The Origin of Mathematical Induction Author(s): W. H. Bussey Source: The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 24, No.

5 (May, 1917), pp. 199-207 Published by: Mathematical Association of America Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2974308 . Accessed: 27/03/2013 15:54
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THE AMERICAN MATHEMATICAL MONTHLY

OFFICIAL JOURNALOF

THE MATHEMATICAL ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA

VOLUME XXIV MAY,1917 NUMBER 5

THE ORIGIN OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION.*

By W. H. BUSSEY, University ofMinnesota. INTRODUCTION.

A criticism often madeofmathematics as a subject ofstudy inourhigh schools and colleges is thatit involves nothing ofobservation, experiment, and induction as theseterms are understood in the naturalsciences. Whether or not the old and well-developed branches in ourschools ofmathematics as taught have been made into such well-organized deductive disciplines that this criticism is JUst, it is truethattheworkoftheoriginal investigators whohave developed mathematicalscience has involved a greatdeal ofobservation, experiment, and induc" the processof tion; induction being,according to the Century Dictionary, a general conclusion from drawing cases." Observation and experiparticular mentin mathematics do not involvecostly and complicated apparatus as often in physics, and the other astronomy, sciences, penciland paperbeingall thatis but theyare just as truly ordinarily necessary, observation and experiment. In the naturalsciences a law arrived at by observation and experiment has to be verified by subsequent experiment by the same or otherobservers, either directly by repetition of the same experiment or indirectly by testingsome logical consequence of the law in question. But in mathematics it is often demonstrations arrivedat by ordinary possibleto give rigorous of theorems induction. One methodof clinching an argument induction is by ordinary whathas been calledmathematical induction.A moresignificant nameand one that is beingused moreand moreis complete induction.It is not a method of but a methodof proving that whichhas alreadybeen discovery rigorously discovered. It is one of the mostfruitful in all mathematics.It has methods
* Read before theMinnesota SectionoftheAssociation at its secondmeeting, April9, 1917.

199

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200

THB ORIGIN OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION.

in algebra, in widely of mathematics, branches trigonomapplications differing ofprobability, ofgroups, etc. In American theory college etry, calculus, theory like Xn - yn is divisible theorems divisibility by algebrasit is used in proving for the binomial theorem valuesofn; in proving x - y forall positive integral forthe summation givenformulas positive integral exponents;and in proving ofseries, like 13 +23+ 33+ ..+ n3 = -n2(n + 1)2. a statement about an induction involves A theorem provableby complete integer, usuallydenotedby n, whichis to be provedtrueforall values of the is is in two parts. The first partprovesthatthe theorem integer. The proof in the n involved truein a specialcase,thatis fora specialvalue oftheinteger from is whathasbeencalledtheargument theorem. The second partoftheproof a general conone in drawing n to n + 1. It is the argument whichjustifies it from cases For this reason be called clusion thespecial verified. mayproperly The methodis too well knownto need any further the induction argument. it is the method here. If one assumesthatthereaderunderstands explanation out explicitly theargument thetwo by which notnecessary every timeto write in question forall values takentogether establish thetheorem partsoftheproof bothpartsoftheproof. Indeedit is quite ofn. It is necessary onlyto exhibit from for writers of mathematical books to give onlythe argument customary n to n + 1 and to leave therestto be supplied by thereader.
MAUROLYCUS'S USE OF COMPLETE INDUCTION.

Geschichte derMathematik' Cantorin his Vorlesungen says that Pascal iuber of the method of complete induction.2But he has corrected was the originator in a brief thisstatement notein the Zeitschrift und NaturfurMathematischen In thisnotehe says that he has been informed Unterricht.3 wissenschaftlichen in his arithmetic described and used themethod by G. Vacca thatMaurolycus4 in from which durch was published 1575. I quote Cantor: "Ich wurde Herrn G. aufmerksam dass schonMaurolycus in seiner Vacca darauf Arithmetik gemacht von 1575 die Methodegenau geschildert und von ihr Gebrauch gemacht hat. Aus Maurolycus aberentnahm sie erstPascal. Dariuber kannnicht derleiseste Zweifel obwalten den Satz da Pascal sich1659fur
2 n(n+

