GLOBAL TECTONICS Seafloor Spreading and Transform Faults Composition of the Earth All bodies in the solar system

m are believed to have been formed by the condensation and accretion of the primitive interstellar material from which the solar nebular was made. Heating of proto-Earth differentiated it into a radially symmetric body made up of a series of shells. The density of the Earth increases towards the center. It is believed that meteorites are representatives of the material of solar nebula. Thus, estimates of the Earths composition can be made from the study of meteorites. From this it is indicated that the Earth is composed of an iron/nickel core surrounded by light density silicate mantle and crust. Seismic data, knowledge of mass, and moment of inertia of the Earth has shown its mean atomic weight to be 27. Mantle and crust contribute 22.4% while core alone contributes 47%. Proportions of different meteorites can be mixed to give the above atomic weight and core/mantle ratio. It is apparent that at least 90% of the Earth is made up of Fe, Si, Mg, and O. The bulk of the remainder is comprised of Ca, Al, Ni, Na, and S. The Crust The continental Crust Only the upper part of the crust is available for direct sampling at the surface or from the boreholes. At greater depth, all information collected is indirect. Some metamorphic rocks, some xenoliths, and a knowledge of variation in the velocities of seismic waves along the depth, and experimental determination of such velocities at various conditions of pressure and temperature give much of the information. Pressure increases with depth at a rate of 30 Mpa/km . Temperature increases at a rate of 25 degrees C / km but decreases to about half this value at the Moho. Collectively, observations from both geologic and geophysical studies show that the continental crust is vertically stratified in terms of its chemical composition. The variation in seismic velocities with depth results from a number of factors: -increase of pressure up to top 5km, thereafter none -Velocities also change due to change in the chemical as well as mineralogical composition resulting from phase changes. Abrupt velocity discontinuities are caused by the change in chemical composition, while more gradational velocity boundaries are associated with mineralogical phase changes. They argue on the basis of the heat flow, that average continental crust has andesitic or granodioritic composition with K2O <1.5%. This is less silicic than most previous estimates.

Pressure increases with depth at a rate of 30 Mpa/km . Temperature increases at a rate of 25 degrees C / km but decrease to about half this value at the Moho. Collectively, observations from both geologic and geophysical studies show that the continental crust is vertically stratified in terms of its chemical composition. The variation in seismic velocities with depth results from a number of factors: -increase of pressure up to top 5km, thereafter none -Velocities also change due to change in the chemical as well as mineralogical composition resulting from phase changes. Abrupt velocity discontinuities are caused by the change in chemical composition, while more gradational velocity boundaries are associated with mineralogical phase changes. Models for the bulk chemical composition of the continental crust vary widely because of the difficulty in making estimates. Abundance of heat-producing elements: K, U, Th. They argue on the basis of the heat flow, that average continental crust has andesitic or granodioritic composition with K2O <1.5% by weight. This is less silicic than most previous estimates. Earth-Upper Continental Crust Past theories suggested granitic composition for the upper continental crust Widespread occurrence of large negative gravity anomalies over granite plutons showed that this was not the case. Experiments and observations have shown that the average composition of the upper continental crust corresponds to a rock type between granodiorite to diorite, and is characterized by a relatively high concentration of heat producing elements. Middle and Lower Continental Crust Middle cont. crust is 11km thick (from 12km-23km) Lower cont. crust is 17km thick (from 23km-40km) Thicknesses and depths may vary from setting to setting, e.g. tectonically active rifts and rifted margins, Mesozoic Cenozoic orogenic belts. Seismic velocity range (6.8-7.7km/sec.) shows that the lower crust is made up of denser and more mafic rocks. Heat producing elements also decrease with depth indicating thereby increasing proportions of mafic lithologies. In areas of thin continental crust such as rifts and rifted margins, the middle and lower crust may be composed of low to medium grade metamorphic rocks. In regions of very thick crust such as under orogenic belts, the middle and lower crust is composed of high grade metamorphic mineral assemblages. The middle crust may be composed of more evolved and less mafic compositions compared to lower crust. Metasedimentary rocks may be present in both layers. If the lower crust is dry, its composition may correspond to a high-pressur form of granulite with the composition of granodiorite to diorite containing abundant plagioclase and pyroxene minerals.

