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REFERENCE LIBRARY
A project ?f Volunteeis
Small Scale Recycling

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in Asia
of -Plastics >I I .J

by d.on Vogler Publis,,ed Q by: ',: , ," *'&,,

Intermediate

Techndlo'gy

Development

Group (ITDG)

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Avai 1able Tram: Intermediat?&J,~chnology

Publications

9 King Street

London WC2E 8HN ENGLAND Reproduced by permiss ion.

form is Subject of the original

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SMALL SCALE RECYCLING OF PLASTICS

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BY
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JON VOGLER
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IliThMEDIATE
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TECHNOiOGY PUBLICATIONS 1984.

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Acknowledgement The author wishes to express his 'gratitude to the Overseas Development Administration Iof Her Majesty's Government for fi-naneial support for the preparation of'this book but to stress tha't the views expressed are entirely his own and do not necessarily repr.esent the views of O.D.A. * ,

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Intermediate

Technology

fiblications,

1984

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Printed

by * Printpower,

London.

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n CONTENTS

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CHAPTER
* u 4 1. . . 9

Why recycle,piastics?........;.............ti.l The plastics industry - its processes,., produc@ and structur%............'....".....
_

2.
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y-.---Giving
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the customer Collection&f Processing

what he wants...........18 waste.....l.:.....:*..yl

79

plasti~cs

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..k..... +. i

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Manufacture and sale oftismall articles r from reclaim . . . . . . ..I.......................

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APPENDICES
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I. I II. III.
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About,plastics" - their chemistry and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 structure ' ' Test . . . . . . . . 88 index. . . . . . . . . . . . . " , Manufacturers of plastics recycling .a -'equipment .a.......................ti.......... 90 '% for melt flow
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. BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . c ..,....: %
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

COVER P,ICTBRE: '& Plastics Recycling Projectestablished a 4% TITLE .-FIG..

in Kenya. by the Author

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PAGE'

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1 ._ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 '-15 16 ,-" 17 18

19
20 21 v 22 23 '* 24 25 26 27

...5 . The principles of Injection.moulding ........... ...5 The principles of Extrusion .................... The principles of Blow '?noulding............... ...6 ..c .............. ............. Blown film extrusion 7. ..i ............. 13 Objects made of LDPE .............. ..s..., ..... 13 . . Objects made of HDPE................... *,.. 14 ' Objects made of PP ............................. :A .. ..?-a :. ....... 14. Objects'made of PVC.................. 15 Objects made of PS ............................... 15 Objects made of ABS.. ..p .......................... Objects made from mixed plastics was>te...........2 9 ............................ 40 Washing scrap plastic ............................ 40 . Testing by floatat,ion "42 ej. Testing by burning ............................... Cutting scrap on a circular saw.;.................4 2 . ........... -(horizontal axis) ...... Granulator 0 axis) ;.........;........5 Granulator - (horizontal axis)................,......5 1 Granulator - (ver,ti,cal Homg-made Granulator (vertical axis).............5 4 ' Bags of flake from granulated film....;.......;...5 4 The Foliolux.Crumber.......;.................~...5 6 . ..5 7 Crumb - a hard, beady material ................. "{ ..c ..... 58 .................... - pelletizer ' Extruder 60 ............................ Extrud,er - -pelletizer 68 Small injection moulder .......................... 73 Small mouldable objects .......................... 9 Rig for measuring melt flow index...............;8 5
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CHAPTER 1:

WHY RECYCLE PLASTICS? ,j! ./ J

* The subject of this book is how to create empBbyment by recycling Although it is primarily intended for use in' plastics. developing countries the principles are universal and may equally the, quantity of Indeed, be applied in industrialised .na.tions. suse is far higher plastic products which are thrown away after population has a "consumer" life style, so where the whole opportunities may be greater in such countries. .,1 i It describes the collection.,ef plastic's waste that has been used once-'in-the world outside and can be col1ecte.d and processed for return to the factory and remoulded for a second-service life. The book does not cover recycling, by the plastics industry, of much of what is scrap produced within the factory, although The techniques and equipment used included may be applicable. and the skills available in the factory situation are more comj_ plex than the simple machines and procedures covered here. In an' age when worldwide unemployment has reached levels not previously expected, it is not necessary to justify any book that introduces employment creation opportunities. The opportunities offered by plastics recycling appear attractive and have not been .developed fully. The reasons have been explained in "Remoulding They" are an. important the, Future" (Ref.1). warning of the mistakes and failures of the past, but are too lengthy to repeat' here. The reasons why recycling offers good job creation prospects have been discussed in "Work from Waste", (Ref. 14). Some further reasons, peculiar to plastics, must be presented here, if only to persuade the reader to continue. They are as follows:1 Economics

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' Some recycling activities are not pro'fitable: they cost more than' they earn. ' In general'those are most profitable that deal in high value materials. ' d For example the recycling of high grade waste paper, such as computer paper, is usually far more profitable and less problematl?c than that of newspaper and card',I board which have low value. Pxastics, which are mkinly derived ; ' from petroleum, are expensive materials, at least in terms of.: their weight. This means they &an be recycled profitably; but caution! . ?\ One reason why high value is important js that transport costs, normally dominate recycling economics - if the value is high compared with the transport cost then a profitable operation is frequently possible and vice versa. Transport costs depend not \ only upon weight but also on volume. : x,, \
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It is no use having a high value if the volume is so high that even though the ratio of value to transport costs are excessive, This is,why so much attention will weight may be advantageous. . be paid to volume ,reduction throughout this book. _,' Recyclability '
0

Some materials are naturally recyclable, others are no?. of the same example, scrap copper can be melted to produceYingots Waste paper on ,the quality as ney copper, smelted from ore. other hand can never be restored' to its initial quality no matter Plastics are near what care is taken in refining and purifying. the better end of the recyclability scale. If they are properly cleaned and foreign matter is removed, the quality of some plastics can be almost as good on the second use as on the first. Not always however. PVC for example can suffer seriouslyduring the recycling process unless care is taken. For explanation of . see Table'1 (Page IO). "PVC" and other initials m .' b ' Labour intensity The recycling process can be broken down into different stages, The initial stages: cblleotion, some of which are optional. labour intensive and sorting and cleaning of material are all require little capital equipment. The work .is suitable for those who have little skill and the sorting "and cleaning'may be done by-" people with certain sorts of disability. . Investment progression FThe later &ages do require investment in equipment,.which may be bought using the profits of the earlier stages if outside fina,nce is not available. This pyevents complex developments before early stages have .been learned and consolidated. L For those lacking previous industrial experience, this may be essential to ultimate -success. However this is a slow process and) to have capital ready from the start may be more-attractive to those who are 5mpatient or Lambitiou& although it 'does increase the risk . 6' a and &zale of failure. '
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benefit
2

Bee&se it degrades slowly underthe effecfsof wind, sun and B 'rain, plastics waste is one of'the most objectionable kinds of ; litter.. It lies around streets and open spaces 'for weeks or monthsrafter it has been dropped. It 'may .bec&e coated with , other, objectionable wastes, provide a harbour for vermin and insects and block up drainage systems. Any process of recycling -+ , that places a value upon this material, so that' there is a finan- 'd cial advantage in preserving it rather t$an discarding it, is to . ,D be welcomed. t _ ., 1
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is greater in poor urbaneareas,' where even small The will be seized, as these are the, districts earning opportunities east thorough. where municipal cleansing is frequentForeign exchange improvements I""

Although the manufacturing of plastics products may be well developed, few developing countries make their own raw materials. If the products are not exported These are therefore impo'rted. Ry recycling local .scrap, these imports r foreign debt is created. Where plastics feedstock is" and hence the debt, can be reduced. produced locally recycling may still save energy and raw petroleum. Low cost raw materials -,

With good quality, low cost, secondary material, plastics goods manufacturers can cheapen certain kinds of products, without loss Even a small margin may be the difference of functional quality. competit"lve price or loss leader, or may between profit or ~Qss, enable plastics to be chosen in preference to metalor glass. a A chance for the urban poor _ Finally, a vigorous plastics recycling industry can hrovide to earn a small income by unique QR'portunities ,for the'poorest collecting waste materials for sale to a recycling plant. No may be passed from one to another with capital is needed, skills little difficulty, so this can provide a catchnet against the consequences of extreme poverty.
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This chapter has mentioned benefits for the community, for the nation, for industry and5 for the" individual. Involvement of's0 many may be one reason why few initiatives in plastics recycling are taken. Another reason is the mystery of the subject and, toremove this, Appendix I considers what plastics are, why they are Readers used as .they are and how products are made 'from them. may prefer to study Appendix I before embarking on the next i Chapter.. \

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CHAPTER 3: Manufacturing
I

THF: PIAS'kX TNDUSTRY. PROCKSES, PRODUCTS.AND STRUCTJJRR.

Processes

I Although the recycler may never perform any plastics manuto know the-processes used by the industry facturing operation, The industry is the recycler's principal market is essential. and only by understanding the uses of 'the material he produces, will marketable quality and best prices 'be obtained: A company that advertises "Manufacture *of all types of' plastics products" %: + may actually perform mainly' operations that cannot use recycled For example food and drink containers?are produced by material. heat forming thin pblystyrene or ABS sheet. This process cannot use- raw material in any other form and although reclaim'can be used to manufacture the sheet, its use for food packaging is ruled out or-i health grounds. The following descriptions which provide indicate polymer. of the main manufacturing markets to the producer of operations recycled , I) , ' ~ .

Large volume processes 0 'The four types of operation that follow use a greater'volume of polymer than all other industrial processes andi all can use recycled material (or "reclaim") if i$ ,is clean and pure. 'These descriptions are brief but pro_cesses that can be performed by the recycler will be described in greater detail'in Chapter 6. :' Injection moulding (Fig. 1)

~f . 9 Injection moulding and extrusion (below) .are the processes that use the most raw material. Pellets or powder, are loaded into a hopper which feeds it (by gsairity) into the cylindrical barrel of the moulding machine. It'is forced' down the barrel by rotation of the spiral screw and becomes heated and "plasticized" ' (softened) in the process. The temperature. is controlled by electrical heaters or water (or air) coolers round the barrel.and it is forced, under high pressure, 'through .a specially shaped nozzle into a strong, split, steel mould. The mould is kept cool so that the object quickly solidifies, the *mould opens, the object is removed and the mould closes for the next shqt. Ther"e; _ * arealso machines that use pistons or plungers instead of screws. The process is similar to the pressure die casting .of'non-ferrous = metals, from which it was developed.
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Extrusion

(Fig.

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. This is similar no'zzle discharges Q

except that there is no; mould. Instead the "through a die: a steel plate pierced w<th a

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FIGURE! t:

The principles

of Injec$ion

moulding.. 0

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The principles

of Extrusion.

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parallel hole which determines the" &a of the,,continuous, The extruded material .is stream of plastic that emerges ,' om it. c cooled and solidified in air or a water bath or on a chilled being wound onto a reel or' cut into straight; drum, before' Pressure in the cylinder bengths. is applied by one or more like the extrusion of The'process, continuously rotating screws. originated ifrom the manufacture of spaghetti!,' metals, Blow moulding (Fig.i.7) , R

Bottles and other hollow-objects with a neck narrower than their body cannot be injection moulded without costly complications in Blow-+&ding is used instead. It the design of the mould. takes place in two stages similar to the blowing of glass. First a parallel walled tube, called a parison, is extruded. It is then transferred to a split mould which has' been' shaped for the final object, whose two halves nip the end of the parison to close it. Air is bl&wn into the open end to expand it to the shape of the mould. The mould ,is kept cool and the finished ' article solidifies and is removed when the mould opens again. The overall thickness of the article.may be varied., 'D I i' .' F 'b --*
Mould -+*.+ : stage clqses at second to mi en_d ofMRS I shut P r + % Hollow inner ? mandrel

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The principles
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Blown

film

extrusion

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This is a form of blow moulding but the parison is continuouslay extruded from a ring-shaped die, u,sually vereically upwards. Air is. blown through the centre of the'die to expand it to a tube of thin film., As the tube rises it is cooled and .e+lidifies and at the top is folded over and,flattened between chilled rollers, thus preventing air from'escaping out .of the. "bubble".' After :+
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further cool'ing the 'collaps&d tube is wound onto reels. produce sacks or bags, the coils are fed through a machine seals the bottoms and chops them off in one operation. produce flat sheet the tube is slit down one side.
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To which To

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FIG& i Less com.Son processes The plastics industry operations, in which the raw material. Callendering 'I

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Bl?own film

extrusion. 9 4.

c also employs the following less common a percentage of reclaim can be m$;tced with

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This is another way of producing wide she.ets: .,-A- hot dough is made from the raw materialWin a heated mixing machine. The dough is squeezed through successive heated rollers to fo.rm a sheet of the desired thickness; then through cooled rollers-and reeled UP. a

i . Special grades of PVC can be* mixed cold with liquid plasticis& .This is formed into articles by pouring into a .to form a paste. split mould which is rotated so that the paste covers the inside, .it is then heated. ASter cooling the rubbery solid is peeled off The process is slow but can use cheap the inside of the mould. for production of small number%' of moulds ,and &, suitable objects. The paste can- also be used to coat cloth (:'leathercloth")-or to make washable wallpaper. \ Slush moulding'

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Rotational mouTding _ . . quantities by using a . Large hollow objects are made in small low-cost, low-strength mould, into which a predetermined quantity ' of thermoplastics in powder form is fed, followed by rotation (in two directions) in an oven. The powdee plasticizes and covers the surface of the mould evenly. Rotation continues, during 1 cooling. . &$z . .,r I Coating, s .1 Plastics may be. applied to the outside of other materials, .particularly paper, textiles and metals, to protect them from moisture or chemical attack. Coating can be done by roller, by spraying 'or by dipping. Special forms of materials are available for these processes. Porous materials may be impregnated with ar 0 plastics in similar ways. . , IM WITHOUT PRIOR THERMOPLASTIC PROCESSES THAT DO NOT USE J PROCESSING
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Film
IS

Casting -

'used* to produce very acc&t~,.'high,quality films, for example those used for photography. , The material is continuously cast' onto,a smooth, flat, moving beltOtto form a .continuous layer of perfect smoothnesd and clarity and unifo Quality is more important than cost and reclaim *fro outside the plant is not used.
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Thermoforming
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Flat sheet is heated and formed, either:by vacuum suction into a shaped mould or onto a shaped former or by squeezing between male ,and female dies. I-used to .make cheap food and drink cups and trays from contipuous coil and large parts, such aa refrigerator lininge, from..s,$ngle sheets.?, Reclaim can be used* if it is first formed into.'&heets ,?# b& ONLY for'products that do ' come into contact'wi<h food-. ) c >I .-. I' . . ' L ,C 1 1 * .* ?' ,L \ %43-.
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Fabrication

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/. . and other material forms are cut, shaped Sheets, rods, extrusions to make a wide and- joined by' screwing, welding or aaesives, Fabrication is mainly used when quantities variety of products. are too small or the product too complex to.justify theYcost of a Qffcuts can be recycled'into small fabrications-:7 mould. * '_ Machining'.. ail
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.Plastics are used in engineering in the same way as wood and *can be turned, milled, drilled and planed shapes. The process .is used where small numbers of' are required. Nylon is extensively machined in the cindustry. Heat This sealing. is used-to ' _
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metals .and to required parts only engineering i

convert

plastic ,

film

into r

bags and packages.

SCrinking

Special .film= are avai?lab,le for "&rink wrapping". is loosely->:fsrapped in' film and heat. applied to controlled temperature. The film shrinks snugly , . object but is not melted.
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The article a 'carefully around the ' '

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: 'This is described in Appendix 1. There is no fun@damental 'reason why reclaimed polymer should not be used for foaming but the amount of polymer used in foam production is small and most producers 1 buy the material ready prepared. Appendix! III includes 'the name of one, of, many companies that recycle polgyurethane foam into foam groducts and may be .willing. to licence the process elsewhere. "Thermoset manufacturing for operations completeness-

Foam manufacture

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These will be listed to the recycle:: _Manuf&&ure .e ,. .>. moulding, jet Products
.

of littlej:interest ' ,

of lamina,tss, compressiou moulding, :transfer: mouldingi manufacture' of reinforced plastic products. Industry. to 10 illustrate 2' _
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P

of the Plastics

Table 1 and Figures.5. most common polymers.

the products . P

made from the _\ ? . _. .'

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TABLE 1 COMMON RECYCLABLE PLASTICS

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POLYMER

c CHARACTERISTICS :

TYPICAL PRODUCTS -' (Figs 5-10) (Not'necessarilg Recyclable. Note that the *same product may be made from many materials). Film bags, sacks 'and sheeting. blow-mouldedbot!t&&-1-m. Food boxes Flexible piping and hoses, -household buckets, bowls, . I Cable coverings, . etc. usually te3ephone cables.'

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,----------------;-----------,-,-----,,,--------------------------Low density * Soft, flexible <polyethylene Easy to heat seal. Only -glass clear if (LDPE > very thin; thick sections are milky white (or coloured).

. --------------------------------r----r----~------------------------~---Medium density Intermediate between Squeetie bottles. .') ,polyethylene LDPE and HDPE.' a (mm) ------------------------------------------------------------------.G High density Tough, stiffer than 'High strength film for . polyethylene LD.Even thin film is sacks and'bags. Larger ' ~ r bottles, buckets, crates, milky (or coloured). (HDm) .. jerry cans, pallets, dustbins and other household,objects. ' .I -----------------------r--------'------------------------------~PolypropyLike HDPE but harder Chairs and other furniture. lene (PP) and more rigid. Can Best quality homewares .and _ be bent-sharply other strong mouldings,such ' without breakiw. as car battery housings, other car and domestic * appliance parts, jerry cans, wine barre,ls, crates<, . pipes and fittings. Rope, ' string, -strapping, tape and' .woven sacking and carpet * ,backings, netting. Heat !.;riented.. hfib is .:,, sterilizable surgical 1. -< ." tough and very clear. '.goods.
e ~ , II ---------------------------------------------------------~~---------~--A, L

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Rigid polyvinyl chloride ('PVC>

Hard

and

rigid.

in

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.Wa$er-,and-

.~r~~~~~ion..p~pe~-.--,.,,

its unplasticiaed form.

and fittings. Gutters and,,', rainwater pipes, window+, 1 building panels.

