Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 12 (2011) 135141

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Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / i f s e t

Tenderization of beef loins using a high efciency sparker

Brian C. Bowker a,, Raymond B. Schaefer b, Michael J. Grapperhaus b, Morse B. Solomon a
a b

USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, MD 20705, United States Phoenix Science & Technology, Inc., Chelmsford, MA 01824, United States

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
The tenderizing effects of treating beef loins with high-pressure shockwaves from a sparker source were evaluated. Samples were sparker treated as either steaks or intact loin roasts on day 0 and WarnerBratzler shear force (WBSF) was measured on days 0 and 7. With the sparker head 7.5-cm above the samples, nonaged steaks receiving 80 pulses at two locations had lower WBSF than controls. Aging decreased WBSF in all samples. With the sparker head set at 3.75-cm, treated samples exhibited 2025% lower WBSF values than controls on day 0 and all of the treated samples demonstrated WBSF reductions N 10%. Samples treated as individual steaks and intact loin roasts had similar tenderness improvements. The maximum observed tenderness improvements were 37% (entire steak), 56% (medial portion of steak), and 31% (lateral portion of steak). Data from this study indicate that high-pressure shockwaves generated from a sparker source are an effective postharvest technology for tenderizing beef. Industrial relevance: Improving meat tenderness is essential to enhancing the value and consumer appeal of inferior quality meat cuts. Demonstrating the ability to tenderize tough cuts of meat using sparker generated high-pressure shockwaves is an important step in providing the meat industry with an effective postharvest technology for improving product quality. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Article history: Received 24 September 2010 Accepted 30 January 2011 Editor Proof Receive Date 25 February 2011 Keywords: Beef Tenderness High-pressure Sparker Shockwaves

1. Introduction Inconsistent meat quality, especially tenderness, is a major concern within the meat industry. Consumer studies have repeatedly demonstrated that tenderness is a vital factor inuencing consumers decisions to purchase or repurchase beef (Huffman et al., 1996) and that consumers will pay more for guaranteed tender meat (Miller, Carr, Ramsey, Crockett, & Hoover, 2001; Platter et al., 2005). Thus, the meat industry is seeking postharvest technologies to improve tenderness and enhance consumer acceptance of meat. Because of implementation costs, inefciency, inconvenience, or adverse effects on other sensory attributes, no single technique is used industry-wide for meat tenderization. The application of high-pressure shockwaves to raw muscle has been explored as an alternative postharvest technique for tenderizing meat (Godfrey, 1970; Long, 2000). With this technique, meat is submerged in water beneath a source of high-pressure shock pulses inside a test chamber. The shockwaves impinge on the meat, both directly and after reecting from the oor and walls, to produce a

Mention of trade names or commercial products in this publication is solely for the purpose of providing specic information and does not imply recommendation or endorsement by the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Corresponding author at: Food Quality Laboratory, 10300 Baltimore Ave., Bldg. 201 BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705, United States. Tel.: +1 301 504 5626; fax: +1 301 504 8438. E-mail address: brian.bowker@ars.usda.gov (B.C. Bowker). 1466-8564/$ see front matter. Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.ifset.2011.01.010

tenderizing effect. High-pressure shockwaves generated by a small amount of explosives dramatically improve tenderness in beef, pork, lamb, and poultry meat (Claus, Schilling, Marriott, Duncan, Solomon, & Wang, 2001a; Meek et al., 2000; Solomon, 1998; Solomon, Carpenter, Snowder, & Cockett, 1998; Solomon, Long, & Eastridge, 1997). With instantaneous 3757% improvements in tenderness, high-pressure shockwaves have been shown to enhance tenderness in beef as effectively as aging (Solomon, 1998). The safety issues involved with using explosives, however, limit the commercial compatibility of this innovative process. High efciency compact sparkers may provide an alternative method to generate shockwaves for meat tenderization (Schaefer, 1997, 1998, 2002ac, 2003, 2004ad, 2005; Schaefer & Flynn, 1999). Sparkers are electrically driven acoustic sources that produce highpressure shockwaves similar to explosives. A sparker operates by pulsing high voltage across an electrode gap, which results in a plasma discharge that produces a pressure pulse or shockwave. The discharge leaves behind a high-pressure vapor cavity (bubble) that expands and then collapses, producing an additional pressure peak, with the process repeating until the bubble energy has dissipated. Sparker sources also provide the capability of electronically controlling the pressure, which is potentially useful for tenderizing different cuts and types of meat. Limited literature exists, however, on the tenderization of meat using electrically induced shockwaves. Claus et al. (2001b) reported using a sparker to improve tenderness in early deboned chicken and turkey breasts. Similarly, Claus, Sagili, and Sammel (2002) and Sagili and Claus (2003) reported improvements in the