1)

n = /2

ausdracklich auf Maurolycus vollberuft welcher gerade diesenSatz mittels Induktion bewiesen hat."5 stiindiger
1Vol. II, p. 749. W. W. R. Ball's History of Mathematics has nothing to say about the origin of complete induction. 3 Vol. XXXIII (1902),p. 536. 4 D. Francisci Maurolyci, AbbatisMessanensis,Mathematici Arithmeticorum Celeberrimi, LibriDuo. Venice,1575. 1f The theorem referred to is equivalent to twice thenthtriangular number minusn equalsn2. See page 202 ofthispaper.
2

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THE ORIGIN OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION.

201

in Book I ofhisarithmetic with thedefinitions ofdifferent Maurolycus begins numeri kinds of numbers, altera odd, triangular, square, parte namely,even, thenthtriangular is thesumoftheintegers longiores, etc. By definition number is n(n - 1). He from 1 to n inclusive and the nthnumerus parte altera longior them in table as follows: a arranges
Integers 1 Even 0 Odd 1 Triangular 1 Square 1 N. P. A. L., 0

2 3 4 5 6 7

2 4 6 8 10 12

3 5 7 9 11 13

3 6 10 15 21 28

4 9 16 25 36 49

2 6 12 20 30 42

I haveaddedat thebottom ofeach column a symbol for ofthat thenthnumber in explaining column which I find convenient ofMaurolycus. Numbers thework in the samerowMaurolycus calls collateral in one rowis numbers. A number said byhimto precede in thefollowing anynumber rowand tofollow anynumber in thepreceding row; e. g.,he calls 15 thetriangular number following theeven 6. number I quote a number of Maurolycus's theorems forreference.In somecases I as givenby him. The numbering givethe proofs is his. ofthe theorems Proposition IV. "The odd numbers are obtained from unityby successive of 2." (Maurolycus additions uses thisin Proposition VI in the form On+ 2 = O ir, i. e., thenthodd number plus2 equalsthenextodd number.) VI. "Every integer Proposition plus the preceding integer equals the collateralodd number." [In symbols this is n + (n - 1) = On. Maurolycus's is this: proof, freely translated,
2 added to unity "The integer makestheinteger 3 but whenadded to 3 it makesan amount greater by 2 and this (by virtueof Proposition IV) is the nextodd integer, namely5. Again sincethe integer 3 added to 2 makes5, whichis the collateral odd integer, whenit is added to 4 the result will be greater by 2, thatis (by virtueof Proposition IV), it will be the nextodd which is 7. And in likemanner integer to infinity as theproposition states."

This is not a veryclear statement of a proofby mathematical induction but theidea is there. Maurolycus's ideasmight be put moreclearly as follows: The theorem is trueby inspection in the case ofthe first two integers 1 and 2, i. e., 2 + 1 = 3 which is theodd integer collateral to 2. This is thefirst partof theinduction proof. Maurolycus thentakesup thespecialcases3 + 2 = 5 and 4 + 3 = 7 and in doingso he showsby his repeated use ofProposition IV that
1

Numeri ParteAltera Longiores.

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202

THE ORIGIN OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION.

theother partofthemathematical induction proof wasinhismind. His PropositionIV furnishes the argument from n to n + 1. In modern notation it would be put in thisway:
odd If n + (n - 1) = On (i. e., if any integer plus thepreceding one equals the collateral integer), theresult ofadding1 + 1to theleft sideand 2 to theright sideis (n + 1) + n = On + 2. But by Prop.IV, On + 2 = On+l Therefore (n + 1) + n = OnA1