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TABLE 1 - cont. TYPICAL PRODUCTS 5 CHARACTERISTICS POLYMER ------------------------------------------------~------~---------------------Sports and toy balls, Soft, flexible, Plasticized inflatable toys and boats. rather weak.Can be PVC Toys, dolls, noveltiesi' highly transparent. 7 Hose, cable'coverings;' Easily bonded to i* Suitcases, handbags, other textiles, metals etc. , luggage. Shoes, .flooring, raincoats, shower curtains,
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. . ---------------------------------------------------------Polystyrene .Easily moulded, but brittle. (PSI Can be crystal " 'c,lear .

liquids, ,pallet

clear covers --T--.e------. radio cases

,, --'we-----Impact modified , PS Less brittle'but no longer clear. / 8. 'Refrigerator and other mouldings. take-away heels. interiors domestic appliance Vending c' food trays.

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--,---,,,,,-,-,-,-,,,,,,,,,,,-----,---------------------------------Expanded PS Very lightweight, expanded foam white, - not economic to \ recycle. ---------------------------------------------~-----------~----------~~-Acrylonitrile, Tough, stiff, easiiy Butadiene moulded to give Styrene shiny surface finish. ' (ABS) "+ Good resistance to afood, oils etc,.
.

Ceiling tiles, insulation, packings, padding. ",, 5

'.',., \..

Food (especially margarine) containers. Teleppgne handsets & other off?36 equipment, came% housings. __ ~.-- ~~~ Domestic applianoe parts. Electrical hand tools., rj ' Toys.

-------------------$--------------------------~-------------------------

Polyamides (Nylons)

b Strong, very tough, machinable. Slippery low friction

~ Engineering uses such as gears, bearings. Domestic appliance parts, pipe fittings.OTextYle ~ yarn, fishing -line*, netting, hose reinforcement' brush bristles,.surgical i tw-iae ta .~e.q~&-&gngs-.

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TABLE 1 T cont. . 1 occur in lesser ' . , , quantities:&

The following e
.

POLYtiR

'

' . CHARACTERISTICS

TYPICAL PRODUCTS

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Rigid, ~transparent, Illuminated display signs. ' attractive when ' Glazing, esp. of airoraft. colou,red. Excellent Automobile;Light and residance to optical lenses. . . weather. Telephones, furniture, ---.piano keys. + e ""------------?----'--'-""-------------------~--------------~---------------Polygthylene ,Tough, clear,nvery Polyester te%tile yarn.' Terephthalate strong. Exdellent Magnetic recording tape. ' (Polyester, electrical properties Transparent ."oriented" Terylene, Can be shrunk for film for packaging. c . I . Soft drink bottles. PET) 3 packaging. Photographic film base., . Industrial strapping. -----------------------------------------------------------------------Polycarbonate Very strong, rigid, Lenses for strong electric I heat resisting, lighting, Baby feed, _ (PC> . tasteless, bottles, Tools, Glazing, stai resistant; ,Heat resistant kitchen /Landa2 resistant, ware. /can be crystal clear. .* . -------,-i,,,--_ ---""--'----'-----------r---l,,---,,,,-------------: ! / Flexible, Polyurethane, rubbery, As foam for furniture 1 (PU) i with good insulation ; . . fillings, packaging, \ / properties. insulation, sponges. As solid for tyres, shock ' -. . n . > iI mounts, roller coverings,, I sees. With textiles .for<-,.,
I I -------. ---+L.--i . / j j i * I .

Polymethyl Methacrylate (Persper or Acrylic)

.c E othing. ---,------_-____________________________---~"~---------l .I

FIGURE 5:

f Objects

made of 'LDPE.

FIGURE 6: 1 Objects

made of HDPE: ' \

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FIGURE 7: \FIGURE 8:

\I 6
made of PP. made of PVC.. 'i

Objects Objects

FIGURE 9: FIGURI? 10:

Objects Objects

m&de of PS. made of ABS. '

STRUCTUREOF THE PLASTICS INDUSTRY

l+

The would-be recycler the plastics industry. general but there will , Raw Material

also needs to understand the structure of The- followings pattern is likely to be be some!ivariation from country to country. ' -1

Producers a.

These are (usually large) chemical and petroleum companies who produce "virgin" plastic feedstock, (sometimes called resin or The main influence they have on the polymer) in huge quantities%.., availability of virgin materials. recycler is to fix price&.&d that determine the It is these, not the co$$ of his operations, price a recgcler can chnrge for "secondary" material. Qirgin material is delivered in powder or pellet form, in plastic or paper sacks of around 20 kilos weight, in large cardboard drums that hold many times that quantity.or ev'e"n by road tanker. . .* Compounder3 These specialist companies, usually small,.stock various polymer3 and provide the manufacturers of plastic goods with technical advice and the most suitable materials or mixtures for each individual need. In addition to basic polymer, the compounder stocks plasticisers, anti-oxidants, stabilizers, accelerators, colouring, and other additives. The*compounder'is often the best market for the recycler because he possesses superior technical knowledge and has a large volume throughput of virgin material, in which small percentages of reclaim will reduce cost without seriously affecting the quality requiredby the moulder. Stockists These warehouse3 stock polymers and compounds but neither manufacture themselves,. Thky nor provide a compounding service., may be agents -or subsidiaries $ f the produoer 'companies or de+ partments of companies concerned,@th the supply of other materials such as chemicals, rubber orpaper. They! may b," willing to stock reclaim alongside virgin materials, especially if these are , ' ..*' 4 in short supply. $ , Moulders, -. 1 f. 1 These buy 'their raw materials from compounders. If they do their own compo-ding, or,if the material is used as produced and does not need comWpounding,r they may buy direct from stockists or producers. The term "moulder" is used generally to cover those that extrude, callender, cast or thermoform as well as injec&on' moulders. They are specialists in plastics and do not 'perform other types ,of manufacturing. ' Specialist Manufacturers-or

,, .

+q

" ~

6 , \
\

I Y ,

t.

\ :.. ~
1 I-. . .\ , \

I \.

cl

I,

'r

sheets and extruded sections to be Some companies produce rods, They may be a&attractive market to the used by fabricators. recycler because they,operate at high volume, but rarely have .as + . much flexibility to vary product quality ~$3 moulders who know, accurately, the final market forthe product.
.I

,' .

Other

Manufacturers

a L ' . -4.. ..'--

Lt g' specialists but employ mould', Many companies are not plastics For example operations in the manufacture of some other product. shoe and 'boot makers use plastics extensively and may carry"~out the various plastics moulding operations in the same production Many canvas, rubber etc. sequence' as the work in leather, manufacturers use plastic packaging machineh at. the,end of a production operation. Fabricator8

.e

!?

These firms cut and join sheet, rod or &xtrueion to manufacture a' They have no opportunity to use reclaim. ( variety of products. P Machinery and Tool Rakers =a / mention industry justifies One other sector,,'of the plastics The makers and suppliers of although not customers for rec$aim. plastics manufacturing machinery, tools, moulds and dies are well 'informed about who does what, who makes what and who uses what who is They may advise industry. within the local plastics likely to buy material. . . c f ? The plastics
e

trade'.press
+ .&. 3 ,I i:

There are mar?y'magazines about plasti& Most accept advertising for the buying. or sale.of secondary material. Anyone,considering 'industry should read these (ip entering the: reclaimed plastics ., If the local library "if a subscription is too expensive). material cannot 'be sold through other methods, a small' aa've.rt "Work ,:f$om offering secondary polymer is a good investment. .Waste" includes advice about the wording of such advertisements.
I P*

The Bibliograp& -,
1

includes * E
.

a list

of plastics 'i ' -

trade'journals. -' .

, .

CHAPTER 3:

GIVING THE CUSTOMERWHAT HE WARTS

whatever the price charged, Some;business markets are "captive": Public companies that the customer has to pay or go without. electricity or mains water are in that fortunate 3upply gag, the In other businesses the reverse 'may be true; 3itua"tion. customer has--a satisfactory alternative product available and Recycled plastics are needs strong persuasion to buy yours. Only by offering a reclaim that is definitely of this -kind.. substantially more attractive than new or. "virgin" polymer can ,the recycler hope to obtain and hold a market. . This chapter considers the difference3 between virgin polymer and reclaim and ~0 what ia needed to make the latter marketable.
l .

a,.br . '0 e

Price
-..__ .

The main, often the only, reason why.a customer buys reclaim is The use of reclaim in the manufacture of because it is cheaper. either capture orders which a product.or.material means he will he would otherwise have lost or will make more profit from the" sale. The factors that determine the price of reclaim are, therefore of the greatest importance, The price can be set either by what the customer, will pay or by The latter can only be 'used for what it costs to produce. captive markets; the former rnu3.t be used by the r?cycler. It can be calculated @'follows. r 4 The amount of persuasion the customer will need to use reclaim.. can be expres'sed as the Reclaim Price* Advantage Ratio: * -. r 9 REPAR = Price Price p aid paid for for rec1aim.x equivalent
100%

. :a

h material ' -(

virgin

It is found by experience and by study of the market situation and of the quality of the reclaim:' If, the for example, customer's process needs 'great purity and reclaim.is likely to cohtain occasional particles of sand or dust, then the REPAR must be rather low. If however the reclaim is almost as satisfactory as virgin polymer a REPAR approaching l'OO% is possible. Indeed if the virgin material "cannot" be obtained at all then the REPAR may even exceed 100%: 0a situation. not uncommon in developing countries with strict import controls. Normally the REPAR will' vary between 40% and SO%. ,,. ) b The price that the cuetomer,.would.have to pay for <irgin material F can be found from stockfats,-or compoundersJ 1' ._a 'h 1 - I 1: . .'s 1a . *
3 1 i , t,,. _ @ ..a , : r -1n. : P ( I . ., * fi , : ,,3 ,.-y FI : .

. . I i

_a':

k .-

I . .5

The price be:

that Selling

the

recycler

will

ask from

the

customer resin

wil'

then

price

= REPAR x price loo

of virgin

This is not dependent on the recycler's production costs and if these costs are greater the recycler .is faced with a diffiqulty. either he can ask 'the customer for a higher He has a choice: knowing that it is not likely to be given (unless! his price, ,estimate of.the REPAR was too low,) or else he can decide not to A "third collect and recycle this material for this customer. option, to sell at less than production cost, should not norm&lly be accepted. (*, J * Example Y

. .i' **. 'a; ' .I' ', . '-. ' _' , .,

A customer manufactures low cost polyethylene buckets on a large Wpat price should the recycler.ask injection moulding machine. if virgin material sells at $600 a tonne and the recycler's costs 'are $300 a tonne, to produce clean, reclaimed pellets. " Because the product is large and of low quality, '&th thick the customer will not suffer technically.by using a sections, and will make large saving3 in his high proportion of reclaim Therefore a R@AR of 70% .a / material costs? which are substantial. could be tried, giving a selling price of $600 x 70$%= $420, well / above the .recycler's costs. a. .? / '. Example . / A customer manufactures polyethylene shopping carrier bags on a What price should the recycler ask' blown film extrusion machine. if virgin,materia'l sells at $700 a tonne and the recyclor's "costs are $350 a tonne to produce clean, reclaimed pellets.. ' Because the film blowing process is sensitive to the presence of tiny specks of dust or grit, and material costs are low compared with the very expensive machine costs, and because some of the 'film may be used for high quality, printed packaging, a low as 25% ~$11 be needed. fo tempt the customer. The price will be.$700
x 1.00

.r

I .

25
T

$175
. ,

1 . F.,.

it and this is 30 far below the recycler'.s cost3 that worth dealing in this material to this customer. However #the recycler may like to calculate what RE'PAR is necessary for such a , deal to be profitable and-it will be: \ . Minimum REPAR = Cost of reclaim x 100 . , Price of virgin. .
-19-

/
I *

:. i 0

,/

; .c
.a -. ,

In
.I

this

example:

minimum REPAR = 350 x 100 = 50% which

700
. __

would
t 0

' were 5 1
I a ,I .\ . .. ,

only very
-s-

be achievable under'these difficult to obtain. / in'which . B ti'rgin

f

conditions

if

virgin
D

material J \ are,:(as etc.

%
*-

Availability 'i --..__~ The situations

-

J material

is not

available

('.: '-

Times'of real or imaginary international oil crisis in 1973/4) due to war, oil producer 'pric^e cartels, * G I. , ' 'Times of national, import restriction due, usually, foreign exchange pressures,, war, etc.

l>

to

Where customers are remote from suppliers of material,, transport is unreliable or delivery times lengthy. sr . .\ Where stockiats or compounders are unreliable or simply run out of stocks. Where' the product'. cus'tomer , gets unexpected, heavy demand for's

. i . ,\/ .I ,/I

' * /'

The reclaimer should,be constantly alert to such situations and exploit them. In l/973/4, following the OPEC crisis, reclaim was'. selling inBritain 'at.a REPAR greater-than 100% for a short time J .political situations common in certain and in the turbulent countries such op,portunities may occur frequently. / A----7 1% is also:!:,." Availability, however, is a two edged weapon. necessary for the recycler to prove to hi-s custom& that he L&I have material available in adequate quantities when it is needed. This. may make itnecessary to collect and produce m-ore than can be sold at ,one time and stock the balance in order to offer rapid deliveriea'when these are called for. Be .will'ing to deliver small .quantities on a trial "basis if a, moulder or compounder temporarily runs out of virgin materiali If he is satisfied with he may then order it -on a regular the quality of the reclaim basi3, initially using very small proportions in his compound but slowly increasing the3e to progressively cheapen- his. product. Only if he is making his o,wn moulded producta. (see Chapter 6) should a rkcycler consider production of less than one tonne of reclaim per week: \"
3 . . d

,i '---

.'

:. . :

Quality

- Definition

The two previous matters have been,essentially commercial., The The recycler's objective is to remaining ones concern quality. produce-reclaim to satisfy the customer's needs, and thereafter maintain both quality and 'quantity, at an,economic cost. To achieve this he will probably need to produce reclaim as near to the quality of virgin polymer as is consistent with low costs of production. 1 The first essential is that 'the material'be clearly de-fined, so that the customer quickly appreciates .what uses itmight have. The definition may be provided in a number'of+diffsrent ways: : a) Source . It may be sufficient to say what w-as the source of the secondary material. This"should include: What were the producis and preferably rho made -3.. . them in the first place? Where were they How have they obtained? processed? JI _-

. -a ..

been subsequently

Thus a satisfactory definition might be: "PVC sold in cooking oil 'bottles, as Supermarkets in Manila, Philippines, washed, granulated and free from caps or labels".

b)

Material

It may be ;betterto specify the material composition. This i$ not always possible b u t if regular quantities of a few standard wastes are coll\ected it may be possible to trace them ,back to the moulder and obtain the.information '-from him; indeed he may be pleased to. buy the A ztisfactory definition of reclaim.back. * /' this kind might be;
.

./ .

"PVC containing 30% nitrile 2% dioctyl tritolyl phosphate, and .2$ titanium diqxide pigyent".

rubber, ,3O% tin stabilizer

c>

Properties

Finally it may be possible to define a material *by its propertiesand this is often what a is specified compounder does. The basic resin by name but the effects of other ingredients may be simply reported, for example: , I "High density polyethylene of specific gravity tensile strength 386 Kg/sq.cm., 0.957, elasticity .9100 Kg./sq.cm ;and MFI (melt .flow index) 0.5Gm/lO min. at 2.16Kg load".
1 i; . -2!f , ~
1 c

-,

. ./-

': The less experienced'recgcler will 'begin by using the definition and expertise may venture by source and, as he gains confidence It is worth remembering into more scientific procedures later. that many small moulders do not themtives know anything about the materials they are using but ~rely- on a supplier or compounder to provide what is correct for- their need+ b In many small factories reclaim will be defined Trial and 'd) .by whether or not it produces an adequate proerror r Thereafter the only duct without trouble. definition will be "the same as before". Purity 7' The -second essential One single Npureti. or non-thermoplastics. i is that reclaimed, type of thermoplastic This is because: . polymer needs ,free from other to be types ,

To d%ine a &iterial have a good technical laboratory. -.

in

this w:y it understanding 3

is obv?&sly and access

n&essary to to ,a testing

..--.

Impurities can.spoil the properties of the product leak re-' resistance to chemicals, strength and toughness, The harm appearance. visual especially, sistance -and, resulting is more than just 'one or two bad articles or even the inconvenience of having to replace the defective item. It is the damage to the moulder's reputation for quality;', as a result of which he may fail to get future orders, may be c inspection of his goods when subject to unduly stringent delivered, forced to reduce his prices etc.
. l

Blockages can lose production time - The ,main problem is obstruction of nozzles and screens (fine wire mesh strainers) by non therm0 plastic impurities such as i'grit, sand, = especially Labels, adhesive tape and paper labels. .j paper, variety used in supermarkets, 'are ' the tiny se&f adhesive because they are so small that among- the worst offenders, for example Metal foil, sorters may easily over$ook them. tops'of milk annd cream cups, is also troublesoge: Althoughcdn be removed they .play havoc with the such blockagee economics of the production proce-ss. Pt is aimed at Plastics moulding is a modern industry. exploiting the incredible advantages of plastics over other ease of moulding complicated materials: lightness, thinness, shapes, bright, varied colours, speed of prowon and low labour requirements. These are achieve&-y designing and. building manufacturing equipment of !enormous sophistication and complexity. ,'

_/._- -- _--.

_,_

_).(,/

.
/.

'

-22l

_ >..

i. I I . .i;\i ,.. I,(,,_

- ~~ ---

Such equipment is very expensive and can only "earn its 'keep" and produce at low cost .if it is kept running-continuously, often for twenty four hours a day, seven days a week. Thus an obstruction or breakdown destroys efficient manager. He - operating economics and annoys the production would rather increase the product cost by 55, by using a safe raw material that is 50% dearer, than increase the costs by 15% by having his machine out of operation for four hours a day while blockages are-cleared. r Impurities &A interrupt p reduction in other ways than blockages-: The most common occurs in the production of It has been expl'ain'ed how the film is extruded, blown film. If a piece developed upwards in a tall, continuous bubble. _. of grit- or e~B~~-pnnct~~t~~u~b~e itm%ybuit and Thick film (e.g. the whole operation must be set up afresh. fertilizer sacks) is less sensitive ,than" thin (e.gd shop bags). ' - .-Plastics .-maohinery-Permanent damage and wear. tomachines is designed to handle 'soft. solids and fluids under high pressures and moderately high temperatures. In these conditions hard grit or metal can score or wear moving parts and have serious long term effects on the'efficiency of the * machine. (I Cleanliness In many ways cleanliness of a material is the. same as purity. However the consequences of material being dirty.may differ from. those described above. For example oil or food residues may be . absorbed into scrap plastic and, altho gh they may not cause any" of the problems described above they or P ay spoil, .the appearance create. a.n.unpleasant smell. Because it is impossible to know how they have been contaminated reclaimed materials from an-unknown source toys fiFshould NEVER BE USED FOR foe-d packaging, children, kitchen utensils, drinking water pip&g and tanks .or clothing. Quality
When

__

, ~'-_.----------

.G--. -i

___.________"________ ."? I , .

._. r. 5 : -s

.~

I -Y----.....