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tenderness of beef and pork cuts using a focused type sparker. However, understanding of the tenderization process in these studies was limited, as the sparkers were only specied in terms of the number of PFNs (pulse forming networks) and percent of capacity. The objective of the current study was to investigate the relationship between sparker operating parameters and meat tenderization using a unique, highly controlled, efcient sparker. This study determined the impact of high-pressure shockwaves generated by the sparker system on the WarnerBratzler shear force (WBSF) of beef strip loins prescreened for toughness. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Meat samples Boneless beef strip loins (IMPS 180; USDA-AMS, 1996) were procured from a local commercial processing plant at 2 days postmortem from Choice and Select grade beef carcasses. One 2.5-cm thick steak was removed from the rib end of each strip loin for determining initial shear force. Only strip loins (n = 16) considered to be tough (WBSF N 46.0 N) were utilized in this study. The strip loins were then vacuum packaged, frozen at 20 C, and stored for approximately two weeks. Frozen strip loins were then cut into 2.5-cm thick steaks sequentially starting from the rib end to just anterior to the Gluteus medius muscle. Steaks were identied as being from either the anterior, middle, or posterior sections of the strip loins. Frozen steaks were individually vacuum packaged and stored at 20 C. In order to test the effects of sparker treating intact loin roasts instead of individual steaks, a subset of frozen strip loins were left intact. Prior to treatment, packaged steaks were thawed in a circulating water bath set at 39 C for 11 13 min and then placed in an ice slush for 5 min. Intact strip loins were thawed at 4 C for 24 h. All samples were treated immediately after thawing. 2.2. Experimental design This experiment was conducted as three separate trials (Table 1) with the different experimental set-ups shown schematically in Fig. 1. In the rst trial, individual steaks were treated with the sparker head set 7.5-cm above the muscle samples. Three sequential steaks from both the anterior and middle sections of twelve separate strip loins were utilized. The center steak from each strip loin section was designated as a non-treated control. The remaining two steaks from each section were individually sparker treated with the direction of the pressure wave oriented perpendicular to the cut surface of the steak. The sparker treatment was applied to both the medial and lateral portions of each steak with either 40 or 80 pulses at each position as depicted in Fig. 1. All three steaks (1 control and 2 treated) from one section of each strip loin were cooked and sheared on the day of treatment (day 0). The three steaks (1 control and 2 treated) from the remaining section of the strip loin were treated on day 0, individually vacuum packaged, and aged for 7 days at 4 C prior to

Sparker Positions Trial 1

Sparker Positions Trial 2 & 3 3.7 5 cm Steel Plate

7.5 cm Sample

Fig. 1. Sparker position for the three trials conducted in this experiment. In trial 1, the sparker is 7.5-cm above the top surface of the sample at two positions (medial and lateral). For trials 2 and 3, the sparker is 3.75-cm above the top surface of the sample at three positions (medial, central and lateral).

Table 1 Test matrix. Trial 1 Sparker distance 7.5 cm 7.5 cm 2 3.75 cm 3.75 cm 3 3.75 cm Treatment 2 positions 40 pulses each 2 positions 80 pulses each 3 positions 5 pulses each 3 positions 10 pulses each 3 positions 5 pulses each Sample Steak: anterior or middle Steak: anterior or middle Steak: anterior or middle Roast: anterior or middle Steak: posterior Aging