This argument n to n + 1 seemsto have beenin Maurolycus's mind. from it might not But ifthisweretheonlyexample ofcomplete induction in hiswork XV is a be a conclusive proofthat he understood the method. Proposition muchmoreconvincing case. But before giving an accountofit I wishto state theproposition which severalotherof his theorems forreference and to discuss CantorsaysPascal gotfrom Maurolycus. VIII. "Every triangular Proposition number doubledequals the following numerus parte altera longior." (In symbols thisis 2Tn = Ln+i.) X. "Everynumerus plusitscollateral integer Proposition parte altera longior equals thecollateral squarenumber." (In symbols, Ln + n = Sn.) triangular Proposition XI. "Every triangular number plus the preceding This proposition, by Cantor,is the although stated somewhat differently he saysMaurolycus onewhich Cantor saysPascal gotfrom Maurolycus andwhich is equal to the number provedby complete induction. For sincea triangular sum of the naturalnumbers in order,Tn-,= Tn- n, and it followsthat Tn + Tn- = 2 Tn - n; or, since by the formulafor the sum of an arithmetic is [n(n+ 1)]1/2, the equationTn+ Tnprogression' thenthtriangular number
-

numberequals the collateral square number." (In symbols, Tn + Tn-, = Sn.)

Sn is equivalent to

2[

(n

)]-n=Sn

nA ,

thatCantorgives. But Cantoris wrongin sayingthat this is theform which induction. For Maurolycus's was provedby Maurolycus theorem by complete is this: proof (in modern notation)
member of the relation By definition Tn + Tn-1, the left-hand Tn = T-,, + n. Therefore is equal to 2Tn_, to be proved, + n which equals Ln + n (by Proposition VIII), and thisequals X). S. (by Proposition

odd number XIII. "Every square number Proposition plus the following equalsthefollowing squarenumber." (In symbols, Sn + 0n+1 = Snl.) is equal to the nth n odd integers XV. "The sumofthefirst Proposition = Sn.) + Maurolysquarenumber.'"2(In symbols, + 02 + 03 + * 0n 01 is this: translated cus's proof freely
uses the usual arithmetical 'In Proposition VII, whichI have not quoted, Maurolycus devicefor Tn = 1 + 2 + 3 + * + n progression proving Tn = [n(n + 1)]/2. He saysineffect: andalso Tn = n + (n - 1) + (n -2) + -.. + 2 + 1,andtherefore byaddition 2Tn= n(n + 1). in the form1 + 3 + 5 + *** + (2n - 1) = n2 is oftengivenin American 2This theorem of complete induction to be provedby the student. collegealgebrasas one of the first examples

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INDUCTION. THE ORIGIN OF MATHEMATICAL

203

odd the first square number(unity)added to the following "By a previousproposition' square number(4); and thissecondsquarenumber(4) added (3) makesthe following number the 3d squarenumber (9); and likewise (5) makesthe 3d squarenumber to the 3d odd number to (16); and so successively (7) makesthe4thsquarenumber (9) added to the 4thodd number XIII." ofProposition application is demonstrated by therepeated infinity the proposition

XIII is used induction proof. Proposition This is a clearcase ofa complete fewspecial from n to n + 1. The first theargument as a lemma. It furnishes the proof XV itself. In modern symbols in Proposition cases are mentioned wouldbe this:
is true when n = 1. 2d. Assume that it is true whenn = k, i. e., 1st. The theorem andget ofthis 0, + 02 + * sides equation assume01 + 02 + * + Ok = Sk; addOk+ltoboth XIII. + Ok+1 = Sk + 0k+1 which equals Sk+,, by Proposition PASCAL'S USE OF COMPLETE INDUCTION.