Reduction
r ..

a recycler has supplied a customer of reclaim and knows him and his needs to reduce quality, purity or cleanliness harm to the customer's product) in order

with several quantities well, it may.be possible of the reclaim (without to save costs. ,

._...

This should be done~ cautiously, attention to the customer's any problems as a result..~ If the customer demand reduction is aware in price. of

a little at a time, paying close reaction and whether he encounters reduced q.uality he I will usually

.&

._.

"

__--_. ..r_ . . ..--.__I._II--

_I__ .__. -.. ...I....,.' '.-

Particle

size

and shape

' i* ~.~ : L I ~~

Virgin polymer is normally sold either as pellet or as powder. The pelleti-are of uniform sizeand 'shape~~about~the tie-of The powder is of consistent grain size.OConslstency ma"i.ze grain. the density of the material in is important because it decides which in turn d,e,ter&&es the-Qen&tp w---:' the moulding machine, Particles of different dizes and shapes strength of .the product>. 1 or areas of incomplete fusion result in-air spaces;' gas bubbles Solid plastics scrap (due to unmelted material) in the product. that has been passed through a granulator tith a grid size of 4mm .or~6mm will be equivalent to virgin pellet and will mix with it, The main even though the granules may be irregular in shape. Granulating this produces /"problem comes with thin film or sheet. it- is not dense enough to .fall~ --e--light flake whichx~3Eause freely down the sloping sides of a moulding machine hopper, causes the machine intermittently to run out of material and feed It is necessary to turn. often with probfems of overheating. air, such material into crumb or even cylindrical pellets and' these. operations will be described 'in Chapter 5. SmaZl particle sizes are economical materials occupy more space and are store. Colour When they are produced from raw materials,~~~~pol~~Ps~-ar-;1~Their final c,olour is obtained by colourless or fa.i%tly yellow., mixing with heavily pigmented masterbatch which is expensive. By colours it is possible to sorting plastic scrap into separate . produce a coloured reclaim ,whose use can save the moulder subThis adds ~to the competitiveness of stantial. colouring costs:the recycled material,-i&re&ses.its REPAR and the price that canbe asked for it. Such advantage is only gained if the recycler liaises carefully with his customer and adjusts his colour sort'Products that are black, dark ing to match the customer's needs. i grey or dull green or brown are very likely to have 'been: made Refuse sacks, garbage -cans, a from reclaim of mixed colours. --buckets and jerry cans are common examples. --- ----.
*

rm

.~ i 'i :

to pack. expensive

Large particle to transpw,an&-+d*/

4'.J'

~---

'

'.

_..... ---I~ ~~-~ ~.~~ ---

._.~ ~.. ----------

'

Pa-eking'

_. at the Not the ~.. .." . . . .^

, (

Having produced a clearly defined material;,of good quality, the right price and available in the necessary quantity at right time, the recycler must not forget about'the packing. only is it good commercial practice .to make your product'look good (the packaging industry, biggest user of plastics in world - is based on that principle) but'packing must;-. "\ be strong, so that it does not break'open during'transport or storage. # f 1. . . .
._-^. -,_____ _* -.....-.___--.-----.-.---..--..-.~, ----.. _____

. . . . . . .,.......

.
_,.__.... 41 ).

-241
-__._ -.--.

___.lll-F-. ._.. -

-___._

_--^

_.....-.

. . .

1_

__-..

_-.

._..-.

I-

--

---

f b

9 a . . .

so that nq'product Be leakproof, other , contaminants are kept out.

-7 -~-~ ___ -_ __~

is
-_.__

lost

and water,

dirt
_~

or
~___~

'

so that the customer and the recycler Be of standard weight, have no argument about the qu-a-ntity of material thatbas 1 been delivered.

':.--

~.

._ _~

-'

., for ease of storage and transport. *> SacksBe stackable, should- be fairly flat .so that they can be stacked .ten or Drums should have flat lids for stackIngi '* twenty I+gh. 0 _~ ~~~. ~. \ commercial prtacCarry the recycler's name. /', ional and bueinesilike. cI' tice,lmakes the company 1 _.l-..,.... ...". _~ -,_& -~ I I_nd polymer sacks': Initiallyi&may .be sensible "These can ei.ther often a customer will be able or, *'better, heat be stapled at the top to 'aVeal them securely Later Simple heat sealing machines are not expensive. sealed. ._ ..-., _. . _ .__ _.__ "printed investing in new sacks, it is worthwhile with .' tk .-.._, __. _ ,( ,,,. plus the weight and description recyclers tradename and address, ,,,. ..I. The businesslike appearance is worth the extra ,,, ,,,,,,., ,. of the material.
cost.
I

s a . * . .,, I

. ..t

, :

;w

, .I ? .

I . ,I. .I---

1. ,

. ..+.....

.. #

; ._ _

. r. WHICH PLASTICS TO COLLECT AND RECYCLE

:---

pee

'-r i structure and~proceaaea of Kaving'\studied the polymers,~-prod-u&a, .,~ the lo&l plastics industry and, the conditions under which it *" be able ..to d.ec5d.e. .. .,"... .' -' w+ which plastics to collect and :proceqa. It is stressed that all rules are.generalizations; .._.. may .,,. c.!e33ei...them,. FM.. local...situat.ions , example. Rule '.j would not apply if loc%l facto-riea discarded I, * = plastic foam s~rap(e+g~~&om =$%rG&r*&~hd loca*--:-+= .-- ,_ ,,,I,,, I ,., induatriep existed that could use it e.g. ,toy_or cushion making,. * t . ' plastics bonded to fabric, Do not c!oll,ect laminates, Rule 1 paper or metal or reinforced with glass fibre etc., or / thermoseta. To teat whether a plastic is a thermoaet, see page 43. ,) .,-,_,,, ,?~ ..__...,_,.._.. ,,:..,,.!.?.:';'::':':'I \-_,(,,,,, .., ,'.-'.' ,., . .-....,. .I _._..._ __I ;, \, \, , I /, \, /, sI \ 1, ~, x\; /',', % I, ~\ \ > Do ,not corlect articles TQhich:. RuTe 2
iccep

a>

.Have the plastic mixed with, plaatica'so that it is difficult e.g.~ carp&g,_-blister-packaging.

or

joined to; norito separate them: T-P 7-

~--

b)

mainly
c> ---I-Rule 3 -/

Are made of plastics that are hard. 'C o'identify expensive items such aa'those in the / th,ird column of Table 3 on page:72.soiled babies,or unhpeipic. and__.an-i-or ~.-~ 'such' as hospital *_ '.

Are commonly articles. 'for . ': goada.~ -

~.~

, ~~-

The costs . Do not collect foamed or expanded plastics; of transporting these high volume materials will not,. be recovered by the value o sales. The oniy excep4 tiona to this rule are where there.ia a clear market to use them in the foamed o expanded state e.g. as ._ ~-I.- * ~.__,, Even-then, , tl ,fillings for so,f~~l:.goads...os-.as-insulation. ,_ ,__._._._,_._. G _ _ -.-.-. _ _ _,_,_.i._._ ___- - -.-.-___-., --'-'--'-"~'-'-"'-- check carefully that the I&ice offered is enough to c cover all transport.and...col$ection costs and';-sell 'by volume (cubic feet or cubic metrea) not by'weight. : Rule 4 DO not collect film scrap unless you (or your c customer) have the apecialiied equi,pment for crumbing Eveg f&n ,,c,-,.... _,_._ ,_-. ..: ... ...-. -......-...--.-.~-.....i or "agglomerating" 5. _ it~ -'see _._._,_... ,.,........... I-,-(-.-,_,_,_ . ._ . .,.. . . _ I... . .Chapter .. . ,... . . I . . . _,.. remembe,r-.that-'f~~~.~Aaa great surface area for little ~' weight; this means that the area which can become .dirty--o-r eontamina&ed, -, . ..carry adhesive labels or,,tape, --is very large so there may be-more' of' these- trouble _~~ '. ___~~ ---Bomi7iiiipuritiea per-kgof?lymer th& is the case ,,,,,...., ,..,...., ,. . Moreov&,...bebauga ..film. frequentlywith ahid 'toes .:. &."' ...~.c.~+p~ ~.-. ,,.,_ _ .,,,.".._ ,._..,.. . . . .~ ,_,..r ,.s,l,P,,,ll-l...~.-- --_-~-2--.~ _ form &-bagi~ and- sacka, there 'will !co~only , _I-~ - ~.~_.. ._ = be residues of the former contents left inside. ~, .__~ .i_~z ---i-.

@I

All such"'impurities must time consuming and costly yield some small reward-if be--reused o-r sold~.)

be removed before sale,' a procesb (which, however may the residues themselves can '. ~~.~ -.~

'* ~~ ~-

Rule

Collect only those grades and polymers for which.there The next stage is therefore to check out is a market. and the whole business of what markets exist. This, is covered in some detail in "Work marketing wastes, only be outlined here:"Work from from Waste" and will a detailed case study of p&a-atica Waste" also contains recycliclng.. %ind (from the telephone directory, Ministry of Inmachinery suppliers or other sources) which dustry, companies in your district use plastics. Then assess wheth-er they are likely customers. This may be for example by conversation possible without A visit, with a plastics machinery salesman who knows the 1: c territ,ory. It may be necessary to visit one or more factories and discuss with the manage&. Then-~ch,eck .:., %,.,___,. ~~I,_ _, the kind list; Table 2 (~70) may -be used to identify of factory which is likely to be a good customer. .a /,- . ~~ '.,. , 'Collect materials that are abundant in your area. In particular consider:PVC for sale to manufacturers o? flexible hose and plaaticiaed pipe. These low grade, thick-walled of polymer. Manufacturers are ' products use, a lot pleased ,-_~Lto use __. a high percentage of reclaim for the ~- TCYwt?F j%lce .anrquaIFty rapge if they can overcome the I technical difficulties. Common wastes that are suitable are:. a Soft, flexible, plaaticised PVC, from footballs, ladies :. Suitable. wastes are: luggage. handbags, and other a clear amber (yellow), _.cooking oil bottles - often shampoo and other pharmaceutical bottles (transparent bottles with sales appeal). Unplasticized PVC for'manufacture of rigid irrigation and drainage pipe, gutters etck Again a high percentacceptable for the lower is often age of reclaim quality product. \ j

Rule

6
1.

.,f ,/ I !il-'\, 1 ! I

2.

I i / 9 . ? : 1 ,

High density and low density polythene 'from a wide range of housewares such as buckets, bowls,. brushes; ~- (Gut out the bristles)+laundry baskets etc. These are .I contain good discarded by hbusewives when broken, __.~~ ~. ~~-----i----weights of poiyu66, i'r%y-from -adhesive labels, met<?--.. caps or .otheri contaminan&. ___ _, I _,,,.....I '-"-'. ? \

3.

__~~~~

b I I

The manufacturer can reuse them to' make similar,thick low-quality with a market among products: low-cost, the poorer people of the community.

4.

Low density' polythene bottles, distinguished because they are a pearly white colour, translucent (not Also opaque, white or opaque but not transparent). coloured bottles, of the "squeeze" type; to give walls-and .\

~_ 3-.~;~~~~~-~or-~u~~~~l~.~-~-~neaeof high density polyethylene rigidity despite the thin or c.oloured. _ opaque, nhite

...__._._.___.__...... .I.. are -made--btrength and : ar'e bright,

,

,.

r
\ . \ I $3 * la

6,

White polystyrene tubs, cups, plates and food contain- '" ers, such: as used by fast-food stores. These' are thermoformed from polystyrene sheet and cannot be recycled for this purpose but can be used for other. such as ladies shoe heels. They polystyrene product3 are very thin and occupy a large volume but' can be or one inside. another or can be crushed stacked, .' shredded by hand during collection to reduce volume 'and cheapen transport. ~~~.~ -~ ~Crystal-clear, BET drink'bottles, often large,.usually 7. with a -base of black polythene or other material. ' These are widely used in Europe and U.S.A< and may be recyclable for 'manufacture of polyester fibre (e.g, fillings for sleeping bags) when the base, cap and 1 : ( labels are removed. ~~ 8. Some types of industrial scrap. . plastics'waste
'i ' 1

Recycling&&-mixed

ng the past ten years a significant technology has been---. ~. -de eloped .Fn Europe and Japan for 'the recycling of mixed and dirty plastics baste into large products of<low quality, such as building boards, cable tiume and pallet3 (Fig? 11). In fencing, general it has not been commercially successful and further development is needed. A variant of this by a German company, Remaker, has been more successful but the machinery is very ex- " pensive by comparison with the equipment described'here. A full description may be found in the Bibliography -%Ref. 13.

Figure

11: Large dirty

products of low quality made from mixed and plastic waste by a Japanese process.

Other

plastics

recycling

technologies recycling pla,

!:C?

jl

Ref. 15 describes many other plastics which have been developed but none has, application as the methods used to reprocess 400,000 tonnes of scrap

technologies widespread are ic perannum. such

'

TABLE 2

CUSTOMERCHECK LIST

DEPENDING IN WHICH COLUMNTHE ANSWERLIES: QU@TION ----_-_______-_--------------------------------------------------. PROSPECTBUT GOODPROSPECT, ASK TRYiBETTER THE NEXT,QUESTION _a ONES FIRST __i_________________-----------------------------------------------------------How close is Far Close their factory? %a ' ~-----------------,---^---------------------------__--__--___-----____~~~~~~~~~~~ Compounders, '&at kind of ., Stockists, factory? Moulders, - Converters
_____________-______________,________,__---------------------------.-------------~
L

POOR-PROSPECT

Very- far ._ Raw material producers, fabricators \

1 '2, ',',..

'fiat materials do they use?

Thermoplastic powders/pellets.

,I --w-w ~-------------------------------------------------------------------------1. Plasticised PVC Common thermoWhat <polymers do i Less common' * plastics ie. HDPE '. they:use? thermoplastics LDPE,PS,Rigid PVC ie'.PP,Nylon,PC 1 _1 Others on ~12. -------------------------------------------------,------------------------------Blown film 'i?hpt processes Injection'moulding, extrusion, do they operate? Extrusion, 5 Blow moulding i Callendering sasting 1 . I * .Others on p8. -----L------------------------r-----------------------------------------------What kind of'; Non-food contact ' and other products products do they make? ' without health risks -------~-----_--____----------------------------------------------------------What colour are Black, dull green, products? brown or dark grey ----^-------------------------------------------------------------------------Domestic or . What quality of product? commercial quality IF STILL IN THIS COLUMN YOJJHAVE A GOOD CHANCE TO . SELL TO THEM q

Thermosets, Thermo-plastid ~ ', rod, coil, .%heet, extrusion. Other O1 specialized polymers

Thermo-forming Heat sealing Fabricating Machining ! --Food Packaging Drug containers, Toys, ' Surgical goods hospital goods Crystal clear

1. i

High quality '7 or specialised

.'

CHAPTER 4:

COLLECTION OF PLASTIC WASTE

Almott every establishment used by people is a source of plastics streets, shops, factories, hospitals, schools, homes, scrap: Sometime3 it lies loose as litter, parks, beaches and many more. sometimes it is collected together ,and stored in a container.the sources from which plastics waste This chapter will.discuss the methods used-for collection and transport can be obtained, and the cost of the collection process. It is summarised in Table 7 (~72). SOURCESOF PLASTIC SCRAP Homes and Households The main wastes
-:_-

are:-

5 to 10. Usually of HDPE or Broken housewares - See Figs. LDPE but top quality may be nylon or PP, lower quality PS.
Rottl&,

usually

of LDPE or HDPE, PVC or PET. mainly HDPE, LDPE, PS, ABS. mainly

Food containers, Film, sacks

and bags,

of LDPE, .HDPE,PVC, Polyester.

Bottle but if

be of HDPE, PS, PP, or even thermosets caps -may difficult to identify the polymer, leave them out. appliances - fridges, telephone May contain many polymers. etc. goops, clothing handsets, especially mainly of ",

Damaged household cooking utensils,

sports Damaged handbags and luggage, footballs etc., and leather imitati'on plasticised PVC.

most Shoes and sandals '- often the sole is plastic, commonly plasticised PVC but also polyurethane; sometimes the upper is plastic. If it looks like leather (but does not smell of leather) it is probably butadiene - qtyrene copolymer. Waterproof garment3 cyclable. If of easily recycled.
may be of

plastic

coated

plasticiged fabric

they

PVC', and reb cannot be

Toys - may be of any,polymer. . I / .

bF PLASTIC PRODUCTS ' * The following list is neither dcanplete nor unalterable but indicates, 'D j * "sources of waste plastics: 3 4 > -I Qbstacle to These products These products 2 , recycling not generally . generally recyclable Source , recycled because: if clean. --".'-""""""""'"-" -------___-----------------------'--"f""-"'"-' Blister packs 9~ Plastic'mixed - ,iri Shrink wrap, Packaging with other. home or store bags,. materials. food containers i -4 and tubs, drink and . / e '7 (I n ,other bottles.. I __________-_________-----------------------------------------------------------Smali " Camek as; radio, T.V. Housewares - buckets, In the home quantities and recorder oabinets wastebins, bowls, of varied \ brushes, pans, baskets. plastics * mixed with other Parts o-f domestic Tableware and cooking _c materials appliances r utensils. Telephones ! I, Jewellery ',' ' Fabrics, yarns and i clothing (but these . L may be better re-. \ cycled as textiles). Babywear ' diapers,
\ 4

TABLE

3 -RECYCLABILI'l?Y

Handbags, luggage.

footwear, bricks,

Toys - building balls.

i/
--c-----------------------------------

. the

Gramophone Photographic audio-visual and film,

records and _ tapes u, P

- plastDc pants Soiled cot sheets material. bibs, I Furniture, foam fillings,Mixed with other materi : carpets, matting. \ \\ b ','i, '\ * .? \ \ ; ~..:. \ models,", Wide variety To@ -' dolls, \ of piastics. g'iunes used. Hard t *4 < I identify; often mixed with other ,;:* materials 0bti.cs ? spectacles, . binoculars,,, telescopes,'4 I *
. r

--------------------------------j------------

and tape Rope, string Office and school equipment. -*-"'-"""----""'"-""-"'--"-^'-'-----~---------~.~-----------------------51

Outside home.