cooking and shearing on day 7. The section (anterior or middle) of each strip loin that was aged prior to cooking and shearing was randomly assigned. In the second trial, samples from the anterior and middle sections of four separate strip loins were sparker treated as either individual steaks or intact loin roasts. From strip loins with steaks treated individually, one steak from each strip loin section served as a nontreated control and the two adjacent steaks from each section were sparker treated on day 0. Steaks from one section of the strip loin were cooked and sheared on day 0, while steaks from the other section were individually vacuum packaged and aged for 7 days at 4 C prior to measurements. In strip loins with samples sparker treated as intact roasts, individual steaks were removed from both ends of the intact strip loins to serve as non-treated day 0 controls. Loin portions (7.5cm long) were then removed from both the anterior and middle sections of each strip loin for sparker treatment as intact loin roasts. The interior steak adjacent to both the anterior and middle sections of the strip loin was removed to serve as a non-treated day 7 control. After sparker treatment, intact roasts were cut into individual steaks which were designated for cooking and shearing on either day 0 or day 7. For the sparker treatment of individual steaks, ve sparker pulses were applied perpendicular to the cut surface of the steak with the sparker head set 3.75-cm above the steak at three separate positions across the steak surface (medial, central, and lateral) as depicted in Fig. 1. Treatment of intact roasts was done by applying ten sparker pulses perpendicular to the dorsal surface of the loin. The sparker head was set 3.75-cm above the roast at three separate positions across the roast surface (medial, central, and lateral) as depicted in Fig. 1. In the third trial, individual steaks from the posterior sections of eight separate strip loins were treated with the sparker head set 3.75cm above the muscle samples. To one steak from the posterior section of each strip loin, ve sparker pulses were applied perpendicular to the cut surface of the steak with the sparker head set at three separate positions across the steak surface (medial, central, and lateral). An adjacent steak served as a non-treated control. Due to the overall length of the strip loins, more than two steaks could be cut from several of the posterior sections used in this trial. Extra steaks were assigned sparker treatments. All steaks in this trial were treated on day 0, individually vacuum packaged, and aged for 7 days at 4 C prior to measurement on day 7. 2.3. Sparker system

0 days or 7 days 0 days or 7 days 0 days or 7 days 0 days or 7 days 7 days

The sparker source system (Schaefer, 1998) utilized in this study consisted of an annular head with a pair of concentric cylindrical electrodes separated by an annular insulator. The pulsed power driving circuit used a 64-F capacitor bank discharged using a triggered spark gap switch (Perkin Elmer GP-85) with a charging voltage of 3 kV. The sparker head was submerged in water in a 19 L cylindrical plastic container. Vacuum packaged meat samples were

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placed at the bottom of the container on a at, steel plate (1.3-cm thick) with the sparker head suspended at either 3.75 or 7.5-cm above the samples (Fig. 1). 2.4. Pressure wave measurement

medial and lateral portions followed the technique outlined by Zuckerman, Berry, Eastridge, and Solomon (2002) rather than half the linear measurement because the ber angle changes at the connective tissue. For each steak, there were a total of 12 to 22 WBSF measurements. 2.6. Data analysis

In a preliminary trial, pressure measurements were documented for the sparker treatment using a Navy-calibrated hydrophone (Underwater Sound Reference Division type F42C) placed in the position of the muscle samples. Data were recorded using a highspeed digital oscilloscope and converted to pressure (Fig. 2) using the frequency dependent hydrophone sensitivity calibration. The sparker induced pressure waveform has two strong pressure peaks followed by two small pressure peaks. After correcting for the hydrophone sensitivity, the peak pressure incident on the meat surface was determined to be approximately 6.6 MPa, and the bubble oscillated freely with a comparable second pressure peak. 2.5. Cooking and WarnerBratzler shear force (WBSF) measurement All steaks were cooked and sheared according to AMSA (1995) guidelines. Steaks were chilled to 4 C and then cooked on a covered electric grill (model GGR50B, Salton Inc., Mt Prospect, IL, U.S.A.) to an internal temperature of 71 C. Steaks were turned once when the internal temperature was halfway between the initial and nal (71 C) cooking temperature. Internal temperature of each steak was continuously monitored throughout grilling using a microprocessor thermometer (HH21, Omega Engineering, Stamford, CT, U.S.A.) with a Type-J thermocouple inserted into the geometric center of the steak. Data obtained included initial internal temperature, cooking time, and cooked weight. Cooking yield was calculated as: (cooked wt. / initial wt.) 100. Cooked steaks were cooled for approximately 60 min to room temperature before determining tenderness instrumentally by shear force. Cores for shear force determination were removed parallel to muscle ber direction using a coring tool (1.27-cm inside diameter) and were sheared one time perpendicular to muscle ber direction using a TMS-2000 texture analyzer (Food Technology Corp., Sterling, VA, U.S.A.). WarnerBratzler shear force (WBSF) was measured using a WarnerBratzler meat shear cell with an inverted-V cutout blade, 1.18-mm thick, at crosshead speed of 3.8 mm/s. Shear force was recorded for each quadrant of the steak (medial-dorsal, medialventral, lateral-dorsal, and lateral-ventral) and WBSF means were computed for overall, medial, and lateral shear force. Designation of