In the overthickened roots of orogens, parts of the lower crust may record transition to eclogite facies where plagioclase is unstable. Here, mafic rocks may transform into very dense garnet and pyroxene bearing assemblages. If the lower crust is wet, the basaltic rocks would occur in the form of amphibolites. Sudies of exposed ancient lower crust show that both dry and wet rock types typically are present. Another indicator of lower crust composition is the elastic deformation parameter Poissons ratio (ratio between P and S wave velocities for a medium). This varies systematically with the composition from0.20 to 0.30. low values represent felsic rocks while high mafic rocks. Certainly lower crust is compositionally more complex than suggested by the above geophysical models. Studies of deep crustal xenoliths and crustal contaminated magmas indicate that there are significant regional variations in composition, age and thermal history. This compositional complexity is matched by a very heterogenous structure. This heterogeneity reflects a wide range of processes that create and modify the lower crust. THE OCEANIC CRUST The oceanic crust is in isostatic equilibrium with the continental crust according to the Airy mechanism Seismic refraction studies have shown that oceanic crust is typically 67 km thick beneath an average water depth of 4.5km Thicker than normal oceanic crust exists where more than normal supply of magma occurs due to high temperatures in the upper mantle. Thinner than normal oceanic crust forms where anomalously low temperatures occur in the upper mantle. Seismic refraction surveys showed the presence of three principal layers: Table According to more recent studies further subdivision of these main layers is possible. There appears to be a progressive increase in velocity with depth. Oceanic Layer 1 Layer 1 has been extensively sampled by coring and drilling Seabed surface materials comprise unconsolidated sediments carried into the deep oceans by turbidity currents Pelagic deposits, zeolites, calcareous and silicic oozes, manganese nodules Contourites Layer 1 is 0.4km thick; progressively thickens away from the ocean ridges Within layer 1, there are a number of horizons that show up as prominent reflectors on seismic reflection records Oceanic Layer 2 This layer varies in thickness from 1.0 to 2.5km. Seismic velocity: 3.46.2km per second Igneous origin Basalts: Olivine tholeei tes containing calcic palgioclase and poor in Na, K

Subdivisions of Oceanic Layer 2 Sub-layer 2A: Only present on ocean ridges near eruptive centers near areas of hydrothermal circulation of sea water indicating porosity Sub-layer 2B: Its higher velocity 4.8-5.5km per suggests a lower porosity With time 2A may be converted to 2B Sub-layer 2C: 1km thick; velocity 5.86.2km per second, may indicate high proportion of mafic intrusive rocks Pillow lavas and dikes throughout 1800m. Oceanic Layer 3 It is the main component of the oceanic crust and represents its plutonic foundation It can be subdivided into sub-layers3A and 3B. Velocity ranges between 6.5-6.8 for 3A and from7 to 7.7km/sec. for lower sublayer 3B. According to Hess, this layer was formed from upper mantle material whose olivine reacted with water to form serpentinized peridotite But the Poissons ration for layer 3A is more in accord with a gabbroic composition. It is possible that part of layer 3B is formed of serpentinized peridotite. OPHIOLITES Ophiolites: snake rock Ophiolites usually occur in collisional orogens. They are associated with deep sea sediments, basalts, gabbros and ultramafic rocks. They originated as oceanic lithosphere that were later obducted upward into the continental setting as a result of collision. Complete ophiolite sequence: Table Several evidence to prove their association with oceanic lithosphererocks, metamorphic grades, similar ore minerals, seismic velocities structure etc. Figure, Table Ophiolites represented lithosphere that was obducted while young and hot. Geochemical evidence suggest that the original sites were back-arc basins, Red sea type ocean basins, or fore-arc regions of subduction zones. Petrology and geochemistry of the fore-arc regions support it. Many different mechanisms have been proposed for the obduction of ophiolites, but none explains all cases satisfactorily. Thus it must be recognized that there may be several operative mechanisms. Also, ophilite sequences may differ considerably in terms of their detailed geochemistry from lithosphere created at mid-ocean ridge crests in the major ocean basins. There are indications that there are more than one type of ophiolites.

The Mantle The mantle constitutes the largest internal subdivision of the Earth by both mass and volume. It extends from the Moho at a mean depth of 21km, to the core mantle boundary at a depth of 2891km. On a grass scale it is considered to be chemically homogeneous (but for minor and trace elements) formed of silicate minerals. The mineralogy and structure of the silicates change with depth and give rise to a transition zone. The transition zone lies between 410 and 660km depth, which separates the Upper and Lower Mantle. Mantle material is only rarely brought to the surface through ophiolite emplacement, kimberlite pipes, and as xenoliths in alkali basalts. Consequently, most of the knowledge about mantle is indirect based on variation of seismic velocities with depth. other sources of information include: studies of mineral behavior at high temperature and pressure, shock wave experiments, geochemical studies of meteorites and ultramafic rocks. Seismic Structure of the Mantle The uppermost part of mantle forms a high velocity lid 80-160km thick. The seismic velocities remain more or less constant at above 7.9km/sec. This part of the mantle makes up the lower portion of the lithosphere. Beneath the lithosphere lies the Low velocity zone extending to a depth of 300km. This is present beneath most regions of the earth except beneath cratonic areas. From the base of this zone, velocities begin to increase slowly until the major discontinuity at a depth of 410 km. This marks the upper surface of the transition zone.