8, Pro,teotive' clothing'-crash helmets, gqggles, visors, gloves,-boots,

.'

II

:-.

TABLE

(cant.)

: Obstacle to recycling

>. 1. L 1

These product3 These products *. not generally generally recyclable S>urce : \ recycled because: if clean A,--_________-__--------------------------------,m ----------------Sport3 equipment homeSports equipment Outside the raquets, padding', skis, ' footballs, bats. home. diving .gear,',surf boards
P

. Inflatable \, Hosepipe, plant pots, boats.

I i k

',

4'

Boat gear - buoyancy .aids, sails, masts & rigging, fittings. Garden-tang, %e'furniture, stakes.

---------e--M-. Wide variety of plastic3 used: hard-to identify, often mixed with other * materials 1, 8 a

..
--_^-_---_--------------------

* . m----e-

'Workshop tools - handles, drill bodies. " . Automobile, train, and aircraft bicycle, parts. ' 9
--_--__---------------,---

. VY , Ii

. .

Industry

Pip&work,, packaging,

formers; cable.

Industrial-equipment tanks, vats, vessels, Electrical~fittings, Signs, advertising Adhesives, coatings.* 'paints,

~ _ metal

U Thermosets:' Permanent. *.Bonded to non-plastic3 --mmMixed with nonplastics.Thermoseta. ._. m - .Mainly '$, thermoseta *'

\i - I I \ I

Container3 and handling units pallets, crates, stillages, bins, boxes drums, barrels, jerry cans. -------------'-"-"~--"-'-----------,---------Water pipes, fittings Building and gutters, wall.and A ; roof panels, skylights, light fittings. % Electrical Sacks. cable.

_I

-,-,,,,,-,---j---_,,,,,,,,,_,, Reinforced structures. Laminates in furniture fittings and paneling. Electrical :lioxes. Insulation Tanks, *' fittings, '. foams. greenhouses. \ i ---7" ' -a---_ '

ib i, \ ------------r----------------r-------------------------i Agriculture Irrigation piping, hoses, .sheeting,-.sacka, I rope, string, Jerry., cans, drums barrels. -,,,,--------~----------~------------,-~*--~----~----------

Boams . i*-------e-e-, Permanent ', -L 'structures t ;

-,,,,-----A----> ..

-.e

- Hotels and Restaurants _ ; These are often disappointing,sources.

r ,j+@-

. The main wastes ' a

are

Bottles

and jerrycans

Food containers Film

- LDPE,>HDPE, PVC, PET. '\ .., - HDPE, LDPE, 'PS, ABS.

me

sacks and bags - LDPE, HDPE, PVC!. straws - LDPE, HDPE, PP or PS. * '..

Drinking 7

. Drinking tumblers I- PS. I 0 I , Factories and warehouses I These may be extreme 'y-fruitful. Never let anyone at the -source of supply know what / is done with,their waste or they may try to The range of wastes ' recycle it themselves or charge you for it. can be very large but some principal ones are:._ I Process scrap from manufacturing operations that plastics(in small quantities that are not worth trouble to recycle). May be any polymer but manufacturer usually knows which. Damaged crates (bottle usually HDPE or PP. _. '. . Damaged. or undamaged bottles; barrels, etc., usually HDPE, LDPE, PP, PVC. There is often a good market for reuse iof secondhand containers, katch out for ' so prices may be high; poisons, acids and other nasty contents: ..a-, : r " Overwrap film - Many goods arrive at the factory over ,) wrapped with polythene film to protect them., For L example bricks may be transported, loose on, a pallet' with shrink cover. Small items are often mounted on, 11 a card then overwrapped with film wh ch is, shrunk on to ma ateridl may be 'I _I I firm package. Such -4f" excellent for recycling: thic L-f-J , ree fro? impurit$es. . . 4 and of large quantity. PVC is sometimes used. Polyurethane foam or expanded polystyrene padding -' do not collect unless an economic,' profitable market has been identified. I-. . Rope or string - if it looks like plastic it PP. Nylon rope does not hook like plastic', where the end:may have .been melted)'. I will be (except use the the

Damaged clothing

or undamaged etc.

buckets,

bowl 9, '-

protective

'

Shops and Supermarkets ,. Shrink wrap film - this may occur in huge quantities if it is used for packing cans and bottled goods -c LDPB or PVC. Beer and beverage'"::can skeleton 1 HDPE, LDPE. Hospitals and clinics Pholders the "Six pack" ,. , . . . . . . . .

Hospital wastes must be approached with care as they may contain However in many countries the dange'rous or unhygenic materials. dangerous wastes are collected separately for burning, so the remainder are typical ,of any large residential institution' (3ee Homes) with the addition.of:& +-

'

In addition to the plastic this carries X-ray film. silver bearing emulsion whose value justifies, reclamation. (See Work from Waste). The separate plastic that remains is usually PET but was formerly cellulose acetate. There may be an extra coating of other polymer. Autoclavable holloware - many items formerly of stainless s'teel, such as ,dishes, mugs, buckets, urine made of bottles, bedpans etc. are 'nowadays In the hospital procedure they are polyp+ropylene. sterilized before reuse by washing and autoclaving (heating to high temperatures in a steam vessel). They may be collected for recycling (and PP fetch'ea a higher price than many polymers) PROVIDED they are put through the washingand ateriiization process for the last time, before collection by the recydler. Hospitals may caloulate' that the cost of this, leas the scrap value will be no greater than the coat of safe disposal by other means. It is stressed that a without who items recycler collect3 such sterilization exposes his employees andfithe public to grave risk of disease. Streets, parka, beaches etc. .

'

, c, * '. * .

Waste in such places is litter. How much and what kind will depend on the habita,of the community and the municipal cleaning services. It will usually be dirtier than other wastes, having collected sand, soil and dust while lying, but these may be easy to remove. Collectors may p;efer to avoid these materials or to -wear gloves. Litter that, has lain some time may have been degraded by the effects of sunlight. This is mainly a surface . _, -35,. 4 ;

the product from being effect and does not prevent for the sorter Where it goes deeper it may be necessary brittle, part :and throw it away. off the affected, Special collection centres

recycled. to break

\ and schemes ,' To collect from the above soarces needs transport to and from the location where the,waste arises and this ,,is costly in time and Some communi,ties will bring their soiled wastes to a money. such as a "skip" located in the car park of a central .place, Often they will wash them beforehand, a double supermarket. Such schemes have been- fully -dealt./with in "Work from benefit. Waste"., with the problem of tibtaining sufficient For plastics, they can weight of material at acceptable cost and cleanliness, be good if correctly operated. * Refuse dumps and transfer stations can usually ,be found at the' Great quantities of scrap plastic It is not intended to refuse dump or garbage transfer station. discuss here the merits of refuse separation schemes, nor whether the co-llection o$ materials from such one should encourage These should be municipal decisions. In unhygenic locations. developing countries the public may not support, collecti.on centres but municipal dustmen often earn extra, income by sepArmies of arating recyclablesduring their collection rounds. either in the streets or from t%epoor peop'le live by gcavenging, refuse dump, and purchase from them may be the cheapest source of They may be prepared to wash it for a small plastic waste. but a second, careful wash will still be in price, increase 0 ," 'r-r necessary. It may be satisfactory for one scavenger to ,ait as middle' man The price per with the help of a small cash float to start ulj. unit of weight (lb or kg) that he will pay his fellows must be agfeed by tall and he receives a small extra 1 sum (which may increase by steps with increase in the volume of'material, he is I Such material may be purchased on a "weight able to obtain).' produced" basis; collectors may work leas hard if paid by time.
. ,

'

t
%

METHODSOF COLLECTION 3 .These have -been fully In general: 8) ." b) ji House-to-house cheapest with

>

discussed'in"Work collection a handcart. .l near

from Waste".' * the 'processing depot is

. %

. _ House-to-house collection far from the processing depot may ii need a vehicle or animal drawn caft. . _) Collectors work from it,, carrying 'sacks and return to it when the sack is full.

Moulded or extruded plastic goods are very light for their Any contaigey, ,' ('&-,,m .-...._.__ .,,, contain.more air than plastic: volume, have its volume sack, a cart or the back of a lorry),;will used up before ite weight limit i&reached, ,which makes the As the material is sold cost.per unit of weight very high. It.. f.s...ae!F.&sarg. to -.'.. -' -. .- ( ...!__.....-this becomes unprofitable. ' by weight, to use the fdll weight capacity of "densify" the material, the container at all times. This can be done by hand, with a chopper or other implement carried on the collection in sorting However, this may lead to difficulty . rorunii. I see page 46.
0. c) _~ -.-

Travel by bus or minibus is practical for coliectois carryand tough). ing two or more sacks, (which must be large They should chop up large pieces an& aim to collect not less'than 40'lbs (20 kg) per day per collector. Collection from the .refqe.. concentrated sources should time, by high-sided lorry. will hold greater weight. other.. dump., from,..f&tories~or. be not less %han one tonne at a A lorry fitted with'a mesh cage 8 . ,_,..:. s I ;--

d)

-.

~_ -4

,. ,.

,.,.,. _ . I" ..I. y -....,.., .II

' ECONOMICS OF COLLECTION ** s To: Profits to be made by recycling plast-its are rarely large.ensure that worke@ earn sufficient for their-needs, COST of allactivities (startling with collection) must b% carefully'checked, Methods used Jo calculate and compared with the value of sales. costs have been carefully explained in "Work from Wastell, Chapter
18. ..n * _I

'

: .
2

.~

Yield

.I

.__.-. --

.pr Because selling prices are per tonne (or per kg or per lb) all However. the $eight to the, same basis. .~_ ~~-co9 ts are *converted than that collected because some delivered wit11 be smaller material is discarded in; the .sorti-ng--I.~~ocess... The. processing t. J I. "yeild" 'is equal to .,l,,, ,,.,,., _,j _(,_, 1,1 _,,_, I, -,l-lllk 11-1,-1~,y,-'-'-,\, I,,. : ,, s< . .. Weight .of material delivered 'to customer ., . Weight cQllected to yield this quantity . a * Costs should be -expressed as "per.tonne delivered". --L-. Where costs ~ -are for tonnes collected, they need to be divided by the yield. //
I

__..... .-----

j These .may be calculated on-a daily;--weekly or monthly basis, each collector individually or for the whole team .~.. .._ t0gethe.r'. -.- -..- ..-. following should be included : ./"-. -..-----.---.!.. .. i Ij Cost of labour (wages) ~ i * Labour overheads supervision,~-etc.2.~ Transport' d Publicity etc.) '(clothing, ~..~ . lorry %suran&e, fuel, prin-fing. c a-& distribution ~~~~.__ pension,

.fo-r-:... i ....-I-___ *,I_.....:; The .. ' a h ".. ... .. ... ,, . ..,, _

f-bus fares; -(advertising,,; :

leaflet. 5

. Dgpreciition of equipmen< (cart, lorry, etc.) .d ~--.. .iL---. - .~_ ~_ z ---. ~.>':x..T=-. L. Interest on loans to buy equ'ipment. 1 ... * Collectibn.cost tonne delivered per = ~Totai,co%Iection ---~46a-i-ghtico-~le~ted

1 ~_ -~ . s ~~.

a.

.' c

~-cost x Ylteld- .--- - - .- -^ ---. I

_. .-a--1

_~_

~.,

_-~-:t

-:

I / i 1.. 1 _,

., A-

. * . * : .> . \ ..-,.-~-.P > 0 -. a

..

-.

. . a.4

t I _ ., ., ,< ., ,y/,.,, ., ,,

a ,,,.,.., 0 7. .. / .,.., -,~-,Y, ,r,rlr,r,L,_l,l,~lr,~-~-~

,,.,

,.,

,.

,,.,,.,,.,,

,,.,,.

,,- ->,-,i,,,;

,,

,-

,;,,.,,

* 1

I 1 .. _( a, _ .,.___.. _... 3 v,.....--__ __L .. 5 1 -~ --------

--.... _.-.. *I ( ___ .__._- -.A - ...__ WL. . 1

: --~-

..!?E

? I , , , , , , . , ., ., 1. ., ., ., ., ., .,

~_~.

~~~

~~ :. -

CHAPTER 5: --

PROCESSIRG ,-: :*\ -: _ ----- ., . ,. ,..,-,-.. ,.,. ,.., ~._. .._.. ..~ __._ -. --- -This chapter discusses' processing scrap plastic to obtain a granulate, crumb or pellet suitable for moulding or extrusion processes (which are explained later). The following operations are involved. The order must be decided locally_; -'-.- -~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ /Cleaning: sortkng: Size If cleaning be cleaned. ._~ _..~ If sorting unplea3ant is done first, c is done first for thesorters. unwanted material may -

~~-. ~ ~--~-

--~ , .

-1 it-may---be~unneeessarily

-~ Y-2 ~~~ -*

reduction . Tm -. -. . . _._ _I .- ._---5 - ---. -. -. .--, ~~, --.-~~ _ .~~~

Granulation (T-~&.g Pelletization Bagging _. Cleaning

and .-. --Delive_ry_. -.

~~~..~~-~. .* .-.._1 - --. ._ _ __ _____.. -...-.---

, ~~~~-~ ~!&ater%al--de?ivered-e-the ~3uFiZ%mer~$~.b_e _fr~..~fro~..d~rt-.-80---.~----c-i-_ -.___. _ -..-.-__ .____..__. __-_. ---"'.'--; ..-.. -- -.. -- 7-i- -. every piece should be cleaned but to achieve maximum.production from a given number of workers keep washing (Fig. 12) <to the . minimum. P 4 The following methods work down the list.until Brushing I. I pashing with are 1ist.e.d ,. in,,,order o.f=..&eaning the results are good enough. to remove dry sand, grit
power:........-.:......:..,.f~::,[

-.rYF.-m=-.+=Z
~.~_~ .- ~~~ c

'.

a soft'brush

etc.

"'

b)

in plain cold water,..with a brush ti Washing in water with detergent. Powder cheaper than liquids. The cheapest way is few drops of liquid in each scrap- detergent add more if necessary.

detergents are to use the last bottle and only

--

d)

Washing in hot caustic soda solution. This should be avoided if &ssible but may be necessary. to remove 'oil or .' grease or heavy dirti It-is essential-that sto length, rubber gloves,. free from . holes are worn. from ~si.ippliera'~of~ prote&ive industrial clothing. Those sold by supermarkets or. hardware stores are rarely strong or long enough. Caustic soda can normally,be bought in a 1 : )I hardware store. . !' :, 3 a __..~
__ h / _ _..__ -.. _---_ .-----i