Data from the three trials were analyzed using the PROC MIXED procedure of SAS Version 9.12 Statistical Analysis System software (SAS Institute, Cary, NC, U.S.A.). Data from the rst trial were analyzed as a 2 3 arrangement of treatments in a randomized complete block split-plot design with aging (0 days and 7 days) as the main plot and sparker treatment (control, 2 40 pulses, and 2 80 pulses) as the split plot. The statistical model included sparker treatment, aging treatment, and the sparker aging interaction as xed effects and strip loin and the strip loin aging interaction as random effects. Data from the second trial were analyzed as a 2 3 arrangement of treatments with the statistical model including aging, sparker treatment (control, treated as steaks, and treated as roasts), and the sparker aging interaction as xed effects and strip loin as a random block effect. Data from the third trial were analyzed as a randomized complete block design with the statistical model including sparker treatment (control, treated) as a xed effect and strip loin as a random block effect. For all three trials, least squares means and standard errors were estimated and the differences among means were determined using the PDIFF and sidak options for multiple means comparison. A predetermined alpha level of 0.05 was used for all determinations of statistical signicance. 3. Results Table 2 shows the effects of treating beef strip loin steaks with the sparker head set 7.5-cm above the muscle samples. Shear force values (overall, medial, lateral) were not inuenced by treatment aging interaction effects (P N 0.05), however, sparker treatment decreased both medial and overall WBSF (P b 0.05). Compared to non-treated controls, WBSF values (overall and medial) were not statistically different in steaks subjected to the 2 40 pulse treatment, but were signicantly lower in steaks subjected to the 2 80 pulse treatment on day 0 (P b 0.05). In both sparker treated and control steaks, WBSF decreased from day 0 to day 7 (P b 0.0001). Cooking yield was similar between control and treated samples on both days 0 and 7, but there was an overall increase (P b 0.0001) in cooking yield with aging from 0 to 7 days (75.9% to 77.4%). Table 3 shows the effects of applying the sparker treatment to either individual steaks or intact loin roasts with the sparker head set 3.75-cm above the muscle samples. There was a signicant interaction effect between sparker treatment and aging for measures of overall and lateral WBSF. Sparker treated steaks and roasts both had lower WBSF values (overall, medial, and lateral) on day 0 than non-treated controls (P b 0.05). On both days 0 and 7, however, WBSF values (overall, medial, and lateral) were not different between samples treated as individual steaks or intact roasts. Measures of WBSF exhibited a strong aging effect in both treated and control samples (P b 0.0001). The decrease in overall and lateral WBSF with aging, however, was greater in controls than samples sparker treated as intact roasts. At both day 0 and day 7, cooking yield was lower in samples sparker treated as individual steaks compared to non-treated controls and samples treated as roasts (P b 0.05). The increase in cooking yield with aging from 0 to 7 days was not signicant (P = 0.1569). Table 4 shows the effects of treating steaks from the posterior sections of the beef strip loins with the sparker head set 3.75-cm above the muscle samples. Although the sparker treatment seemed to decrease overall, medial, and lateral WBSF approximately 12%, the differences observed were not statistically signicant. Compared to

7 6 5

Pressure (MPa)

4 3 2 1 0 -1 0 5 10 15 20

Time (ms)
Fig. 2. Peak pressure of shockwaves generated by the sparker system measured at the sample position (7.5-cm from the sparker head) using a calibrated hydrophone.

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Table 2 Effect of sparker treatment (7.5-cm sparker head height) on the WarnerBratzler shear force (WBSF) and cooking yield of beef strip loin steaks on the day of treatment (day 0) and after aging (day 7). Steaks were treated with either 40 pulses (2 40) or 80 pulses (2 80) at two positions on the steak surface. Data was collected on 72 steaks from 12 strip loins and included steaks from the anterior and middle sections of the strip loins. Data exhibited as means standard error. Variable Treatment Day 0 Overall WBSF (N) Control Treatment-2 40 Treatment-2 80 % WBSF Improvement: Treatment-2 40 Treatment-2 80 Control Treatment-2 40 Treatment-2 80 % WBSF Improvement: Treatment-2 40 Treatment-2 80 Control Treatment-2 40 Treatment-2 80 % WBSF Improvement: Treatment-2 40 Treatment-2 80 Control Treatment-2 40 Treatment-2 80 61.8 1.9a 58.1 1.9ab 56.3 1.9b 6.0% 8.9% 63.1 2.0a 58.4 2.1ab 57.8 2.0b 7.4% 8.4% 60.8 2.4a 57.8 2.5a 55.2 2.4a 4.9% 9.2% 75.7 0.5c 75.8 0.5c 76.1 0.5bc Aging Day 7 41.9 1.9c 40.9 1.9c 39.7 1.9c 2.4% 5.3% 39.9 2.0c 40.7 2.1c 37.8 2.1c 2.0% 5.3% 42.8 2.4b 40.9 2.5b 40.7 2.5b 4.4% 4.9% 77.6 0.5a 77.2 0.5ab 77.4 0.5a Trt 0.0408 Factor effects (p-values) Aging b 0.0001 Trt Aging 0.5264