The other velocity discontinuity occurs at a depth of 660 km which marks the base of the transition zone. Within Lower Mantle velocities increase slowly with depth until the basal 200300km where low velocities are present. This lowermost layer at the core-mantle boundary is Layer D. There is a thin ultra low velocity zone at the base of Layer D. Mantle Composition Much of the oceanic crust is made up of basalt derived from the upper mantle. This suggests that upper mantle is composed of either peridotite or eclogite. Peridotite possesses abundant olivine and less than 15% garnet, whereas eclogite cotntains little or no olivine but at least 30% garnet. Both possess a seismic velocity of about 8km/sec , which corresponds to the upper mantle value Several evidence suggest very strongly that upper mantle is peridotitic. Velocities over 15% higher perpendicular to ocean ridges are due to preferred orientation of olivine crystals. This is not the case in minerals of eclogite. Other evidence: Poissons ratio; ophiolites; nodules in alk.Basalt. The Bulk composition of the mantle can be estimated from: compositions of various ultramafic rock types, geochemical computations, various meteorite mixtures, experimental studies. Undepleted mantle and depleted mantle* Incompatible elements Most of the lower mantle must be more enriched in incompatible elements than the upper mantle. The lower mantle is not involved in producing melts that reach the surface. Estimates of bulk mantle composition vary in detail, however, it is generally agreed that at least 90% of the mantle by mass can be represented in terms of the oxides FeO, MgO, and SiO2. The rest is made up of CaO, Al2O3, and Na2O. The Mantle Low Velocity Zone This zone is characterized by low seismic velocities, high seismic attenuation, and a high electrical conductivity The effects are more pronounced for S-waves than for P waves. The low seismic velocities could arise from different mechanisms but partial melting / molten material is the most important. It is at this level that mantle material is most nearly reaches its melting point. Only a small amount of melt is required to lower the seismic velocity of the mantle. A liquid fraction of less than 1% would do the job if distributed along the network of fractures around grains. The melt may also be responsible for the enhanced electrical conductivity of this zone. A small quantity of water is required to lower the melting point of silicate phases of mantle to bring about partial melting. This water is supplied by the break-down of hydrous minerals.

The existence of low velocity zone may be controlled by the availability of water in the upper mantle. The mantle low velocity zone is of major importance to plate tectonics. The Mantle Transition Zone The major velocity discontinuity at a depth of 410km and at 660km marks the top and base of this zone. The discontinuities are rarely sharp. They represent phase changes rather than changes in chemistry. Pressure induced phase changes are considered to be responsible for the existence of this zone. High pressure studies show that it is the olivine that undergoes transformations to spinel structure at a depth pressure of 410km and then to provskite at 660km depth. The other component of peridotites pyroxene and garnets also undergoes phase changes, they are gradual and do not cause discontinuities of seismic velocity with depth. Pyroxene transforms into the garnet structure at pressures corresponding to 350500km depth. At 580 km depth, Ca-perovskite begins to exsolve from garnet. At 660-750 km depth the remaining garnet dissolves in perovskite formed from the transformation of olivine. Thus, the lower mantle mostly consists of perovskite structure. The Lower Mantle The lower mantle represents about 70 % of the mass of the solid earth and 50 % mass of the entire Earth. There is generally a smooth increase of seismic velocity through this layer with depth. This indicates a relatively homogenous mineralogy with perovskite structure. More detailed studies show some heterogeneity . The lowest 200-300 km of the mantle, the Layer D is characterized by a decrease in seismic velocity. This is due to increased temperature gradient above the core-mantle boundary. This lower Layer shows large lateral changes in velocity. Ultra low velocity zone indicate presence of partially molten material. Interaction between the iron from core and silicates derived from Layer d has been suggested. Layer D is important because it controls core-mantle interactions and also it may be the source of deep mantle plumes. THE CORE The core is a spheroid with a mean radius of 3480 km. It occurs at a depth of 2891 km. and occupies the center of the Earth. The core-mantle boundary is known as Gutenberg discontinuity that generates strong seismic reflections indicating change in composition. The outer core at a depth of 2891-5150 km does not transmit S-waves. So it must be fluid.