._... ._ ,.-.-.-.. -- -. ~

~... --A--

---~-

-:

~~~- --A.
__-~

/ -~
-L-

*
,,__

._T .,,

~ I?,. ,--,-.:. ; 2

-.

~.

-----

.-I..

I ___. .*

FIGJRE 12 :

For all types-X brush is useful. at a comfortable cleaned quickly

wasning a mop, cJot& .or ny~Br~tl.ed Cleaning bathsor tanks ,should be placed Throw away"objects that can?& be height. and cheaply.

--

___~

._,..__11_

e)
- - --L

Cut off impurities that cannot be removed by washing, I of -metal or. rings plastic and paper labels, r especially It is easier to. abound bottle necks etc. ot$er plastics -crr+*~~fA~ a :,&k .rsmdtt---a label'is removed are amounts of glue that remain after usually acceptable) ~ . I. To save time (that means cost) and waterdonot rinse.after Place objects .to drainion: a washing unless unavoidable. taking care that no sand .or\ dust sheet of polythene film, can blow onto them. 'When dry, store in a drum or carton. for Different _Polymers
i

Testing

& p,, Although attempts have been made t/o develop automatic,, none has so far I plasticscrap, ways or sorting mechanical succeeded commercially; the only sure method,is .by eye and hand. As many different polymers look identical, considerable skill is This is gained by practice and by needed to tell the difference., a.. Even testing is not easy but the testing when doubt exists. "> following system works reasonably in pr,actice, . _-~-_ ,__ __ ,._ _____._.,_ ___.. " _.__,__. _ -.---..-.-------I...--.(__ _ _ -. - .._ --.-. i for diff;rent polymers, Yorkers are trained td,earry out tests ' and build up experience of what ' using locally collected,material, different products and different brands of the same product look like. After working for a few days in this way they will be able The .remainder 8. to distinguish 90% of all polymers by appearance. The rule is "If in doubt test.' If still .in doubt, need testing. 4 throw it outW. ' The tests explanation a> are tabulated in Table '3 but the follo?&g further is needed. I* \ PE that'has been Finger nail scratch and flexibility: exposed to the weather may have hardened and 'Very thin mat rigid and brittle. unscratchable, any polymer may Beem flexible; very thick of any rigid. II (Fig. 13) This is---very useful\ to. Flotation test: between high..,.d.en~si.ty ..pol difficult distinction (~especially iI! ittlias~6ee.n hard&id by exposure to Also between high and.' low density and polypropylene. polyethylene. A mixture of water and alcohol isinade up of 'exact density, 80 that one material will sink and the other float: L ! ?l
-41-

'

_.

b)

f . . :,

-.

~_____. /

..-

FIGURE 14:

: Testmg

by; burning.

% .I , 9

.:

_ -! . . -

Cutting

scrap

on a circ

1 , i

.I ,

: .

P \

L i

If pure alcohol (ethyl alcohol - density available use iso-propyl alcohol (also Mix about 0.78). Propan-2-OL - density (range 0.9 to and use a "hydrometer" A density of .density of the mixture;: that poly-propylene floats and HDPE A density of density PE) irill sink. distinguish HDPE from LDPE.'

about C.79) is not called Propanol or the two thoroughly 1.0) to test the 0.925 will ensure (or even a medium 0.93 is better to

I . I 1 * / I 1 ,:I
a

Flotation tests between polypropylene and LDPE cannot be done wit.h certainty because ,their densities can overlap. Use the fingernail test and visual appearance instead.' Q / Once made up the mixture% can be kept, p>rovided they are /' securely capped to a.void evaporation .or checked with a 1 Flotation may be affected by hydrometer before use. avoid by adding a couple of drops of 1 surface tepsion; 'washing up liquid to the water or mixture, or by carefully pushing the sample under the surface and swirling gently to remove any air bubbles.
I

c) ..

(Fig. 14) cut a sliver.5cm long and lcml For.the flame test, to a poiht at the other end whicq wide at one end, tapering Hold over a sink or stone, away from the body and is lit. The drips will only burn as clothing as samples.may drip. I they falleif they drop from within the flame..
I. /

. *

d)

.-

.,. ., e)

PVC can be confirmed by touching the object with a red h{t copper wire and returning the wire to the flame when St Burn off all residue qf mate,rial before ; will burn green. (Other .polymers repeating the test with theTame wire. that contain chlorine or fluorine, such as PTFE orholyvinlyidene-chloride, also give a green flame in this test . but they are rare). L _, _. . . . . ; ( ., . Thermosets can be tested'with :a 'piece ofiwire' .just ,If the wire penetrates it is a thermoplastic, red heat. I .not it is a thermoset. beloti i? I

C \_

_, w e

. .

, . - *

r;
Readers referred

,..
tests to identify plastics' _I are

,. /

requiring 'more complete to Ref.'16 and'l7. .

, Polymer-~ .-{ Flexi, bility I I

I

1.: In-1 Water I I

I

? I / o ---------------------------------r-----------------------------~----------------------------------------------------------Lou Density. 1 Very 1 Floats 1 0.91-0.92 1 Blue flame I'\ Like I (a with yellow Polyethylene /flexible! Icw= I II LDPE 1 tip:melts and 1' I I \ drips burning 1 / I j \ i > I droplets ;I I 3 I I I 1 I I I I I I
I I

I TESTS TOiDISTINGUISH TABLE 4 1,; Smell on I-Relative -\ Burning Ii/ Burning. 1 'Density I I I \I I
I I

POLYMERS 1 1' Scratches 1 \ with finger I nail 1 0 1 I I f I 1 Yes / Easily

Can it bej perfectly! transj parent. 1

Notes

' feel

.-

candle

1 No I I I I I I
IS I .

\Has a na;y

b +. I

-------------------------------------L-------------------------------------------------------~-----------------------High Density ditto Much 1 0.96 ditto I Floats I Polyethylene less 1 I 3 HDPE flexible; I I than ( I LDPE 1 I Y I Film 1 I I crackles; I I I I when I I I

I I

Iexist Very tough,, Hard to tear 1 8 . ; ,1: 1 .,:)r.

i. 1

1 Yes with 1 'difficulty, I especially 1 when cold 1 weathered

I I I I I I

or

; No / i 1 I I
I 1 .;

4 Iu

bent

1 I

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Polypropylene IHard to 1 Floats; 1 0.90-0.91 1. Yellow

I I

J I I.

P?

/bend bptl idoes not\ 1 break ] I 1 when I ! bent 1 Rigid PVC is brittle Plasticized PVC can i.-tje ~VSl's I I flexible!
i

I II
I

1I 1I

------------------------------i-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1 I 1 1 I

flame with blue base. Can drip burning droplets. Yellow, sooty smoke; does not continue to burn if removed from flame. ,. .(.,,_,__ _ ,_(

1 Ditto I less 1 1 I
I

but strong

; No j I I.
I

I -

i-X 1 No I: ! 1 I I I' I / i

,,_,,,,__,,---~--,,,---,-,,,,,n, T\

IVery strong IForms an 'Ialmost Iunbreakable " \.hinge if I-folded

Polyvinyl Chloride PVC

/ Sinks 1 1 I_ ! 1 1 ,' ,I

1 1.2~i.6
I
I

I _
I

I
I I

-. i

1 1 1 / '1 I 1 I I

I
I I I

Pungent h;r'drochloric acid. DANGER do not inhale

I I I I I

1 1 1 \ j

Rigid PVC No I Flexible, ' plasticised PV; - Yes

( Ye.s I
I 1;

1 // i

I , ,.,..I..,., .,.._..,. .,_.~ ._._.... ._,_,_,_,_..l..~ .:

--e---T--m-E--ma-

---T----------------------------------------~:~-----------------*--------~-----~

Touch with a red hot copper wire 'and hold wire to flame. i Green flame 1 indicates I PVC or other. polymer i containing I chlorine. 4 ___-- i, ---- ---mm-d

1:

., .. , n

,I_

.:

Polystyrene P-s

[ Very - !~Rigid' ; and ibrittle

1 Sinks , 1 I I ! _ I Sinks -1 1

I
I

I 1.0-I
I I

.l

,-,,,,-----------------------------------~----------------~-~------------------~-----

,'/ Burns stronglgj,Sweet i ,,x with yellow I /I 1 sooty flame. I ; I : 1 Leaves no ash I

1 No I
I
I 4---_-----------

1 Yes
I
I

I
I 3

IMakes \metalic,ring -Iwhen dropped Ich a hard surface

-----------f

m b

Acrylotnitrile/ Less Butadiene I rigid Styrene ithan PS 'ABS I --------_______-____----------I Celulose I I Acetate I Ch I
-------_____________-------------------

1 No , 1 Rubbery 1 Ditty but I :-'lea+ks some 1 I I a I I 1 ash. I . :! I i I I . I + I I . __--__--___----------------,,--i---------------------^----1 I;5 / -i Woody . ' -j.No* i Like paper, 1 Sinks I I 1 not if flame I I 0 I ,i I * . _ 1 is removed I I I
) 1.0-1.1,
---------------------------------------~--~--

I.Often has s.i,lky', lgurface fir&h 0 I!No metalic Ging * j. lwhen dropped" " 1 --w-M-------es __--_---_------l I . /Weak * j I Yesi I, I -1 *1 I 1. . I 1 1 No ,1

I(

m-e---

---------------

--e--m

. -----i--d--

Polymethyl Methacrylate (Perspex, hc6yld.c) Pmu

1 ------______________------------

[ 'Brittle! _j .I
I

Sinks

1 1.2
I

I I I
I I I

I I
I

1 Fruity, sweet 1 No1 Yellow flame 1 like, flowers I 1 with blue 4 *I 1 1 bas'e. No smoke;
I
I

\ ,Yes I
I A 0

I
I

I ____________________-----------------------------

1 Does not .drip Blue flame. Melts .& drips Does not continue to burn if removed from flame. Strong yellow flame with a little black smoke.

1 %I.L\ike- burning 1 hAi';- .._, \, I . / . i '

I .+

I I I

I
-m-e--

i$tqong but.)' lbrittle butlwill Ibreak if,bent. IDoes not ring _

I
I -e-e-_----------

9 , 3.

c
I I

------:----

Nylon N

I Very \Flexiblel
I
I I I

1 Sinks
I
I I I I

; 1.1
I I I
I I

I I
I

I
I

1 1 1 1 .\ .I I I 1 I ' lI

'1 Ng I -'r
I
I

.INo
I
. * w 1 I

. !Very tough 'land flexible

I .

*
0

.-

I'

1
I
I

",I

81

---_---____--_______--------------------

___-_________--____-----------

I?? ~,,__,1----~----------,~------------

_. <. II i ::
/ 1 ,Yes ! ? 1
I \ (

XI.
\ T

cl 1

v
I \-------&--,_..

Polyethylene Terephthalate

1 Very IFlexible!

1 Sinks
I I Q I-* I

I 1.4 I '.
I I I

j Little-sdell , butter. 1
I
I

1 No-unless 1 very thin . . I

I

I I

' P
-i------------------------------..

ITough and 1flexible. IShiny surface 1Crystal,,dlear \Can be bent jwith ,pli%rs) without Ibreaking I IHot wire will not

_--------------------------------------~--------------------------~--------------------~

Polycarbonate 'PC Thermosets 'S

i V-7
i

i Sinks
I

\
I I I I I I

I I

Tough

7 i
I
I I

i Sweet I
I
I

, .

I
I I I

.i / .
I
I

/
I aI
I

I
I

I I I

I I I / ..

I. '

I 12

, I Ipenetrate
, .

-w J .

Sorting zorting is easier if objects have not 'been chopped up as this Organise sorters so that the destroys the familiar appearance. and the best sorters sort'each' least skilful sort into colours, colour into different polymers. In household waste there tiill be little materia,l 'other than PVC, These can be,accurately sorted while all H,DPE, LDPE, PS and'ABS. container for are thrown into an additionalother. polymers an adequate quantity~ has been further so.rting later,yhen collected. * , Sort into labelled. conta?ners. Use the largest containe&rs for Heaps on the floor ,get mixed.up. the large volume materials. . , .. 1

Establish a ,foolproof system of quality control. - The best checks every container when full; If or the supervisor, sorter, the whole container should 'even one wrongly sorted item is found, . .be emptied out and resorted. il <> 8' " Place twenty 'different examples of It is easy to testsorters:~ number ,tliem and 'ask the sorters -broken polymer around the room, 19 out of who can correctly identify to list them. I Only sortprs _ .~, Y.. . . 1 . 20 'ghould be employed. 'I B :I .-- . .. s_-. . ;ic-'Sk colour asa&eed,with In. addition to-sorting by polymer, .sort'by Not all colours need be sorted; perhaps five the customer. ' ,9 ., such as:'- ' groups will be sufficient L Clear --_ -

I' ,*

, . '.

-ii T = *' = * -

Red,'yellow Brown, 7. Blue Size reduction

and orange . black and green . I$ i\ 1 . I'

'

v_

.. . , > .-

0 -. I a

.' . *

. h

'

. .. ', , 'I ' R'.' transportatio volume. 7. Size reduction during coSlecting reduces Size .reduction at t Pe depot = but may make sorting difficult. ,helps transportation to the customer and .feeding. of material to i' -. the granulator. ..I I \ The easiest method, is w%th'g'circular saw,. such as is used in a 1 for cu,tting plastics, are :* q woodwork shop - special blades ~ available.' Saws are difficult to guard and can.take a finger off just as'qui'ckly as they can cut through a.lump of glastic. 51 .

, I,)

.
should have hair Operators should be trained, clothing such as scarves or sleeves-tucked in. worn to protect the eyes. in a cap and 1,oose Goggles should be . . ," 9U

6hey should vwork.where they cannot be disturbed or'interrupt:ed by,! This means working in isolation and is unpopular' other workers. Frequent breaks for a chat and relax!:, but essential for safety. conce tration. .C ation will help the operator maintain \ f7 The object to be cut should be held in both hands Which pass, either side of the blade (Figm. Feeding sh&ld de well clear, to force the object through the with a firm steady pressure; and the hands being drawn into blade may result in "snatching" the blade. Thick leathergloves offer protection but'may not be acceptable in hot climates. The saw operator should know exactly how small Cutting too small is costly and unnecessary. be. A objects nee,d to

...

. ' , D 7 '.L "'

If a saw is not available a hatch,et and a solid tree trunk or , block may be used., -The object should not be held Chile striking.' The hatchet swing should be ,from above the head in.'the direction exactly between the widely spaced legs so that'a small deflection of the hatchet when it hits the object will not result,in injury to the legs. Safe'ty spectacles 'should be worn to prote-ct the eyes from fragments. J" . * :. A handsaw, with the object held in a bench vic,e can also be used. The size for material which is to be sold without, being granuNo rules can lated>must be judged against the cost of transport. if obje,c'ts 'are made flat 'the be laid down except to say that, best densificdtion has .been achieved; further size reduction will not yield the same benefit. -* _1, + ,
.

'

Preparation

for

Moulding ' .. ' If ,

.Before scrap can'be",ied -izto an, injection .moulder or extruder it must be- conver tl ed into a' "homogeneousn, free flowing grain, * powder, pellet,or crumb.. There are three ways of achieving this, J . , depending on the cost and quality requiged: *. +.,
--

, I

~,

Granulation: This chops irregular shaped pieces.

-solid material 0Y '

into

'regular -.

sized,

Crumbing: After being, chopped into flakes thin film is.converted 7into .a heavy crumb, dense enough to"feed 'into !a moulding or extrusion machine. This, is sometimes called "aggldmeration". Y
\ : o .*I q
I
, 0

. n 1 .

.
_ I

1. . I 1. l&L. . L1D -

.: 1

_, r ,

-----_

.~
-1

Pelletizing: Granulate or crumb is. melted, dirt, and made into pellets of a given size. i These fm&rtant operations will be described
II

screened in detail.

to

remove --.

*,. .

GRAN&TION This is performed by a simphe machine called a granulator. One type comprises a rotating cutter mounted on a horizontal axle * (no,t unlike the cutting cylinder of a grass mower, but with straight, not spiral, blades), which- chops the material against stationary blades. (Figs 16 and 17). Usually there are..,, fixed, three or four rotating blades and two fixed blades although other comb&nations are used. The blades are replaceable and can be reground.. The rotating,blades are bolted strongly to a solid rotor shaft, with a bearing at'. either end and a pulley, belt-driven from an electric motor. The. fixed blades are bolted to the cutting chamber and have adjusting screws at either end, to move them in *or out until the rotating blades just fail to touch them. Good quality blade steel. is important. Another kind of granulator has a vertical axis with rotating in a cutting chamber shaped like an upright flat circular base of the drum is drilled with holes grid. The drive pulley is below the grid. See Figs. This type is less, efficient than the horizontal axis much cheaper to make. flat blades drum. The to form the 18 and 19. machine but ,

_. 6 .I

Material enters through a hopper-, 'a steel box'-mounted above the cutting chamber. For safety, modern hopper design,makes it ) ,impossible to touch the blades while the hopper is in position. The hopper is usually hinged to allow access to the blades for cleaning and resetting but a device should be fitted, to prevent the blades turningc'when the hopper is open. It, is extremely dangerous to interfere with this device or have the hopper open when the blades are turning. The hopper mouth is sometimes fitted with a rubber'curtain to prevent fragments 'spi 4 ting' back at the operator. Beneath the blades is the grid, a strong. steel mesh of regular holes, often curved to fit the rotary blades. The hole" size determines the size of the granulate. Small enough material can fall through, too large material stays in the path of the i rotating cutters until cut smaller;. A grid * _~_---. size of 6mm to .$nm (l/4" to Y/8") 'is common, but this should, be agreed with the customer. Granulating costs increase for smaller hole sizes; if the customer is usingdarge moulding machines he may be content to have a larger size of granulate.3 . .

. ,

D .

vr

I A bin beneath the grid catches&he fa'lli~-granu~&~-.,--Someti~letil~-~a mesh guard is-set above the bin so that it is impossible to' poke a, finger through the grid into the" moving blades, from below. *). ' I
> -. ~ -483

* !.

----l

'A

fragments ' \ 6'

Three rotating

bladed

-Strong f ram& -Perforated

Drive

ang e iron

gr

d Y

belt

' .

0 d@ 60
- co1 .ection bin

.
Y , L -

7
1

>

: \. ;

FIGURE 16:

Granulator

- (hor$zontal

axis).

.-.

.\-

FIGURE 17:.

.Granulator 1

- (horizontal

axis).

lectrfc

0.Y

motor

Hotating * knife Perforated

Static kriife

grid

_C_

pulley Strong ariyle iron trame \

Collection
7

bin

' &

FIGURE 18:
1 ~~.

Granulator

- (vertical-axi&)',pim
- -----------t 0 * , , , , I, I r

~__

~~ _~ I
,,.

-~
.,,

* P

,.

_r

,,.,,

. ,

1, -# ii a.p.1 -lv,v...

-51-

. i 1

\ -.

are strongly belts and pulleys that d-rive the rotor The motor, no .&article of clothing, mounted and should be guarded SO that The motor needs a switch fuse can be caught in them. hair etc., 'All granulators shouid have' " and large motors'may need'a starter; I stop button. a large, red, mushroom-shaped I machines and in some countries,' by law, Granulators are noisy 1 they must be sound proirfed 6-r~placed-iia-a'~souridIjroof~endl~sure;. .Both are expensive but employers should be aware that prolonged ; At + can damage an operator's' hearing. exposure to loud noise least people working near such a machine should be given ear pro-,+_ tectors. .~ _-~ ~~ ~~-~ ~~~ ~~ ~-~ Selection of a granulator An important depend on: decision . is the size and power required. This'will

~~

Y... -

How much money is available

I to buy the machine?

._..... 0 .

What kind of plastics and $roducts are going to be granulated? Tough polymers like nylon or . .polyester need ..,..... .,.,...,. . . _,.,_._.... .,_........ pol~&~y-&~& -.. -. mo.re. .p;ower. -than....po~.gs.ky~~~~...br s-.--50. What rate of pro'duction is,required? . What size of piece is to':l;be fed into the machine? The hopper mouth size decides-%h?s. -2 tlow continuously wikl.it operate? For continuous operation a larger motor is desirable. For inter-mitten.t operation a smaller motor .can be used as it has time to cool. For the activities described in this book, 5 H.P. 4s an i absolute minimum. A. 10 or even 15 H.P. granulator should 'be obtained if possible. Manufacturers who can 'supply information are listed in Appendix III. Buyers in Third World countries and U.S. manufacturers are far This is for thre.e reasons: li
2)

.,... ........ ~ _ -. ~.-

.' -'.._ __ ',

o-

'-.

,.

1 . *

-,

will find pricesfrom European higher than those from India. . proofing finished, : and but . 9 \ i:-

* 0 0 . ..' .&3 '1 [ i

Indian machines features. Indian I robust. Indian / , . . ._,,.