Medial WBSF (N)

0.0396

b 0.0001

0.2478

Lateral WBSF (N)

0.1306

b 0.0001

0.6387

Cooking yield (%)

0.7507

b 0.0001

0.6989

abc

Means with different superscripts within a variable differ signicantly (P b 0.05).

non-treated controls, cooking yield was lower (P = 0.0063) in treated steaks. 4. Discussion This study was designed to determine the feasibility of using a novel, high efciency sparker source as a postharvest technology for improving beef tenderness. For this initial study, beef strip loins prescreened for toughness were utilized to test the tenderizing capabilities of the high-pressure shockwaves and to identify key operating parameters for optimum tenderization. Results from the current study indicate that the distance between the sparker head and the muscle sample (and hence the peak pressure of the shockwave)

play a key role in determining the degree of tenderization that can be achieved. With the sparker head set 7.5-cm above the samples (Table 2), the improvements in tenderness averaged only 510% on day 0, with a maximum tenderness improvement of 24%. At this sparker setting, 44% of treated steaks exhibited a reduction in overall WBSF greater than 10% compared to controls on day 0. Repositioning the sparker head to 3.75-cm above the samples increases the peak pressure from 6.6 to 12.3 MPa. In this conguration the average tenderness improvement was 2025% on day 0, with a maximum tenderness improvement of 37%. Furthermore, at the 3.75-cm setting all treated steaks exhibited a decrease in WBSF greater than 10%, with 70% of the treated samples showing at least a 20% WBSF reduction. The distance that shockwaves travel before reaching the meat surface

Table 3 Effect of sparker treatment (3.75-cm sparker head height) on the WarnerBratzler shear force (WBSF) and cooking yield of beef strip loin steaks on the day of treatment (day 0) and after aging (day 7). Samples were sparker treated as either individual steaks or as intact loin roasts. Data was collected on 26 steaks from 4 strip loins and included samples from the anterior and middle sections of the strip loins. Data exhibited as means standard error. Variable Treatment Day 0 Overall WBSF (N) Control Treatment-steak Treatment-roast % WBSF Improvement: Treatment-steak Treatment-roast Control Treatment-steak Treatment-roast % WBSF Improvement: Treatment-steak Treatment-roast Control Treatment-steak Treatment-roast % WBSF Improvement: Treatment-steak Treatment-roast Control Treatment-steak Treatment-roast 50.7 2.2a 40.1 2.8b 38.0 2.8bc 20.9% 25.0% 53.4 3.3a 39.3 4.4bc 42.1 4.4b 26.4% 21.1% 49.0 2.3a 41.5 2.8b 35.4 2.8bc 15.3% 27.8% 76.4 1.0ab 73.1 1.2c 76.8 1.2ab Aging Day 7 32.5 2.5cd 27.9 2.8d 29.9 2.8d 14.2% 8.0% 32.1 3.8cd 24.6 4.4d 29.3 4.4d 23.3% 8.7% 32.2 2.6cd 29.5 2.8d 29.6 2.8d 8.4% 8.1% 78.0 1.2a 74.6 1.2bc 77.8 1.2a Trt 0.0005 Factor effects (p-values) Aging b 0.0001 Trt Aging 0.0437

Medial WBSF (N)

0.0207

b 0.0001

0.3991

Lateral WBSF (N)

0.0039

b 0.0001

0.0484

Cooking yield (%)

0.0118

0.1569

0.9652

abcd

Means with different superscripts within a variable differ signicantly (P b 0.05).