with in connection induction ofcomplete usedthemethod Pascal repeatedly Pascal that and its applications. Cantor'sargument his arithmetical triangle2 is valid in spiteofthefactthathe is in themethod from Maurolycus borrowed by XI of his arithmetic in sayingthat Maurolycus provedProposition error fora proofof this to Maurolycus induction. For Pascal does refer complete withthepartofMaurolycus's showsthat Pascal was familiar which proposition induction. It is in a letter in whichMaurolycus does use complete arithmetic that to Carcavi3 AmosDettonville) underthe pseudonym Pascal (writing from that "twicethenth forthe proofof the theorem to Maurolycus Pascal refers n equalsn2." Pascal says " Cela estaise par Maurolic." number minus triangular of withhis workon centers in connection Pascal makes use of this theorem gravity. ofPascal's use ofthemethod examples as twointeresting I givethefollowing forthesake ofbrevity. notation algebraic induction. I use modern ofcomplete of to explainthe construction it wouldbe necessary notation Without modern aboutit. and manyofhis theorems triangle Pascal's arithmetical number k ata time ofcombinations ofn things is tothe THEOREM.4 Thenumber as k + 1 is to n - k. (In symbols, k + 1 at a time ofn things ofcombinations nCk .nCk+1 = k + 1: (n - k.)
is true when n = 2. For then the only the theorem Proof.-Firstpart. By inspection and 2C,::C2 = 2 : 1. valuesofk and k + 1 are 1 and 2 respectively possible is truewhenn = q. That is, assume5 Secondpart. Assume thatthe theorem

(A)

qC7k:qCk+1 =

k + 1: q-k

forall positive valuesofk < q. It is thento be provedthat,on thisassumption, integral -j q+,Cj: q+,C+l = j + 1: q + (B) forall positive integral valuesofj < q + 1. XIII. He refers to Proposition Oeuvres de Blaise Pascal, Paris,1889,Vol. III, p. 243 ff. ComplRtes 3L. c., p. 376. 4 This is Pascal's "Consequence XII," 1. c., p. 248. 5 This relation to be truewhenk = q, if we defineCg = 0 when (A) is seen by inspection
1

t > s.

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204

THE ORIGIN OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION.

[(B) is obtainedfrom (A) by replacing q in (A) by q + 1 and by usinganother letter fork to avoid confusion later.] The well-known relation'
(C) NCR = N_lCR-1 + N_1CR

from is neededto provethat (B) follows (A). member of (B) is equal to (C) theleft-hand By relation
qCi_l +1

qCj + qCji

-1

qCi

On applying relation and 4Ci+,I/Ci (A) to theminor fractions thisbecomes qCj_/qCC

q -j + . l _

3-+1

1 q -j

=j

+ 1

which was to be proved.

j++

Q-j +1

Another of stakesin a example from Pascal is thisproblem in the division gambling game. Two playersA and B of equal skill,playing fora stake P, wishto leave thegame table before and the finishing their game. Theirscores as follows: number of pointswhichconstitute the gamebeinggivenindirectly PlayerA lacksa pointsof winning and playerB lacks 3 points. If a + ,Bbe B and A in denoted by n, Pascal saysthatthestakesshouldbe divided between theratio
(n-ICO + n-iCi

n-AC2 +

'

+ n-1Ca-1) +
n-1C2 + *

(n-1C. +
+
n-C7n

n-lcL+1

+ 2n-1

n-lCn-l)

Since2
n-ICO +
n-1C1 =

thisis thesameas saying thatB's shareofthewholestakeis 2-j [n-ICO + n-lAO + n-1C2 +* and A's shareis
+ n-lCaL+ + 2n-i [n-1Cc
*

+ n-1Cn-1],

+ n-lCn-1-

Proof.-FirstPart. The theorem is truein the special case in whichn = 2. For in this case thescoresofA and B are evenand each lacksonlyone pointofwinning. Theyare ofequal skilland so one is as likely to winthe gameas the otherand the stakeshouldbe dividedin the which ratio 1 to 1. The theorem statesthat the stake shouldbe dividedin the ratio 1Co: %C,, is 1 : 1. The theorem is also truein thespecialcase in whichn = 3. In thiscase the scoreat the end of play mustbe such that one playerlacks one pointand the otherlacks two points. Supposethat it is A who lacks the one pcint. Then B lacks two points. If the play wereto continue for onemore pointand ifA wereto winthatpointhe wouldwinthegameand be entitled to thewholestakeP. But ifhe wereto lose he wouldbe entitled ofthespecial to P/2by virtue I Fine, H. B., College is truewhenR = 0 and whenN : R Algebra, p. 404. This relation if we define8Co = 1 and .Ct = 0 when t > s. 2 It is customary to give NCo themeaning ACo= 1 by definition.The relation n-,Co + _1C1 = 2-1 is more usually writtenn-1C1+ n-1C2+ * * - + n-lCn -1 = 2n-1 - 1. + - * *+ n See Fine,H. B., College p. 402. Algebra,

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THE ORIGIN OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION.