have are less

less-sound expensively

safety no less,

machines

d 3) -_.~____._ ~~--.

manufacturing .',
II ..

.
0 i I

costs are cheaper. -2-_- A., ' , ' ~,_~~~__~ ----=t Ik I \ , . , ,, .,y, _ (, 1 I ! I :, , _I, ,,:.: .: .,

: I 0 . _, ,,, ;..:\:

y.

., f .-. .I . . 'P !r~~. --- _l__ -e, , ., y::,: .,,, ,, , I ,.,-,

0 * . \ . * L.

-52-

,I

.,

*_ _ &--. _

\in the rough conditions of the Third World, with For operation labour less used to ope&?ing and ma\ntaining machines, ,Indian machinery from the equipment may be more suitable . than pricey .__, . ...... .. "North". .
I

.._ D 2. t , ,

<When purchasing
.

a granulator, of

include: fixed

-blades, complete

1 or 2 spare sets with fixing bolts. 1 or 2 spare Alternative customers. , sets sizes .

and rotating belts,

of drive of

grid-

if

motor bushes etc. a required for different-mm .

~- ?

. -;(7-

When specifyingkthe manufacturer full 'This involves:-

machcine it details of the _ I-'X I is 'it

is necessary to electrical supply

give the available. . 1 .._.. ._ - ...-Y-_ .. .._..._ _ _~_. .,-.. '.". .I ,.I t \ St be --.cJSI * !. .,.C-:- -.a_.

a)
b) :. 1

Mains

frequency;

50 or 60 cycres volts, volts, volts, volts, other? single three siigle three

per second? phase? phase? piiase?-. phase? . ' are:

l

Mai~~~~~oltag~,i.i,~.~it~l10 .J .220 240 440 Any

:-.'..I.,.I

Other

matter3

to check

when selecting

I ranulator T place or

" Y s

9 s .,_,_,.,.,. i-r, ,,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,1.?-1-*.,-, , ,_,_,_)_).(_,_1.(_,_~.,.,.,...~.,.~...~-~.~.~~'~'~'~~~~~' How easy is it to clean?. ..,.l.r.r.l.,-,.,.~-..~~~~~~~~~~~~ .,_,_,. .,.,.,..-..i.,.'""" . ) se 0 i What facilities exist for repairs and, 'serv,icb if it goes _ ; Does the manufacturer have an agent in .your wrong. '-3% district who will give it expert service? 1 c r' * I v . To order machinery from overseas, an import licence and First write to permi33i .on to send money'over3eas __~ "may be needed. _ yeveral. manupacturers for quotations'fbr the macpine and spares. c-. "IThis means that -~ Ask for "CIF" the cargo seaport nearest to' you-. ,:,,i, insuring and transpordting the goods to that ' t&d cost of' packing: * You will, still have to Day: 'port is pG.d bg'the seller. a The cost of cleeiring'them import duty . * _ - _____. transport a through , ,. _the 'port customs 1. ,... at your home port r you want the-.' n' ~ ~-~ * _ .-:.:: ___.... .- "

"i Will the machine be static in&on mobile? -Does it need wheels?

should

Any custom3 ~ An+The cost machine of

._ I to where

from

The cost The cost The cost

of unloading of installing of electrical

it it

from the lorry d -.> connections

Allow for all these when planning purchase of such a machine. They may well come to 50 or 60% on top of the manufacturer's catalogue price. .. -b. 'W L .. -II-.,_ .t .'". Making your own granulator 1 , I ,
,.* l e ;I.*:

.\

It is neither uncommon nor difficult to make your own granulator, if you are a competent mechanic. In such a c&se the simplest design may' be a vertical axis machine as shown .(home-made) in \ Fig.19.

FI _- _-.--FI GURE

19:

Home-made Gral nulator

,_..---x.~--

(vertical

axis) film.

Bag-s of flake

from granulated

The a) b) cl

advantages Far lower No problem your own. No problems

of capital with

'making cost. spares:

your

own

granulator 1

are:I to make,

you .*will 5

always

be able

-2-m

,' d*

of importing. are:-

The disadvantages

a)
b) ' Cl

Home made machines are less cost of electric power will Home made machiines are have such a long fife.

efficient. be higher. 9 not likely to

This

means &hat or

the to

!. \5 '\ \ /

be so robust

Home made machi_nes are not likely to be as safe: if you decide that it will have. every make your own machine, your health determines your possible safety feature; so dangerous-money-saving makes poor econability to earn, omics. making .I the machiSle which could be spent ,f .,s, ./ ./..., ~ I.,.,.,,.,,,.,.,., ., ,, :, ,( ,, f., .,

,.. .f.1.1.1-,./ .,.,.,,,.,.,.,*,~, ',".1.'.'% ,.,,,.

d)

Time will be spent on. other things. .I. .,.,.,. ., .,_,., .,

The decision whether to make or buy. is a local one; it will or that of local workshops and the depend on your own skill, A good policy for a distance and price of' commercial machines. group working in a developing country, where such machines are might be to home-make the first .granulator, a not manufactured, and use profits, earned with it to ", small one with a 5 kW motor, purchase a larger;more power.ful, imported, 'factory-mads&machine at a later date. ,@ A; \ ,: >>, ra o '. ,'' Crumbers -I 20) is too light and bulky to fesd'hto an F Granulated film (Fig. \ It does not feed free1k.i.n the extruder or injection moulder. L hopper .oc down the screw-. It can .be converted to freeflowing '\\ material This is like a <n a machine called a crumber (Fig. 21). the II vertical axis granulator but there is no pe,rforated grid; material stays in' the -path of the rotating knives and; while The volume of th,e being chopped, is heated to melting point. material decreases a.nd, ,at the right moment, water is admitted to the cutting chamber. . The molten plastic explodes into a hard, dense, beady crumb, (F i g ure 22) irregular in shape and size but Large. suitable. for 'feedibg down 'the barrel of an extruder. amounts of water vapour are produced and sucked out.by a fan.

r, '%, 2. 0 r . ". ..

"7

FIGURE 21 :

The Foliolux

Crumber. 'f

Starting of film; machines

from cold it takes abo~ut five minutes' to plastify once the machine has warmed up. half this' further shred the crumb to improve its unaformity.

a load Some ., .

Crumbers are not cheap;. the smallest Italian machine sells at about US$20,000 for an output of 60 to 70 kg per hour, but so far no other method has been developed for such effective reclamation of film scrap. The Foliolux machine shown in Figure 21 is the clhe apest available, made by Plastmachines of W. Germany. One type of crumber incorporates a washing plan&q&hat wiil'clean To date3 soiled wastes, but is extremely expensive snd complex. no Indian co-mpanies appe,ar to be producing film crumbers. Some instead use granulators and add water in measured quantities by hand. @ Like granulators, crumbers can introduce water and a fan to fit. Vital parts need to be galvanizing or paint. Rubber rotor shaft enters the cutting. be home made; a pipe and valve to exhaust the vapour are simple to suitably treated against rust; by seals need to be fitted where the chamber.

, Y

Drying they absorb moisture slowly, and Some polymers are hygroscopic they can be successfully extruded and need to be dried before Drying can be done by blowing warm air through a pelletized. by stirring in a shallow trough in an rotating drum of material, out on a clean polythene sheet in the sun oven, or by spreading

FIGURE 22:

Crumb - a hard,

beady material.

bryiong normally dust and grit are kept ozt. the sun, provided and 90 C but lower requires between 2 and 3 hours at between 70 C time can be used for sun drying, temperatures and a longer especially if there is a slight wfnd. Polymers that particul,arly need drying are nylons, polycarbona-te, ABS and high impact polystyrene and cellulose plastics. .* *
.

-/ .

., -

, .
I

-w

EXTRUDER- PELLETIZERS .. An,extruder is a machine normally used for producing plastic Lmaterial in long, continuous rods, sheets, shaped sections or It can also. be used to produce pellets and c.omprises pipes. (Figs 27 & 24). a> ps 3, 'I . c> .
d)

A Fiopper into which crumb or granulate may be fed. -: '1 able to contain the high pressures A strong steel barrel, applied." 1 down the One or more screws,r designed to force the plastic The design of the barrel and heat it at the same. time. screw profiles is critical and they 'cannot be home-uiade for this reason. Electric heaters and air or water cooling pipes around the barrel to egable the temperature of the material entering the nozzle to be precisely adjusted. A nozzle?through rJ'hich the plastic is forced into:

i'

e)
f)

d h) ,, j) * A' /

containing a hol'e whose profile is The die - a ' steel plate, the desired cross section of the-material to be'extruded. For pelletizing, a "spaghetti" die is used; it comprises small circular.holes, about 3mm diameter,' arranged in one .or two horizontal lines to extrude tnultiple. strands of or. fifty on a as many as forty polymer simultaneously: a' dozen on small machines. powerful 'extruder; . A system to clamp the die :to the nozzl,e against. the 3 pressure generated by the screw. ? 0 A motor and gearbox to drive the'screw. 4 This A mesh screen .to strain out non-plastic impurities; is fitted between theabarrel and the no zle and the-melt isd i forced through it under high pressures,\sot f its design must be robust. The screen must be'. changed' when it becomes ,' clogged with impuri,ties; thi"s is.done ia, one 'of two wags. '. A continuous coil of screen on a reel at eitther end (like a, typewriter ribbon) passes through a holding frame and is wound on (by an a,mount equal to the diameter.of the barrel) at-'intervals; Alternatively unit screens can be fitted in ' a double screen changer that can.be flipped from side to a * side (like the- slide holder in an old fashioned photographic slide proj*ector). This system,is cheaper than the Passage continuous1 type but less effective and takes time. through a 's'creen, to ensure that there are no impurities in the reclaim, "is the main purpose ,of extruding and pelletizing plastic waste granulate or crumb. . I

* a I

, _

I! r

P 1 p

.,
l

. * c

k)
/ 1)

A cooling trough - info which the extruded strands drop as . It is long. enough to ensure complete they leave the die. The strands leave it through a: cooling. A pair of simple rollersor tractors Haul off system. whose speed matches that of the extruder feeds the strands to the next stage without over-stretching (leading to -_ 4 breakage) or holding back (leading to tangling). ,I Finally the strands -feed into a rotating chopper, ,, Chopper. a bin below. short pellets and drop into are cut into Alternatively the chopper can be mounted on #the front face requires less power to chop, the, hot, of the die, .which is determined by the soft plastic. The length of pellet speed of extrusi,oa and speed of the chopper. r .,> -

. . h<,., .*!,LI1:\,$

m)

1 % ,

\ I (I

T Selection
1

FIGURE ?4: .

,Extrtider

- pelletizer.

c - 1 I ,

of an E]xtruder

- Pelletizer

It may be worth-while variations. There are many, possible consulting your customer or another producer who is operating plastics machinery, before committing a large sum of money for an The following points need particular extruder-p*elletiier system. attention. / :.

4 _.

L I. . / b, * .

r60-

l 5

QQ

a)

b)

c>
d)

The output of the complete, line must match your intended production rate, with a margin for breakdowns, screen changes etc. : G . . Each componehextruder, take-off, chopper, must be matched for speed. --.. .,, 'I .. --._. Motors and -other electrical iarts must be rated' to the see page 57. electrical supply available;

" '.

ii

* v .,
* \ .

The screw must be suited'to the polymer you are proposing to handle and the form in which it will be received (e.g. etc.) The manufacturer will advise on crumb, granulat& . . this. ' Extruders can be very complex machines but the complexity lies in the controls; to achieve high output and good dontrol of product quality every feature may be electronically controlled. FOP reclamation extruders this is not necessary. P i 1 It, is essential .to see the machine hembnstrated, on the application* you have in mind. A machine built to,,,extrude,.PVC, hose-pipe may not be suitable for pelletizing high density polyD ethylene. I( Your order purchasing ,the machine should 'criteria 'that must be met by the machine * payment is made. For example:I
,

'

lay down performance before full and final

"Shall receive polyethylene waste granulpted to a ,6mm mesh and shall extrude and chop into 7mm long pellets of 7mm diameter at the rate of 100 kg per hour and continue to operate under these conditions for a continuous two-hour trial without interruption.:'. + \ 1 Bagging i ' .' . Having taken trouble to produce reclaim of high quaIity and reliability it is worth the cost of packing in a professional fashion. This needs a small scale, capable of weighing at -least 20' and preferably 50 kilos. Fill every sack to ,the same" weight and take care never to go under weight. 45

* , / i IT , , .

. v \*I

-61-

..

.. 1 1 rLt i ~\ . \_ ~~~_~~ .-_..: _

. e r r.

,? 4.

Secondhand sacks are suitable ~,for granulate but pelle:tisad.,-; material justifies a new sack or at least a neti-label st&,@v.e%': the o1.d one. Label every bag with precise details *of-'..&6 conPrinted self-'adhesive labels '.look professional and tents. justify a higher price than scribbling with a felt pen. The sack ten be folded two or three times at, the top and stapled firmly. Use a rugged stapler and strong wire staples \ or obtain a heat sealing machine for polythene (or polythene coated paper) sacks. This applies pressure and heat to weld the sack closed in a neat \ 'straight line across the,top and totally prevents entry of dirt or moisture. II 'l ~. From time to timecheck with your customer that the packaging is satisfactory, and that no bags have burst or split. \ OPERATING,PROBLEMS THAT MAY BE ENCOUNTED DURING PROCESSING . DANGER! In each of the following, sw"itch off disconnect from electrical supply before opening ing or making adjustments. ; Circular Machine slowly Y. -_ Saw cuts too - Saw teeth broken: resharpen or replace. cleaned clean the machine and machine,- clean-

i /f'. $> -i;T "'Is" ,":; a, '. L. !\,Ia, ,>;; 'S : 1. . ' ..,': j \; 'r \c'::. ':6::$'.$ a/.\I. .# j. \p$ i ' :$ '

b a,.

- Motor lacks power: ha motor i % serviced or, if necessary, > - Saw clogged with motor and blade. plastic swarf:

I Granulator Motor overheats cuts out Machine cuts .or L slowly

._

- Cutting chamber, clogged with plastic: * open machine and remove-: Restart feed more slowly. Knives blunt fixed or rotating or chipped: knives.

and

3, d :z ,

resharpen D

Clearances wrong: slacken ,off fixing bolts, adjust stationary blades, using adjustment bolts, so there is only a paper thickness between rotating and fixed blades. Re-tighten' 'fixed blade . securing boltp. 8 , s

burlfing' Machine Crumber stalls

that blades are not clogged. Check no drive belts are broken o'r.stretched. - Knives blunt or material tough for power'of.machine. F of the granulator "* may apply to t e crumber.' t '. In' . too thick or

G Any of the faults addition:Some'material not crumbed, remains flakey , Material wet comes out

- Water added too soon.

- Too much water - Insufficient

added. water added.

Crumbs adhere other in&large

to each mass

EFFECT OF RECYCLING ON POLYMERS In Appendix 1 it is explained how certain polymers degrade at temperatures at or near those required for moulding. ,The operations of recycling, especially of crumbing and pelletizing; of degradation and involve actual melting and care. The following certain other changes must be watched notes cover the common polymers: Polyethylene The only problem is possible change in melt flow index - recycled polyethylene may have lower melt viscosity than new material.' Material should be reprocessed at the lowest po&bIe temperatures and held at these temperatures for as short a time as possible. Reclaim should bg tested for melt flow index after processing (see Appendix II) and differenoea allowed for when I blending with virgiq material. * Polystyrene Slight yellow discolouring can be reduced by, keeping recycldng temperatures and times down. High impact polystyrene should be dried before reprocessing as it absorbs water in service. :

, -------p

-65

Polypropylene"' Melt flow changes may be g~r&&er than with polyethylene, so It is less testing of melt -flow after prge&tiing is recommended. .'Fin the event of degradation stable than~lyethiyle-na_and, a thermal stabilizer would need to be mixed with the occuring, granulate prior to crumbing or pelletizing. , ABS . Melt flow material. and other

Drying before recycling may ..&a necessary. properties of reclaim may diffe@qrom virgin PVC

Both plasticized and rigid PVC,qre sensitive to heat and may have poor stability at moulding temperatures, depending on the kind of stabiliser present. Keep temperatures as low as possible, for as ' short a time as possible. A further problem with recycling PVC ispthe7-presence of a wide_ variety of stabilizers, plasticizers, fillers etc in large and (usually) unhow~~ quantity in different products.' Normally, such materials can only be used to manufacture low,grade prodycts.' However, if scrap-can be sorted into -similar categories (cooking footballs, flexible piping, oil bottles, cable sheathing etc.) then the material is likely to be suitable for blending in the manufacture of similar products. A sample should be tested to 0 check %eat stability and, if decomposition occurs, advice on a suitable stabiliser should be sought. The other properties needed for the proposed use can also be checked. Polymethyl methacrylate t 1 less reduce

_ _ ,. "

The colour and clarity of reclaimed material is slightly than that of virgin. Contamination by other polymers will weather resistance and spoil appearance. Polycarbonate This material in service. must be dried .: .before recycling, as. it absorbs >

water

'

* ..':,-... >' .-?I,.

, .

". 0

The-differen&?&,$& Nylons require drying before processing. nylon have different melting points and other, characteristics'and As most sources of nylon scrap should be kept separate. 0 industrial this is possible. ., .. PoSyesters ., :

of-pI are

5 --__.~_ -, '

,,High purity 'is essential; ?onfamination reduces clarity and and requires high and 'strength., -Reprocessing is difficult Material should be dried carefully controlled temperatures. - before processing* Q* a r. , Cellulose acetate and other cellulose plastics These materials need drying before recycling. ' CI ' /-

;_

Y COSTS OF PROCESSING

when---talc-ulating ~~~ Thefollowin~ctors-willneedto be included If material passes through -4the total cost of 'processing. sequence of processes then costs of eachbmust be ,added. ,,;;*<.-c Total Total labour overhead cost for that labour in 'L . I machines. , washing or I c

_.
i

Cost of all soda, gloves;

involved consumables brushes etc. to machines. or other

cleaning; ' * '.I

'Cost 'of electric:power . .Cost/oof'any Depreciation stabilizers

I I / I .:*

additives.

'

of machines:+ .\' Interest on loans to purchase 1 Rent and rates on premises.

Where different materials are collected and processed on the same, premises it is useful to calculate the costs separately so that the profitability of each can be calculated. (See "Work from . Waste", Chaper 18). " SAFETY IN PROCESSING 0

The importance of safe working methods and how to achieve them in a recycling operation have been fully described in "Work from ,, Waste". Some of the main.hazards of plastics recyling must, be pinwiated here as well: (1 .
. : ?

-65-

, .