B.C. Bowker et al. / Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 12 (2011) 135141 Table 4 Effect of sparker treatment (3.75-cm sparker head height) on the WarnerBratzler shear force (WBSF) and cooking yield of steaks from the posterior sections of beef strip loins after aging (day 7). Data was collected on 19 steaks from 8 strip loins. Data exhibited as means standard error. Variable Treatment Factor effect (p-values) Trt Overall WBSF (N) Control 39.2 2.6a Treated 34.3 2.5a % WBSF Improvement: 12.5% Control 39.3 3.5a Treated 34.8 3.4a % WBSF Improvement: 11.5% Control 38.9 2.4a Treated 34.1 2.3a % WBSF Improvement: 12.3% Control 77.2 0.4a Treated 75.5 0.3b 0.1304

139

Medial WBSF (N)

0.3550

Lateral WBSF (N)

0.0844

Cooking yield (%)

ab

0.0063

Means with different superscripts within a variable differ signicantly (P b 0.05).

was also found to be an important factor in the tenderizing capacity of high-pressure shockwaves generated by explosives (Meek et al., 2000; Solomon, 1998). The number of sparker pulses was also found to be a key factor in uencing meat tenderization. Although overall tenderness improvements were not high (N 10%) at the 7.5-cm sparker head setting, doubling the number of sparker pulses enhanced tenderization. Preliminary testing indicated that after a certain number of sparker pulses the tenderization effect diminished. Together these data suggest that while the peak pressures of individual shockwaves are relatively low, the tenderizing effects of multiple pulses are additive up to a certain threshold. These results are similar to previous data using explosives in which tenderization effects decreased with additional shockwave treatments (Solomon, Liu, Patel, Bowker, & Sharma, 2006). Data from the current study suggest that the number of sparker pulses required to achieve tenderization is highly dependent upon the height of the sparker head setting, most likely from the decrease in the pressure of the shockwave with distance. With the sparker head set closer to the sample surface greater tenderization was achieved with fewer sparker pulses (510 pulses at three locations versus 4080 pulses at two locations). Using fewer sparker pulses is advantageous in terms of maintaining the integrity of the muscle tissue and packaging. Utilizing extra steaks from this study, it was observed that treating steaks with more than ten pulses at three locations (medial, central, and lateral) with the sparker head set at 3.75-cm compromised the integrity of the vacuum packaging and caused visible damage to the muscle tissue. In further developing this novel sparker technology for meat tenderization, optimization of sparker height, peak pressure output, and the number of sparker pulses will be vital for maximizing tenderization while maintaining overall product safety and quality. In addition to testing various sparker treatment parameters, this study also sought to investigate the inuence of muscle factors such as aging, anatomical position, and sample type (steak vs. intact roast) on the effectiveness of sparker induced tenderization. All of the strip loins utilized in this study exhibited a strong aging effect with WBSF decreasing approximately 2530% with 7 days of aging in both treated and non-treated samples. Given that the strip loins were removed from the carcasses and frozen within 48 h postmortem, prior to substantial aging tenderization, these results were not surprising and are in agreement with data showing that beef strip loins subjected to explosives-derived shockwave treatment undergo postmortem proteolysis and aging tenderization similar to non-treated controls (Bowker, Fahrenholz, Paroczay, Eastridge, & Solomon, 2008). Shockwaves generated by explosives have demonstrated the ability to enhance

both the rate and extent of postmortem aging tenderization (Solomon, Berry, Paroczay, Callahan, & Eastridge, 2002). On average, this phenomenon was not observed in the current study as the sparker induced tenderness improvements were less apparent after 7 days than immediately following treatment. Evaluating the sparker treatment response on a whole loin basis rather than an individual steak basis, however, suggests that aging may have been enhanced by the sparker treatment in a subset of samples. Sparker treated steaks from 13 of the 16 loins used in this study demonstrated signicant tenderness improvements on day 0 (Fig. 3). After the 7 day aging period, however, sparker treated steaks from two of the three non-responding loins exhibited a 10% tenderness improvement compared to the aged controls. Thus, the suspected non-responders did indeed react positively to the sparker treatment, suggesting that in some loins the sparker treatment may have an aging-mediated effect on meat tenderness. Similarly, delayed tenderization responses have been observed in pork loins treated with shockwaves generated by explosives (Paroczay, Solomon, Berry, Eastridge, & Callahan, 2002). When measured on day 7, tenderness improvements due to the sparker treatment were diminished. This phenomenon was likely a function of the overall low WBSF (b 40 N) achieved with aging and the sparker treatments. It is possible that treated samples may have already reached background tenderness thresholds and that further tenderization may not have been possible. The fact that samples underwent one freeze/thaw cycle prior to sparker and aging treatments contributed to reduced WBSF in samples. Comparing the never-frozen screening steaks (71.9 16.3 N) to the frozen/thawed control steaks from the anterior and middle sections of the strip loins (59.3 7.7 N) indicated that there was an 18% decrease in WBSF just with the freeze/thaw cycle (data not shown). Past research found similar reductions in shear force with the freezing/thawing of beef strip loins and demonstrated that fresh, never-frozen muscle had a greater tenderization response to shockwave treatments than frozen/ thawed muscle (Solomon et al., 2008). Thus, it is hypothesized that tenderness improvements at both days 0 and 7 would probably have been even greater in the current study if fresh, never-frozen beef strip loins were used. In the current study, the use of frozen/thawed samples was necessary to control the length of aging prior to sparker treatment and for logistical purposes. Despite the decrease in WBSF with the freeze/thaw cycle, all samples were still considered tough prior to the sparker treatment and were therefore adequate to test the tenderizing capacity of the sparker system. Further research is