205

case previously considered. The division of the stake shouldtherefore be such that A will get the P/2which he is entitled to in case he losesthenextpointand one halfoftheother P/2 which he has an evenchanceofwinning. Thisis thesameas saying thatA should receive thearithmetic meanbetween P and P/2. The stakeshouldtherefore be dividedbetween B and A in theratio 1 to 3. The theorem givestheratio2CO (2C1 + 2C2), which is 1: 3. If A lacked2 points and B onepointthedivision between B and A wouldbe in theratio3: 1. in thiscase gives(2CO + 2C1): 2C2 which The theorem is 3: 1. SecondPartofthe Proof. Assumethetheorem trueforn, i. e., assumethatwhenthepoints lacking for A and B have their sumequal ton theequitabledivision ofthestakeis as thetheorem indicates. To provethat on this assumption the theorem is truewhenthe sum of the points lackingfor A and B is n + 1, suppose that A lacks k points and B lacks 1 pointswhere and A wereto winthenextpoint,the sumofthe k + 1 = n + 1. If the play wereto continue n points(i. e.,A wouldlack k - 1 pointsandB would thatwouldbe exactly pointslackingafter lack 1 points)and by ourassumption therulegivenby the theorem maybe applied. The result ofapplying thetheorem in thiscase is P
2 -1C0 + n-.C1 + * + n-lCk-2I

a in thestatement for B's shareofthestake. (Thiscomes from k - 1 for ofthetheorem.) putting But ifA wereto losethenB wouldwinand A wouldlack k pointsand B only1 - 1 points. The n and the rulegivenby the theorem be exactly sumofthe pointslacking wotuld maybe applied k fora. The result is as before, putting

P + n 2 [-1 n-1C0o

*- n+ -lCk-1]

forB's share. As in the specialcase previouslv considered B's shareof the stakeshouldbe the meanbetween arithmetic
2n-1n-ICO + X-ICI + ** + n-lCk-2] which equals
2 [2(n-lCo n-1c? + + *
+ n-1ICk-2) +

and

p2n-1 [n-Ic? + n-1C1 +

...

+ n-lCk-1I

n-lCk-1].

This maybe written in the form P

" [n-lco + (n_lCo + n_ sC) + (n_lCI+.-lC2) + * + (n-iCk-S+ n-ICk-2)+ (n-lC/.k-2 + n0lCk-1)].

of thepreceding But by virtue oftherelation used in theproof theorem NCR = N-iCR-1+ Ni_CR, in thisexpression ofPascal's, each binomial so thatB's shareis term maybe replaced by a single P n [+CO+ nCl + +2 + + Ck-2+ nCk-11

is just whatthetheorem which givesforB's share.

This completes forthistheorem ofPascal's. theinduction argument

OTHER AND MORE RECENT USES OF COMPLETE INDUCTION.

The following exampleswill give some idea of the varietyof uses which induction. can be madeofthemethod ofcomplete 1. (a) Xn- yn is divisible byx-y. n is even butnot'when n is odd. (b) Xn- yn is divisible byx + y when n is even. n is oddbutnot'when (C) Xn+ yfis divisible byx + y when
in the paper) is to algebraic elsewhere divisibility.The statements oftheintegers need notbe trueforthe case ofdivisibility obviously represented by theforms.
1 The reference here (as

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206

THE ORIGIN OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION.

Negativedivisibility theorems like the secondpartsof (b) and (c) are just as easilyproved by complete induction as positive divisibility theorems suchas (a).
2. 1.2+ 2.3+ 3.4+ . + n(n+ 1)
=

n(n+

1)(n+

2).