Almost all plastics Lwill burn. Every possible care to prevent fire-should be .taken. Smoking should not'be allowed. Electrical-machines shouid.be unplugged or isolated'at the end of each day's work. Fire extinguisher3 or -buckets?-k+*. : of water or sand should be kept available. 41' Granulators and' crumbers. are powerful rotating machine3 which can. cause serious injury. They she-uld- be treated with and 'never re8pect cleaned or repaired until the electric supply has been cut off and cannot be accidentally restored. The same applies to.-saws, extruders, in fa&all + ---1... electrical machines. All electric machines are potential sources of ,electric shock, especially in the presence of water. Care should be taken to ensure they are correctly installed and earthed and' never repaired unless electrically isolated. Workshop floors should be kept dry. Injection mouldefs and extruders generate temperatures high enough to cause severe burns. -Hot plastics will stick to the skin,and burn horribly. Suitableprotective clothing must be worn by operators. Scrap plastics can carry dirt or chemicals that may cause disease. Hands should be washed before eating or returning home after work. Plastics can give .off poisonous fumes when burnt. Avoid breathing such fumes during tests (p.43): Leave the building quickly (closing doors and windows to slow spread of fire" if possible) if an accidental fire occurs. Do not dispose of plastic waste by ,burning. Ensure good room * ventilation wherever plas.tics are processed.

. _ .
-a_ ..c-. .LI_. ~ _

<--

~---~C'HXPTEr

MANUFACTURE AND SALE OF SMALL ARTICLES FROM RECLAIM

Recycling in the manner described in the last chapter can convert worthless scrap into-material worth between US$400 and US$60? per tonne (1982 prices)'. If this material is moulded into a tiny product weighing perhaps 5 gms., it may wholesale at perhaps,f20, equivalent to .US$40,000 .per tonne! There will of course be additional costs, some of them quite high, which are listed at the end of this chapter. None of them is large compared with the extra' income to' be. derived from moulding This to enter the chapter describes the equipment and' skills 'moulding industry on the smallest possible soale and make far ' greater profit. *. ' It is not intended to ,deal with any of the industrial machines described in Cha ter 7 with their expensive, complicated electronic controls. many books are available for this. Cheaper * altsrnatives are ava' L ble. The kind of extruder' described in Chapter 5 is available fr_om Indi,a at about US$8,000 at the very cheapest. A range of hand;operated injectilon moulding and blow i mouldkng machines exists that cost less th n US$2,000 '(or less 4 than US$l,OOO from India) and are therefoire within the price range of a small project, fhat 'has spent a Jyear collecting and granulating scrap plastic and has managed to save some cash -for I 1 e .further investment. Small Injection Moulders - (Fig. 25) around the. barrel. plunger, forced down is controlled by a heat,' inject, cool, Production is thus an eight hour day. l

_ ' 1

1 ,r . ...+

These machines have an electric heater Pressure is,applied not by a screw but by a 'by turning a capstan Heating time simple, timer and a .le cycle (charge, eject) takes between and 45 seconds. , limited to' not more th a thousand items.,in

".

- = ~:, -X

These machines are ve all which limits the'size and weight of the product: For examp the SPl"made by the Small Power Machine Company can plasticize up to 1 kg'of polymer 'per'hour, making 120 shot3 in that time, the maximum area of the mould (and hence of L-.-" --the product) is just ZiYier 40 sq cm and the maximum dimensions of the mould are 1Ocm x 10,cm x 7,5cm._ ' . j . "' Most companies offer 'a range of dies off the shelf and a service' for making those not included in the catalogue. Moulds are made in aluminiumand are expected to have a life of at least 20,00d components. They cost about US$200 each but could be made cheape 8 in ,., worksho~a.............,.,... ....I_ _.,,,... ,,, ...(local .,,. ..,._ _ A,range'of components' Citable for moulding on a machine of this size is given in Table 5, and illustrated in Fig. 26. .:: 0 : ,

. ,'.

4.

FIGURE: 25.:

Small

injection

moulder.

-68-

Small

scale

blow moulding to be possible with a machine foot pump to the die. Small Scale Injection Moulding when of this

Blow moulding is reported type by coupling a simple Selection of Products for

The following technical selecting products for

matters must be taken into account small scale injection moulding: must not exceed

The weight of the product weight of the machine.

the maximum shot /I and the _-* : '

The size of the product, both area facing the nozzle maximum di&nsions, must not exceed those specified for machin:.
.-

The material must be a thermoplastic ?%ost of for injec'tion moulding. ' Table 1 are suitable.

of suitable the materials

properties listed in it can be with a neck

The shape of the product must be such that withdrawnfrom the mould. Thus hollow objects narrower than their base are not suitable.

! '\ . :I . y-o .

Items with a screw, such as bottle caps, can be moulded but ,, will need to be withdrawn with an unscrewing motion. I i Items with holes through them, or with metal ins'erts (kg. a screwdriver with a plastic handle on a steel blade) need special methods but these are not necessarily difficult if. the mouldmaker knows,his job. In addition conaidered:the t fiat in the shops? .- _.,. . Are they already @made'in the country? Are they imported . which case you may get a big advantage? q*ua>ity there a public as good asother these Ttems? producers? price do such items fetch following commercial factors need to be

; i

Q in

_. "4 3 I

--Cm4ieve-a Is

demand for

How should you package them to obtain widest sales and the best price? Mount them on printed card-? Blister -pack?---------Pack in .a polythene bag? Sell in small boxes? An attractive pack can easily double the price you will be able to charge - and will provide additional emplo;vment.

What price will you charge? Study the prices of similar items in, the shops and ask retailers what they pay for them, before them supplies. You can dim to ' you offer charge a price just below what wholesalers' pay at present if 'your' quality is just 'as good, charge less if your ., quality,is inferior. If there is a shortage of these items in the country you may be able to charge even more than'the current price. Try and sell to two or'three dif%rent outlets, not to just one. Then you can chop and change -.or drop ~a bad phyer without difficulty. For details of the selling of waste materials see "Work from Waste", Chapter 15. An impoirtant decision is whether to sell~ough wholesalers or retailers. If you sell through retailers you will get a better price-through wholesalers you will find it easier (less work) to sell large quantities. Wholesalers may not buy from you if you also sell direct to retailers in their area; Probably the decision rests on ---. the matter of quantity. If the number, of items you can produce 'will only satisfy the needs af two' or three retailers then sell through them; if it will feed twelve or more then sell through a wholesaler. Work out the difference in price between the two and calculate whether it is worth the trouble and cost of distri- --bution to the retailer in return for the extra price you receive. I Operation of a Small Injection Moulder before. E it 1 _ .on to hea t UP, 10 to 15 minutes 1

/' ./ , *

,'

*_

The machine is switched is requirfd. 1 r : The mould:bis closed and clamped.

..

.
l

Material iis placed in. the hopper and a measure3 into the garrel, where it is heated'. < .._.........

amount
, ,a

droppedI
- ,I

After a -spe~ie~eu~t~~~~e_~~t~ndle +=tuI-neG furc*-plastified 'material through .the nozzle and into the .d'ie. --Thepressure is held for a short "dwell time", to'ensure additional material flows into the mould to compensate. for shrinkage, then released. After a' further pause the mould clamps are released tind steel pins used to ejectthe moulding which is now sdlid but _. _.-.. :-L- - -c;I. still hot! . The next cycle can take place immediately. 4 I . , .
, :

---

.._

. , *'F ~;t'

-7O-

q.

49. . Y 1 .* ; . /

. as

11

A, More Ambitious

Machine

A more ambitious small sca.le injection moulding machine is widel,y Although the material is injected lusing a used in Egypt. electric motor and hydraulic powered by a 5h.p. hydraulic ram, has a 7kw electric heater, the die clamping 'Pump? and the barrel system of links and levers is done by hand, using an ingenious The cdst is around US$l,OOC and promoved' by 'a long handle. ductidn rates can be achieved that are, not much -less than, those 'of fully automatic machines' _ Proh.lems,that may be encountered during injection moulding: , Moulding is short or has holes in it or a rough surface - Mould is not totally filled - press harder on capstan, operate capstan If the trouble persists it may faster- or hold pressure longer. be necessary to increase the size of the gate .- the opening in the moulYd that allows the plastic! to enter. I Flash - a thin layer of plastic escapes .around th_e mould - Check are securely mould is tightly clamped to noz4zle, moyld halves joineq, if mould is worn'or damaged. If flash oqly occurs on one batch'of material, its melt flow index may be too high. . 'Discolouration of thin paper between --, plastic enters. material - reduce Stabilizer to the the moilding - may be due to the two mould halves to allow With PVC it may be due to amount of heat, or duration of polymer. Place . burning. air to escape as decomposition of p heating or add a ' -.

\ .

Misshapen product '-, product ejected from mould before cool Too short dwell time fails to enough. Material not homogeneous. ,'top up' heat shrinkage. -2.1 -) \ Cracks or defects in moulding - heating period too short, po\ er . did not all melt. \ F ,, \' L-r \
I 5 * I
---x....._---. ~,

. \ : \

: ;; ;

._.
I. _ _ :. 0 I

\ .
.; 1 1

o-r * .

u n . * > . ,

I-

'-71-

..

,-

-a

/y I * , ,

TABLE 5 a Air

&all

Mouldable holders

Plastic
I

Objects

(See .Fig 26) -

'I
.*

freshener

:e

Key'tags Magnifying Mobiles glasses and

D Badges I. Bangles and rings * Basin and bath plugs and other plumbing Battery filler caps Beer mats Bobbles a Bo"%X%lids and caps Bra buckles/clasps and stiffeners Buckles Buttons Cable joints' Clothes pegs - without .springs CoJlar stiffeners Gombs Cosmetic boxes Cotton reels Crucifixes, medall'ions Cupboard knobs/drawer handles Cu%in hooks,rings and runners . Cycle handlegrips, pedal u rubbers .
-

Office equipmst sundries

Pencil sharpeners Plastic flowers and fruit I_. Plastic wall plugs Plugs and ca.ps for. tubular.steel furniture 'Pbp-on necklaces h Replacement petrol filler caps School rulers arig set squares Screw-driver handles YelT-adneslve coat nooks Shoe heels and insoles 'Soap dishes and boxes Spools Spinning tops Statuettes and models Su5tcase and briefcase fe*ert =. Tap,washers and hose fittings Tap spouts and hose aozzles Thimbles, darning mushrooms artificial o

>

,.

#' >j' ! .:

Desk pencil- stands. Doorstops~and door wedges .' Draughts or Jacks L ,s Electrical components, simple pl*ugs
a

Wall ornaments - fridge ~-ornaments wfth -m&gnets-:-------; eic . L- ~.--- --_ / +-

'*

';

.~ -.

X-ma3 :.--.-----cI. tree ornaments - ~~~ __ _ ., .). Yoyos

A \ I . -

I ; c i"

,/i"

. . '

.. D .. m \-

. . s .'

e . 5

-72-.

F
>

: . i: .:-

FIGURE 26:

Small moulda6le

objects.

"
.

L . I

-,

APPENDIX-I
v

'ABOUT PLASTICS - THEIR CHEMISTRY,ANC STRUCTURE t r*

.!.

' The meaning

, ,,

of "plastic"

into any fo,rm". Piastics do not "Plastic" means "can be-moulded "plasticity") at all times; most possess this quality '(called at room temperatures they are are on1.y truly plastic when-hot; back ?if bent or stretched solid and either break or- spring greatly. ,$ , Monomers and polymers x .. Plastics, are mainly man-made, by chemical processes that *start frequently petroleum oil but also with various raw .materials: basic material non-minerhls 'such as cellulose (the of plant cells) and even milk. ,I

-e 0

.i

8~ &L;;$j

,-

L .' n which are The plastics in common * use are based on "polymers" compounds know-c as ~monomerstl . either formed, from simple organic or by combinations of chemical compounds which on their own do not make polymers. An example of a monomer Qs the gas ethylene, b obtained from crude petroleum oil. Each polymer, molecule, is made.bg joining, thousands of monomer molecules together in a long chain by a chemical process called "polymerizatibn" Each polymer is quite different from-,the monomer from which it is made: for example polyethyl,ene, made by the polymerization of ethylene, is a fl.e+ible solid at room temperature, quite unlike the gas from which it is "formed. Carbon atoms and bonds 'Carbon (symbol C) is #-I "element". found in nature in different' forms: as coal, as graphite (pencil lead) and even as diamond. Although too small toll be seen, an atom of carbon has a strycture . _ py i &id with one" like a four-faced 'c arm sticking out fro each corner. The arms can be imagiL ashaving hands with which they can join onto any other atom that has a free hand.

Their nature -and behaviour is considering their detailed structure: of which they are made.

most,. easily the "atoms"

understood by and "molecules"

>,

- .

,<y.

-.:

\ 1

_e_ .

The joint .between two atoms is called a bond. It can be thought of as the two arms and the clasped hands where they @~-.&5f--+fij) .., , ~~~~sa~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ other atoms in a vast number of different ways.

P) .

Hydrogen (symbol H) is an element which exists in nature as a light gas (explosive when in contact with the An atom of hydrogen oxygen in air). has only one arm so four hydrogen atoms can join onto one-carbon atom to make the simplest of all organic compounds: well bown the gas methane, which'is as the main ingredient of biogas or natural gas.

For simplicity i is drawn on flat paper like this:

t
H-C-H u
i

It should not be forgotten that it is three dimensional and some of the bonds should actually be pointing out of the paper.

As well as'joining onto different atoms, a- carbon onto another atom of carbon, either wPth ea-&atom of its four arms, which is called a single bond: ." or with two aihns each (a double bond) . . b :"

atom can join using only one

.',.

or with a .L bond . i . ' ,' %-iple ..' 1 n

An example of a compound in which two carbon atoms are joined by a double bond is ethylene (chemical can 7 formula C2v ) whose molecule be represen ? ed as:

The simplest

addition

polymer

- polyethylene

A molecule whose carbon atoms'are joined by a double bond can still be joined to other molecules if the double bond is replaced by a single bond, leaving two arms free. Such a molecu le is called "unsaturated".

.H c=c A

;1 H

:
becomes -[

In the case of ethylene:

H I

--'[-

G! I. H

Consider a container that holds a monomer gas or liquid. For molecule with two free arms, the nearest available =lY single atomsto which to join are those of other, identical, unsaturated molecules. conditions exist to start the so, pr,ovid-ed certain process, the monomer molecules join together to form a chain molecule. It may be extremely long, often several thousand atoms; and not every molecule in a polymer has exactly the 'same length; when speaking of the length or weight of a polymer molecule it is th.e average that is considered. For example, ethylene polymerizes into a chain molecule of polyethylene, (also. called polyth_ene) in this way. The process, of simply adding one, . monomer molecule onto another, is called addition polymerization. ,I

Jt

/I

H.l-4 I

M
*

-;:I I
I

Because its 'structure is light, with no large groups atoms, polyethylene is a lightweight plastic, of specific between 0.91 and 0.9&T which floats on water; .' . R

or heavy gravity

A
c

An addition

polymer

without

hydrogen

- PTFE

Although hyd.rogen is one of the most common elements to which carbon joins, For example, it is not the only one. the monomer tetrafluoroethylene, which is like ethylene in structure: ' but with fluorine atoms (symbol F)in place of hydro,gen, can be plymerized into polytetrafluoroethylene better. whose extremely ; irnown as FTFE, a plastic iow friction has many uses besides the I familiar coatings for, non-stick saucepans.

-I= I. F I -I F ! I -i-;-;-c-c-\;- I
_

7
F

F.F-F

d I 6

Other

polyvinyls Ll'-

- polypropyleneand

PVC .-

Any monomer whosetSmolecule

has the form

'* H I I c -z c : I HA
H

Its polymer is called a vinyl. The X can represent either (_ is a polyvinyl. a single atom (such as hydrogen, as in 0 1 ethylene) or a group of atoms. * b : ... For' example, There are many such groups. the methyl group (C Hj) has one carboan and three hydrogen atoms leaving one arm free to join the vinyl strucJure

I I

H-C.-H I .H '.

.*

to form the monomer propylene ,

u-i-,I c

I,

H,ki

l-i

Eecause the C H, side t:roups *{are spacious but -not heavy, the chain molecules Gill not pack so tightly together as will those of polyethylene, so polypropylene 'is less dense (specific gravity (s.g.) 0.90 - 0.91) The recycler uses this property to distinguish it from high density polyethylene, which it otherwi'se resembles. Yhen the X is an atom of the-poisonous gas chlorine (symbol to sterilize drinking and swimming' used po301 water, monomer is a gas called 9 ii' 7 C =C vinyl chloride Cl), the

I I H . CI

and the polymer is polyvinyl chloride or PVC, orie of the ' most widely used. plastics. ' .

The chlorine atoms are much heavier than:n$hose of hydrogen, so that thejpure polymer is much denser than polyethylene, with an s.g. of about and sinks in water. -0 Polymersjwith benzene rings - polystyrene ,One special arrangement that carbon atoms tyke up very easily is a ring shape, called the "benzene ring" i
1.4,

'

H
I

I
I

H, H -:~c: [-= c II 1. H/ 'c5 'H

: t! .

:....

> +
__-.--.-.

.._._
or "

..r-

c *cl i
I b

If one atom of hydrogen is removed from the rig -a'+Ereeq arm i's available to join onto other atoms. This structure is known as phnnyl (C6Hq) ,'

, .w 1' HgC'C+-t = *II H'c.c&l-j

.' , .,

/ h .

1';

. ,

.,

-A \-.

In some polymers regarded as-links

benzene rings in the Brbon

can be chain

but phenyl groups may best of as hanging from it.

be thought

c-

C.-C-

c-c

For exa$ple, a vinyl with \

styrene a phenyl

group, f A . a v . d. 0 k . . . 6

polymerizes into one of the most widely used plastics: polystyrene.

'

- 'c

fC*--c y 9

-p+c

'..I

The phenyl ring, with about :polystyrene is dense (s.g. 0 is aiso very brittle, for reasons c ;-

is' heavy so that .atoms, 1.05) and sinks in .water. 8 It t,hat'wilJ be explained 6" later.

_ -g;p **

m, I. . 1 3 i. _ .

a. ., n

Copolymers

- ABS

as the addition of identical monomers it is possible to polymerize different ones together. An important example is the "co-polymerization" of styrene with butadiene, a monomer whose presence in rubber gives toughness and resilience, axld acrylonitrile which raises the melting point'. The resulting co-polymer: acrylonitrile butadiene styrene or ABS-, has the easy mouldability' of polystyrene without its weatiess and brittleness. -~ Condensation polymerization - polyester .
l _ -.-.--

As weil

Some pipers cannot be made by simple addition of monomers but the 'chemical ,combination of two different compounds-to require form a monomer which is polymerized in the process. 'The chemistry may be complicated but one important.material will be mentioned by way of illustration: Ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid combine to make water and ethylene terephthalate which polymerizes into polyethylene terephthalate otherwise known as polyester, (Terylene, Crimplene, Dacron; or Trevira) when it is.a textile fibre, or as PET when used for packaging 6r for soft - .k drink bottles. * 1 Other important condensation polymers are ,the $olyamides, of which various types of--nylon are the best known examplesi and the polyurethanes, used as foam fillings in furniture. Arrangement