30

Tenderness Improvement (%)

25 20 15 10 5 0

A B C D E F G H

K L M N O P

Beef Strip Loin

Fig. 3. Average tenderness improvements for sparker treated steaks from each strip loin. Tenderness improvement was calculated as the reduction in WarnerBratzler shear force (WBSF) in all sparker treated steaks within a strip loin expressed as a percentage of the WBSF of non-treated controls within each strip loin on day 0. Data for the 16 strip loins is presented by loin from the lowest to highest average tenderness improvement.

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needed, however, to fully elucidate the combined tenderization effects of sparker induced shockwaves and aging. Muscle mapping data has shown that tenderness can be highly variable within a single muscle (Segars, Nordstrom, & Kapsalis, 1974). To limit the inuence of within muscle variations in WBSF, nontreated control steaks were removed from the anterior, middle, and posterior sections of each strip loin. From each section of the strip loin, three sequential steaks were used with the center steak serving as the non-treated control and the two adjacent steaks sparker treated. This sampling scheme allowed for a more accurate assessment of the tenderizing inuence of the sparker treatment by minimizing muscle location effects. While the anterior sections of the strip loins were slightly tougher overall than the middle sections in this experiment, samples from these two locations responded similarly to the sparker and aging treatments. Steaks from the posterior sections of the strip loins were analyzed separately from those of the anterior and middle sections. The longissimus muscle in the posterior section of the strip loin changes shape, becomes less round, and tends to have more variation in tenderness. Due to logistical reasons and the size of the strip loins, a full comparison of treated and controls in both aged and non-aged samples within the posterior section of each strip loin was not possible. Thus, posterior steaks were treated on day 0 but were aged 7 days prior to WBSF measurements. Although the sparker treatment seemed to improve tenderness 1112% compared to controls, the differences observed were not statistically signicant. The lack of statistical signicance is likely due to the number of steaks that were used relative to the intrinsically high variation in WBSF observed in steaks from the posterior end of strip loins. Two possible scenarios, however, suggest that the sparker treatment could be an effective method for improving the tenderness of the posterior sections of beef strip loins. If it is assumed that the sparker treatment had no immediate impact on tenderness in posterior steaks on day 0, then the fact that tenderness improvements of greater than 10% were observed on day 7 would suggest that the sparker treatment enhanced the aging tenderization process. Data from the anterior and middle sections of the strip loins, however, demonstrated that regardless of sparker settings the sparker-induced tenderness improvements were greatest when measured on the day of treatment. Following aging, WBSF values decreased to near background tenderness levels such that the percentage improvement was not as large as on day 0. It is hypothesized that if the posterior section behaved similar to the rest of the strip loin, then immediate tenderness improvements on day 0 would have exceeded the 1112% observed after 7 days of aging. From longer strip loins, several of the extra posterior steaks were sparker treated and WBSF measured on day 0 (data not shown). These steaks exhibited an 18% improvement in tenderness on day 0. While the limited number of steaks from the posterior sections prevented a full analysis, these results support the hypothesis that the sparker induced tenderness improvements in the posterior sections of the strip loins were stronger at day 0 than day 7. Further research is necessary to fully test this hypothesis. The inuence of muscle sample size and the directional orientation of the sparker induced shockwaves relative to muscle ber orientation were investigated by treating both individual steaks and intact loin roasts. Whether applied to the cut surface of individual steaks or to the dorsal surface of intact loin roasts, the sparker demonstrated the ability to enhance tenderness (Table 3). These data suggest that the sparker system has potential applications for tenderizing entire boneless, beef primal and sub-primal cuts. To provide a relatively uniform pressure treatment, the samples in the current study (both steaks and roasts) were treated with the sparker head set at multiple locations over the samples. As evidenced by the similar WBSF reductions in the medial and lateral portions of the samples, this treatment strategy resulted in uniform tenderization. To demonstrate the effects of the sparker treatment on overall tenderness and