This is also proved by the generation of magnetic field in this region. The velocities of the convective motions responsible for the geomagnetic field are five times greater than the mantle convection currents. The fluid state is also indicated by the response of the Earth to the gravitational attraction of the Sun and the Moon. The boundary between the outer and inner core is sharp at 5150 km. The inner core is believed to be solid for several reasons. A particular seismic wave. The amplitude of a phase reflected off the inner core. Experiments have shown that both outer and inner core are made up of elements with atomic number higher than 23. These may be Fe, Ni, V or Co. Of these, since only Fe is abundantly present in the Solar system, it must have formed major part of the core. It is believed that core contains 4 % Ni. The iron-nickel mixture forms the composition of the outer core plus a small amount of lighter elements, e.g. Si, S, O, and K. Oxygen may be the most likely light element as FeO is sufficiently soluble in iron. The inner core has a seismic velocity and density consistent with a composition of pure iron. The Vine Metthews Hypothesis It is surprising to note that maps of oceans showing magnetic lineations had been available much before the true significance of magnetic anomalies was realized. Hypothesis of Vine and Metthews (1963) combined the notion of seafloor spreading with the phenomenon of geomagnetic field reversals. According to the hypothesis new oceanic crust is created by the solidification of magma injected and extruded at the crust of an ocean ridge. On further cooling, temperature passes through Curie point below which ferromagnetic behavior becomes possible. The solidified magma then acquires magnetization in the same direction as the ambient magnetic field. The process of lithosphere formation is continuous and proceeds symmetrically on both sides. If the geomagnetic field reverses polarity as the new lithosphere forms, the crust on either side of the ridge would consist of a series of blocks running parallel to the crest. These blocks would possess ramanent magnetizations that are either normal or reversed, storing the reversal history of earths magnetic field registered in the oceanic crust (Vine, 1966). The intensity of Remanent magnetization in oceanic basalts is significantly larger than the induced magnetization. Shapes of the magnetic lineations are controlled by the primary remanent magnetization direction. Vector of reversely magnetized material is inclined steeply upwards towards the south.

Blocks of normally magnetized crust formed at high northern latitude possess the magnetization vectors that is inclined steeply towards north. The profile observed at this portion of the crust would be characterized by positive anomalies on normally magnetized blocks and negative anomalies on reversely magnetized blocks. A similar situation pertains in high southern latitudes. Crust magnetized at low latitudes also generates positive and negative anomalies; but on any particular block it is markedly dipolar. This obscures the symmetry of the anomaly about the ridge crest, as individual blocks are no longer associated with a single positive or negative anomaly. However, at the magnetic equator, where the field is horizontal, negative anomalies coincide with normally magnetized blocks and positive anomalies with reversely magnetized blocks. This is precisely the reverse situation to that at high latitudes. In general, the amplitude of magnetic anomalies decreases as the latitude decreases and as the strike of the ridge progresses from E-W to N-S.

FRAMEWORK OF PLATE TECTONICS DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES Majority of the earths tectonic activity takes place at the margin of the plates. Thus, locations of earthquake epicenters can be used to mark plate boundaries. Figure showing global distribution of epicenters of large magnitude earthquakes (1961-1967). Significance of 1961____Setting up of the world Standardized Seismograph Network in1961 Classification of earthquakes according to their focal depths: Shallow focus earthquakes: 0-70km. Intermediate depth earthquakes: 70-300km. Deep focus earthquakes: Greater than 300km depth An important belt of shallow focus earthquakes follow the crests of ocean ridge system