American college algebras contain suchexamples many inthesummation ofseries. 3. De Moivre'sTheorem.(cos0 + i sin 9)n = cosnO+ i sinnOfor positive integral values ofn. 4. Thebinomial theorem forpositive integral exponents.
5. If Fn(x)_ (x + Xn+ = A1 lai,
a)(x +
a2) (X+

a3)

(x +

an)

then

A4xn-' + A2X-2 + * + An1lx + An,

...,

A2 = 2aia2, A3 = laia2a3,

An =

ala2-..an-

(See H. Weberand J. Wellstein, Encyclopadie derElementar-Mathematik, volume I, p. 196.) 6. Fermat's Theorem.an - a is divisible byn if a is any integer and n is a prime integer.(See Weberand Wellstein, volume I, p. 197.) 7. ThePolynomial Theorem.
(X +y + Z+
.Z)n

2;

ng !

-XaygZYe.

(See Weberand Wellstein, volume I, p. 198.) 8. Anypolynomial symmetric in x1,X2, * .., xn is equaltoa polynomial in the elementary symmetric functions.(See Weberand Wellstein, volume I, p. 232.) 9. A necessary and sufficient condition thata polynomial in any number of variables vanish is that identically all itscoefficients arezero. (For a proof ofthis theorem forone variableand its extension by complete induction see Maxime B6cher's Introduction toHigher Algebra, p. 5.) 10. If fi andf2 are polynomials in any number ofvariables ofdegrees ml and m2 respectively, theproduct flf2 will be of degree mlm2. (See Bocher'sHigher Algebra, p. 6.) 11. A necessary and sufficient condition that a polynomial f(xX2 ... Xn) vanish identically is thatit vanishthroughout theneighborhood of a point(ala2... an). (See Bocher's Higher Algebra, p. 10.) 12. If f(x) is a polynomial ofthe nth degree, f(x)
-

+ alXn-1+ aoXn
ao(x
-

there exists oneand only onesetofconstants * an suchthat ala.2*

f(x) a)(x
-

* + an-x +
a2) .. (X -

an

(ao + 0),

an).

To prove thistheorem bycomplete induction oneneedsthefundamental theorem of algebrathat thereis at least one value of x forwhich sucha polynomial as f(x) vanishes. (See B8cher's Higher Algebra, p. 17.)

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THE ORIGIN OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION.

207

minors matrix 13. If all the(r + 1)-rowed principal ofthe symmetrical

a11
a2l
a12
...

an a2n

a22

(where ai = aj)

an

an2

..

.an

then the rank matrix arezero, and alsoall the(r + 2)-rowed principal minors, ofthe is r orless. (See Bocher's Higher Algebra, p. 57.) is theproduct 14. The conjugate of theproduct of any number of matrices of their in reverse order. (See Bocher's taken conjugates Higher Algebra, p. 65.) denote derivatives with 15. If y = U1U2... Un andy',ul', u2', etc., respect first toa variable x, then Un y U1l u2
y
U1 U2 Un

Theorem. 16. Leibnitz's

dn(uv) 2 dnUVu-nV + nUn1V1 + n(n -1) u + * 1.2 Un_2V dxn + nuvl1 + UVn,

u and v arefunctions denote derivatives with where ofx and thesubscripts respect tox. Thatis, du d2u etc. ui=j dx u2=xp of its use see G. A. Osborne's (For a proof of thistheorem and someexamples Differential and Integral Calculus, pages65-67.) x1+ limit 17. (a) Limit(xl + X2 * -* + Xn) = limit X2+ * + limit Xn. ... Xn) = (limitx1)(limit (b) Limit (X1x2 x2)... (limit Xn). and Integral (See W. F. Osgood'sDifferential Calculus, p. 16.) 18. If n-1(n -1)!1 dny (1)

y = logx,

n dx

Xn

Numerous like this are to be foundin G. A. Osborne's examples Differential Calculus, pages62-65.

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