tenderness uniformity within a sample, WBSF values of adjacent control and treated steaks were mapped by core location (mediallateral and dorsal-ventral) within a steak (Fig. 4). This gure illustrates the decrease in WBSF that was typically observed throughout the entirety of each treated sample in this study. While signicantly decreasing the WBSF of cooked samples, the sparker treatments had minimal impact on other steak characteristics. Immediately following sparker treatment it was noted that steaks appeared slightly compressed, yet the visual texture of the tissue was unaffected and there was no indication of surface discoloration on the meat. Upon aging and/or cooking there were no visual differences between sparker treated and control steaks. Cooking time was documented in this study but was not inuenced by the sparker treatments (data not shown). With the sparker head set at 7.5-cm above the samples, the sparker treatment had no impact on cooking yield. Individual steaks treated with the sparker head closer to the meat surface (3.75-cm) exhibited a 23% decrease in cooking yield. At this closer sparker head setting, however, cooking yields were not diminished when samples were treated as intact roasts. The sparker system utilized in this study compares favorably to other reports using shockwaves to tenderize meat. At the 3.75-cm sparker head setting, tenderness improvements averaged 2025% across all treated samples depending upon sample type. The maximum tenderness improvements achieved in individual samples were 37% for the entire steak, 56% in the medial portion, and 31% for the lateral portion of steak. Using a focused type sparker system a maximum tenderness improvement of 28% was observed in beef and pork (Claus, 2002). While explosives based shockwave systems may improve tenderness as much as 3757% (Solomon, 1998), the sparker system utilized in this study showed the potential for achieving substantial tenderness improvements without the technical limitations presented by the use of explosives. The basic mechanism by which high-pressure shockwaves tenderize beef is probably similar regardless of the source of the shockwaves. Treatment of beef strip loins with shockwaves generated by explosives was shown to cause both alterations within the sarcomeric structure of the myobrils and fragmentation between myobrils (Zuckerman & Solomon, 1998). These physical disruptions

Fig. 4. Representative shear force maps of control and sparker treated steaks.

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to the muscle were thought to be the primary cause for the tenderizing effect. The instantaneous improvement in tenderness observed in the current study suggests that the sparker system may have a similar effect on the ultrastructure of beef muscle. In order to fully elucidate the mechanism of meat tenderization with this sparker system, however, follow-up studies will be required to determine the impact of this technology on both the myobrillar structure and the connective tissue of the muscle. Further development of this sparker technology to tenderize muscle cuts of various types, sizes, and shapes will focus on optimizing the sparker parameters for tenderization. This includes determining the optimal shock pressure, using an array of sparkers repetitively pulsing, and changing over from the batch type of processing used in this study to a continuous operation. A practical sparker tenderization process is expected to have the meat samples moving along a conveyor belt with multiple sparkers repetitively pulsing. In this manner, the entire meat sample can receive the same total pressure during the treatment process ensuring uniform tenderization. The sparkers also may be enclosed in a parabolic reector to make efcient use of the pressure shock which is emitted omni-directionally by the sparker. 5. Conclusions This is the rst known report relating the parameters of highpressure shockwaves from a sparker to meat tenderizing effects. The sparker system utilized in this study demonstrated improvements in tenderness of 2025% in beef strip loins. Also, the sparker system tenderized samples along the entire length of the strip loin when applied to both individual steaks and intact loin roasts. The data from this study show that the distance between the sparker head and the meat sample, and hence the strength of the shockwave incident on the meat, is an important parameter that inuences the number of sparker pulses required and overall meat tenderization. With further research to optimize sparker treatment parameters, it is likely that even greater meat tenderization will be achieved using this sparker system, and that sparker tenderization can be extended to poultry and sh products as well. Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their gratitude to John Gallagher of Phoenix Science & Technology, Inc., as well as Janet Eastridge and Ernest Paroczay of the Agricultural Research Service for their technical assistance in conducting this study. References
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