Tensional events associated with plate accretion and strike-slip events where the ridges are offset by transform faults On land, tensional events are associated with rifts, e.g. Basin and Range Province (USA), East African Rift system, and Baikal Rift system All intermediate and deep events are associated with destructive plate margins Pacific ocean on three sides is ringed by a belt of earthquakes on a plane dipping at 45 beneath the neighboring plate. The deepest event recorded lie at a depth of 670 km Collisional mountain beltsAlpine Himalayan chain have no Benioff zone. Intra-plate areas. Relative Plate Motions Measurements of present day plate motions using techniques of space geodesy Relative plate motions using geological and geophysical data Eulers theorem: The movement of a portion of a sphere across its surface is uniquely defined by a single angular rotation about a pole of rotation. The pole of rotation and its antipodal point on opposite diameter of the sphere are the only two points which remain in a fixed position relative to the moving portion. Consequently, the movement of a continent across the surface of the Earth to its pre-drift position can be described by its pole and angle of rotation. The relative motion between two plates is uniquely defined by an angular separation about a pole of relative motion Figurer The Euler pole E is the pivot point for the motion of the two plates relative to each other. Fracture Zones Fracture zones are long, narrow mountain ranges that were discovered in the early 1950s. They cut across the major features of the ocean floor, including both rises and abyssal plains. A typical fracture zone is about 60km wide and consists of several irregular ridges and valleys aligned with the overall trend of the fracture zone. The depth of the floor changes across the fracture zone. On map fracture zones are arcuate features of great length. Figures: Fracture zones have many of the characteristics of faults, particularly those of strike-slip faults. But these are not simple strike-slip faults. Earhquakes observed along fracture zones are curiously intermittent: they occur along only those parts of fracture zones that lie between the offset segments of mid-oceanic rise crests. Figure. Elsewhere, fracture zones are seismically quiet. The longest fracture zones on earth are those in the Pacific basin, and these have no seismic activity. The fracture zone pattern in the eastern Pacific indicates that faulting on the fracture zone was older than the continental crust along the continental margin. Why is seismicity confined to the segments of fracture zones between active midoceanic ridges? Wilsons Model for Plate Tectonic Explanation of Fracture Zones

Using Euler poles For true tangential motion to occur during relative motion between two plates, the transform faults along their common boundary must follow the traces of small circles centered upon the pole of relative motion. The Euler pole can be found out as described above. This is the most accurate technique and applies best to accretive type of boundaries. Figure Based on variation of spreading rate with angular distance from the pole of rotation Spreading rates are determined from magnetic lineations by identifying anomalies of the same age on either side of the oceanic ridge and measuring the distance between them. The velocity of spreading is at a maximum at the equator corresponding to the Euler pole It decreases according to the cosine of the Euler poles latitude. The determination of the spreading rate at a number of points along the ridge then allows the pole of rotation to be found. Figure Spreading rates are determined from magnetic lineations by identifying anomalies of the same age on either side of the oceanic ridge and measuring the distance between them. The velocity of spreading is at a maximum at the equator corresponding to the Euler pole It decreases according to the cosine of the Euler poles latitude. The determination of the spreading rate at a number of points along the ridge then allows the pole of rotation to be found. Figure Using Focal Mechanism Solution of Earthquakes This is least reliable method. If the inclination and direction of slip along the fault plane are known, then the horizontal component of the slip vector is the direction of relative motion. Divergent plate boundaries can be studied using spreading rates and Transform faults. Convergent boundaries , however, present more of a problem. This is possible by making use of information from adjoining plates and treating the rotations between plate pairs as vectors. Thus if the relative movement between plate A and B, and B and C is known, the relative movement between A and C can be found by vector algebra. The method can be applied to determine relative motions for the complete mosaic of plates that make up the Earths surface. ABSOLUTE PLATE MOTIONS The absolute motion of plates is much more difficult to define than the relative motion between plates at plate boundaries. A particular point on the plate will be stationary if the Euler vector of motion of that plate or plate boundary passes through that point.

Absolute plate motion should specify the motion of lithosphere relative to the lower mantle because this accounts for 70% of the mass of the solid earth. It deforms more slowly than the asthenosphere above and the outer core below. Hotspots Wilson introduced hotspots. Passage of crust over the hotspot in the mantle beneath. Morgan elaborated on the ideamantle plumes rising from the lower mantle providing fixed reference frame with respect to lower mantle Figure: Model of Gripp & Gordon (2002). It averages plate motions over the past 5.8Ma, twice the length of time over which relative velocities are averaged. Some other frames of reference African Plateremained stationary for the past 25 Ma. Caribbean plate: opposite polarity of subduction made it stationary. Volcanic activity within the interiors of plates, intra-plate volcanism Linear island and sea mount chains such as HawaiianEmperor and Line island chains in the Pacific. Aseismic ridges are constructed such as Ninety East ridge in the Indian Ocean, the Greenland-Scotland Ridge in the North Atlantic, and Rio Grande and Walvis ridges in the south Atlantic. Composition Hawaiian-Emperor chain6000km long Morgan proposed that hotspots presented a fixed framework of reference for determination of absolute plate motion. 40 to 50 present day hotspots have been suggested. Figure