS Series 600 Earthworks and Notes for Guidance NG600 (often referred to as MCHW Earthworks Documents used to be called the Department of Transport Specification for Roads and Bridge Works). 1. End - Product Specification A required property of the compacted soil (eg a minimum density or a maximum air content) is specified. Requires in situ density tests and laboratory water tests. The two most common approaches are: a) relative compaction The required dry density of the earth fill must be greater than a certain proportion (90, 95, 100%) of the dry density obtained from a laboratory test - usually the BS light (2.5 kg) or vibrating hammer test. b) air voids content The maximum air voids content Av of the earth fill is quoted eg 10% for the bulk of an earth embankment, with 5% for the top layers to provide a good foundation support or sub-grade for a highway.

End product specification requires in situ samples of soil density to be taken in order to obtain values of dry density or air void content. Suitable methods include: Core cutter methods for cohesive soils ) Soil density & Sand replacement method for granular soils ) Water content Nuclear moisture/density gauge for a wide range of materials (gives approximate water content) See Class Example 2 2. Method Specification A specification developed by the Department of Transport which specifies for major projects, a method of compaction to be used. Based on the results of previous laboratory tests. The type of plant, layer thickness and number of passes are specified. (see attached extracts from MCHW Specification Documentation. Specifically refer to Tables 6/1, 6/2 and 6/4 (although ensure that you always read the preceding text prior tom using the Tables in practise). See Class Example 3

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Class example 2: pre-compaction testing A highway embankment is to be constructed from clay, imported from an adjacent site. A laboratory light compaction test has been carried out on a sample of the clay and the resulting plot is shown below. The specification for site compaction requires that the final compacted dry density of the clay be at least 95% of the maximum value achieved in the laboratory test. After compaction by field plant, an undisturbed sample of the compacted clay, obtained by core cutter, weighed 2072g. The core cutter was 127 mm long with a diameter of 102 mm. After drying, the sample weighed 1806 g. Specific gravity of soil particles is 2.70. Determine whether the compaction specification has been satisfied.
Fig. Q1
1900

1850

1800
Dry density kg / cu m

1750

1700

1650

1600

1550 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Moisture content %

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Class example 3: post-compaction testing a) A landfill site is to be lined with a compacted clay soil. A sample of the clay has been subjected to a light compaction test in the laboratory and the resulting plot is shown below. i) Describe the laboratory test procedure ii) If the specific gravity of the clay particles was found to be 2.68, determine the void ratio of the clay at maximum dry density.

b)

The specification for the compaction of the clay states that at least 95% of the maximum dry density achieved in the laboratory is obtained on site. After site compaction a core sample is taken and the following date recorded. Core size: 101.6 mm diameter 203 mm long Natural mass: 3702 g Mass after drying 3358 g For the compacted clay, determine; i) Soil density ii) Water content iii) Dry density iv) Whether the specification has been satisfied
Fig. Q2
2050

2000

Dry density, kg / cu m

1950

1900

1850

1800 6 8 10 Moisture content, % 12 14 16

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