. 1

of the

chain

molecules?in

thermoplastics

The above is but a glimpse of the chemistry of plymers, covering some of the materials that are mentioned in the text. It will also help to discuss hot the ,cha'in molecules are arranged and the effect on the properties of various plastics1 The kinds of molecules in the chains can, now' bp forgotten, and 'represented simply like this:' : ; *< s _1 , - ._-.~ L * d 4--,: :;f;j:-by,-yyi ~ ,, a. y: j0 % **I *,; ,.~ a II? T 4.

or even more 'simply by just-indicating the 'main bonds, ,like .'this:5

L .$6

.~

<

Because'the carbon atom is three dimensional and'can rotate about' it; bonding arms, which- are angled to one another, it is not. I accurate to represent '8 polymer chain like this'; 1 .
.

, * -.

I. v #

;.

n * 0 1.

,,.i 3.

A nearer

approximation

would

be to draw it

like

this:

Even then -it must be remembered that it will and come out of the paper, and may have side

be three, chains: i

dimensional

Effect

of heat

on thermoplastics,,

_I

'In a metal, When any material is heated the molecules vibrate. once a certain .temperature (the melting point) is preached, the and the metal immediately becomes molecules can move freely liquid. The long chains of most polymers however are intertwined only gradually as the temperature with one another and separate rises. This is seen first as slight softening then, as the the material to siiide past one anothef, chains become free becomes plastic and will flow under pressure; then it may become Plastics a stiff liquid and perhaps, finally, a runny iiquid. They can be that soften when heated are called~"thennoplasMcs". easily moulded: shaped when hot and then cooled in the new shape. 1 IL some cases the plastic will burn, char or decompose in some Exactly how the other way before the liquid state is reached. material responds to heat is very importaii't, for recycPing and R It can be measured in different ways, later moulding operations. of which the most important are:Softening softens. point _..-. ,the , temperature - the best at which' the at plastic which which at or to first carry , -

Processing temperatulre out moulding operatibns. Decomposition damage occurs

-1 temperature

temperature in the plastic

the temperature at and it "decomposes" plastic, length

chemical a given volume as

Melt flou index - a measure of how fast Temperature, will flow under pressures. Expansion and shrinkage - th C' change _bp.--the temperature rises or fhlln. -. in . -

1 ib

1 $ : : j

. I I I /./

Although .a recycler will not need to know them until h'e pro7 .gresses to the stage of melting material, for making pellets fyr, how they are affectgd _ example, they are mentioned here to,stress t B by the arrangement of the chain molecules. ,, , ' 0 Thermosets Another kind of plastic behaves quite differently with heat. At some monomer5 form "unsaturated the time of polymerization, banding arm5, not joined to whose atoms have "spare" chains" The increased molecular activity, due to heat (or other atoms. the action of certain chemicals called "catalysts"), causes these Cross linkage3 'prevent between the chains. atoms to "cross link" the chains sli'ding, even when heat is applied, so no softening Such' materials, known as "thermosets" can only be occur5'Thw moulded once; at the time of the polymerization procesq. They L cannot be remelted and reformed 50 they are not recyclable. will only be mentioned elsewhere to list and identify them. or Examples of thermosetting ,,plastics are: phenol formaldehyde Bakelite, one of the earliest plastics to be made and still use,d widely for electrical plugs and switches; melamine formaldehyde, used to make kitchen laminates such as Formica and crockery such as Melaware; and the epoxy resins, widely used in' electrical equipment and composition ,floors.

' ' P

molecules * All common thermoplastics are formed of saturated Some molecules, su%h.as polyurethane, can (every bond is used). so can be * exist in both the satura,ted and unsaturated states; either thermoplastic, (and possibly recyclable) OG thermoset (not recyclable). i , ., Amorphous thermoplastics .- polystyrene, PVC and ABS -I u' qI / When thous'anda of 'chains, each made up of thousands of monomer to one another, during 'bolymerizatipn, molecules, grow, close Entanglement will be greater they may end up totally entangled. :: if the chains not only grow end to end, but also branch into side chains, or if they contain large or complex groups, especially groups,. in ring3 hanging from the chain, such as the phenyl Plastics whose chain molecules are Oarranged in a polystyrene. random, and have tangled2 fashion are called "amorphous" peirticular propertiesCI .-.-, - r - --cs-.-~~ If a force is applied to try and stretch the material the ihains will' not smoothly slide over one another but bunch up. b( Such material is "brittle" and unyielding. It stretches little, and breaks. sudde,nly, 'In the ea'rly days especially under impact. ob,iects made 'cheaply out of polystyrene soon cracked and broke to give all plastics a bad reputation. , .,/

. I

.-

'

Amorphous polymers are less dense than might beaexpected from the The chains cannot fit mass of the atoms that make up the chain. Were it not closely side by side but are held somewhat apart. for this separation the-brittleness due to entanglement would '6e even worse. soften more gradually and shrink less on Amorphous polymers cooling and this is'the .reason why.PVC, polystyrene and ABS are very satisfactory for moulding complex shapes. Crystalline polymers - high density

'

*'-

a polyethylene _ (, _ . . Polyethylene normally has most of its molecules arranged -in an amorphous stru'cture with chains well.separated. For this reason, . and because the Regularly ,shaped molecules have few side ,ohains . and no large atoms or groups so they do not become. entangled, it flexible, rath'er slippery material', is a soft, even at normal 1 flowever a:few of the molecules are arranged room temperatures.. in neat, orderly rows, similar to those. of metals': such 'a "crystalline". By certain production~metfiods ssible to increase the proportion of molecules arranged in this way with .many benefi&s. The 'chains pack closely-together o I giving higher density. (s.g. between '0.95,'and 0.96 so it still ; The materi'al is known as high -density floats on water). ' polythene, Chile the normal, mainly amorphous, material iB called Intermediate low density polyethylene. (9 .Q* O;'qr to 6.92). *"- . grades, known as medium density, have an 9.8. of about 0.93. .' D 0 Because they are so intimately packed together, more force is needed to make the chains slide over one anotiher, so strength and ' .rigidity of high density polyethylene' are high. but,bthe sliding, taqkes place smoothly, "without entanglement, so considerable _ yielding or. stretching takw place before any breakage occurs. Material that *behaves 'in this- way is "tough", the opposite .of q . brittle. -More heat is needed to separate the.chaiqs sufficiently for softening.to occur, so softening and melting temperatures are higher than those of low density polyethylene. High density. ' polyethylene is increasingly being used $or products, such B" a large buckets and thin film sacks and bags, ,for which its I stiffness and strength are an advantage. 7 ,. ' Polypropylene8 *
/ .

Thes: ,useful polypropylene.

:.

crystalline Iproperties are Because of the structure-of

c . . c v

even more developed the'vinyl monomer

_. 8

in

1
I

L . \

three different. polymer chain structures are described overleaf, composition. all .have the same chemical possible although can be arranged randomly: Either the monomer molecules

or alternating

different

ways:

or all

the same way;

(described

as oriented)

,;i J

y 7 ii 7 y:y -c-c-c-c-c-c-c
!I &Ii &,-A

7
ciH3 k

absence i of with coupled The last of these arrangements, in packing of the chains as close as is perbranching, . results to produce a, strong, tough, hard, mitted by the methyl groups, high-spftening-point plastic despite its light weight. An example of these exceptional quali tie.s is that hinges can be moulded into polypropylene articles simply by reducing the thickThe hinge only becomes ness to a fraction of a millimetre. effectiveLwhen the material in the joint is caused to stretch and ka-.&~~ .oriented. Other materials also all?w hinges to be moulded but, if orientation does not occur, these soon fail. The size of the polymer chain Addition polymerization can partially be controlled to determine Long the length to which the polymer chains are allowed to grow. molecules, with a high molecular weight, are strongeli/ and tougher. They resist sliding more and can slide further before large numbers of chain ends come into line to create a weak

n
, _

is needed to make place for breakage to occur. Higher temperature 9.0 the the polymer sufficiently plastic to flow under pressure, increases. The as molecular weight melt flow index decreases ability of the polymer to stand up to attack by harsh' chemicals is also increased because there are fewer vulnerable chain ends , exposed. whatever damages the molecules and breaks the chains Conversely, reduces strength and toughness. to reduce the molecular 'weight, which may involve either mecharfical battering or. heat Recycling, of this kind. treatment of the polymer, may have some effect to which the polymer.. Possibly more important is the environment may have been subjected before recycling. In general "process scrap" (plastic waste from. the factory moulding process, recycled on the spot) will be little degraded: However, the ultra violet light in sunlight breaks polymer chains so "post consumer" waste+ especially if it has been out in the weather, may have far less strength and toughness after recycling than when 'first moulded unless special corrective ,steps are,taken. 8 Additives
I

. *-. I 1

I c R

'?g '#

v.

One final aspect of polymers needs mention: the addition of other which may or may not themselves bepolymers, to modify materials, their properties. It is not essential to know what these for the recycler to be aware additives are, but it is necessary of their possible presence and that.. he can use them to improve By far the gre'atest amount the quality of the reclaimed product. of additives (other than colouring? are used with PVC. Plasticizers when. mixed with a plastic, penetrate between the Certain liquids, act as a lubricant and allow them to slide more polymer chains, readily, producing a more plastic material. The degree of plasticity depends upon the proportion of plasticizer ,that is per cent is possible. Plasticizers are used: as high as fifty rigid principally used with PVC which is normally a hard, to produce the familiar flexible material tiown as polymer, plasticized PVC., used for luggage Tte;;, ,;;;,"pt,':;; ';,";; Because "of their presence plastic1 difficult to recyc.Je than rigid PVC. _~ ~-/.L Stabilizers i All-plastics change chemicall; if subjected to a high enough temperatur%.Some burn, others char or decompose wi,thout burning.. If the temperature at which this occurs is below, or close point, then the material cannot be satisto I the softening factorily moulded. ' PVC is the particular example of this: although it does not burn easily it decomposes, giving off fumes of hydrochloric acid gas, which speed up the decomposition, damage processing machinery and discolour and spoil the finished

.I

" I

Processing temperatures for PVC range betwee% 150C and pro@lct. 210 C but decomposition may occur as low as 180 C so the They are overcome by ensuring that the. difficulties are great. period at moulding temperature is very short, and by the addition the temperature of a stabilizer: 1.a chemical compound that raises Even stabilized PVC may not at which decomposition takes 'place'. recyc.le more than two or three times without decomposition occurring. Stabilizers are not widely used with polymers other than c PVC. .>' Antioxidants 2 Even at normal room temperatures, some polymers c.an be degraded This is accelerated by ultraviolet light, by oxygen in the air. in sunlight. Temperatures above normal,' even though present can make the situation worse. below decomposition t;mperature, They.may break the These attacks may have one of two effects. which happens ;to polystyrene and polypropylene, polymer chains; toughness. molecular loss of giving lower weight and Alternatively they may cross link them, which happens to polyethylenes, to give higher molecular weight, and loss of toughness in the finished product. .This brittleness is found in polyethylene sacks and other containers that have been left out in the weather f,or a period. , These..harmful effects are countered by the use of antioxidants. Low density polyethylene requires very little; other polymers, such as hig.5 density polyethylene, polystyrene, and polyprqpylene are more sensitive both during moulding and in use and more _. antioxidant is required. Other additives I. "flame retardants".* "impact modifiers",, with the polymer. i should not 4e conRt:,;ersW&

-1

Inflammability can be reduced by addition of Brittleness may ,be <reduced .by the use of rubbery materials which are physically mixed An example is high impact polystyrene, (which fused with ABS, a genuine c~~;;eJe;;P;~.,i",', "Fillers" are non pol _ reasons.) properties or reduce the cost of the polymer with which:they are ,&mixed. For example glass fibres are used to reinforce"thermoplastics like nylon, polyacetals and polypropylene. The result is called "g.r.p." or "f.r.p.". Such materials are in. general, not recyclable. Of the many other additives mention need only be made of the huge range of "colourants" and "pigments" that convert the natural white or transparent appearance of nearly all pure polymers into the infinite range of bright Andy attractive colours that give .plastics-.sg,,~uc~. sales appeal. --.-= - ; c r i 'Y

. , , ' a ' I _ ' .' '

Masterbatch Additives' are often mixed with the polymer in the form of a masterbatch- - a quantity *of the polymer containinp.'a heavy conCost of masterbatch may represent a centration of additives. Foams and expanded polymers _ Plastic foams are familiar in furniture.fillings, where Fhefoam, and in packing where', is fl.exible, usually polyurethane, is commonly used.'.'.iFoams' foam, particularly expanded polystyrene, . are made by liberation of a gas within the moi'ten polymer, followed by rapid setting Alternatively the foaming agent is combined width the polymer and> can be released when required. For example polystyrene granules are availab'qe which can"be heated in a mould to both plasticize the polymer an&\,S release the foaming agent. The shaped foam object is released from the mould when cool and set. carbon the economics of recycling'foams .i dioxide very 'or nitrog,en poor. are .'

.are usually

.-..

at a. f.ixed electrically heated anod kept temperatu<G: '1.9Q",C. fd:) Vpolyefhylen,es, 230 C fe'r polypropylene. P / Weights'.(either,'2.16kg, 5 kg or ,21,.6kg) are placed, on the piston. I through the nozzle. and,. 'at The !mo&.$en 1.p$$@&& 5s _ t c?f material that has extruded measur.ed time Giter++als, P weighed. , through the nozzle ip cut
r: . . 8% i..+ a i

'

.T ,
weight of cut-off between c;t;offs in gms; in' seconds: *

* 3 .' *

Melt '

.;low 'index ,I I

= 600 x Average Time intArva1

4 is 8mm long

'

., H '

' The nozzle

and 2mm in diameter.

-*When-quoting

the M.F.1; t+he weight . . .

should

be specified. ,'

' p

A fual'definition BS. 2782 Part

of the -test 1. a i

is'found

in British _. I r

Standard'

Y---t . 1 <8

-1 , ; _ D 0 P :? . I B .-.

> a

B 5.

Wei ght
4. .I =. _

Thermome

ter
.

Steelncylinder
Qls+ating jacket

//

45

P u

I
Nozzle 2mm j.

Electric heating jacket

--

Piston

.c

. .

diameter,
>I

8mm long _ w 1 1L . .

FIGURE. 27: *
&..

R$g for measuring

3. .

melt
h

flow .
._ *

index. s-

:'

_j .3

, I *,

7(r L, *

_I -.

. . ,Td_I, -8 *

5 -

-89-,

/ C-.: .-

SMALL EXTRUDERS. Axsello Ltd., Unit 21, "Cha??orh Industrial Chalford., Stroud, Gloucs., GL6 8NT,, U.K. Leistritz, Marhyrapenstrasse West Germany. q
3

:. Estate, -I 1640, . Drive, Newport _ s ~ Beach, ,, d, ' ~ . ' 7 ~

L )

's
*

29-79,.Postfach

Leistritz, California, Axon,

369,' San'Miguel 92660/U.S.A. 2, Nyrang, R

-.

Haharegatan *

x-

S26500 Aszorp, 8.

: 'R.H:'Windsor (India) L% ., E-6, JJ. Road, Thana Industrial Estate, Thana 400 604, India. Kobite Industries. 31 Shah Industrial Veera Desai Road,' Andheri (W), P-0. Bombay 400 058 India: 'And the companies listed under Estate off Box 7368,.

/.:

VARIOUS below.

SMALL INJECTION MOULDERS Small Power Machine Co.Ltd., Chippenham, SN14 OBR, Wilts, Bath Road Industrial U.K. Estate, Road, :
,

ti ;' /'

I
I I

Griffin and George Ltd., P-0. Box 14, 285 Ealing Alperton, Wembley, Middlesex'HAO IHJ, U.K.
e

Boolani Engineering Corp., Prabhadevi Industrial 402 Veer Savarkas Marg, Bombay 400026/India. ' Florin Ltd,, Manumold Division, London N7 9BB, United Kingdom. / ' 427-,467 Caledonian :( I , '

Estate," , Roa.d,' . ,* i

.I

Fon and Offord Ltd., Alma Street, Aston, I Birmingham Bl9 2RP, United Kingdom ,,' s l_l_ - -.' GRANULATORS*. Condux-Werk, Redhill, *
0645,.

L 2

. I

* H:an,an .11..,:. Wolfgang, RHI 2NL, U.K..

.: -' West ,Ger$a"n$: -- 'A<'

..

..,~ I ,.II.... ;.T. -~~~~

Surrey

,.

P.0. Box 6065, Providence, 'Leeaona.Cumberland, Rhode Island, 02940 U.S.A, or Daniels Engineering CL5 YTL, U.K. Bath Road., Stroudr Glouceatertihire recovery systems). supply 5omplete .* And the companies 'listed'-under VARIOUS below.

- t Ltd., ,, ._\, ,,, (who also ,, 9 .

, Granulator

Knives

. Whaley Bridge,' ..

. . , "1 Mills, ) Holywell Green;' I.

A-F. Whiteley &Co.Ltd., "Bingswood.Road, Stockport, Cheshire SK12 7NB, U.K. FOAM RECYCLINGPLANT Ryburn Foam, Springwood Halifax, HX4 9BL, U.K. CRUMBERS AND RECYCLING PLANT
, .

Kraus Maffei Aktien eseellachaft, AKraua -Maffei Straase (Manufacture Condor D-8000, Munich, 50,a nAu3tri.e Machines). '3 1%
-

2,

.Buchau-Wolf,

-1

69, 4048 Grevenbroich. . 1 - * ., ' Fbm di F. Falzoni, 44012 Bondeno, Ferrara, Italy. ' Gelderland G & D.H. Deutschland, Grobenz Plaatmachinea, er Strazej, D-8071 Puchheim, Munchen, W. Germany. _ ~ ___ __~__ ~ ------Kween B Plastics Ltd., The,Old*Manse, Erdington, Birmingham 1324 8QA, U.K. 2 Compton Road, r

Postfach

_~_._ ~-*. 9 ,i

- -5

ESA (Yewtree) Ltd., Unit Estate, Waterloo-Avenue, Extrudaid3 Ltd., Buckinghamshire, And the companies VARIOUS 2_ I'

No '3, CheJmsley Wood Industrial Birminghamj B37 6QQ, U.K.Es:tate, Bpurne End, 1 ,

7 Rose Industrial U.K. ." lisied .under <

_i VARlOUS'below.

" " .. _ -,I. _ ~--1I ..,. ..r.,..

t . *I I I
.

S.T.D. Plastics,~.Ma'chinery "Fs17 4AX, U.K. 'v ~

*.
,

\ ' Ltd'.',- Yate, Bristol . 5' II Plasplant 'Machinery Ltd .', Bordqn Trading Estate,. Oakhanger Road, Bo,rdon, Hanta GUY5 9HH, U:K. I .,
l 2 ; < ; . h, I . . (I 1 -# / .. : 0 b . .

,. '

.. :

?a I ? J :+, ,. . . rr ,

^ 1 / 1 :. a r ia .1 ,!_ I-, ? ) ,_ 1. . 9 I. \ : I. ,,

. .;c -. : I

,. F., -5 _ .A _.

..,

. 4< .

Mnchinepy ,rrt.T,td .: ,,25, 'Gbrt"Indus CfiF;l (WeAt) I$ wbay :?,OC .067 . .. ? ' Lnd id-.s . ., .1 .:; T '? !" k,;",% . -I . ,LBoo&,Eng.inee,ring ~ofp.; Prabh Ia.&e~i I~~duatrial.Egta.~;:,. 402, VeermSava'.rkasYMayg, gombajr: 400 .025,, Irrd$a. 1 ,/ ' _ -,;, a, ' .,
.T 5 : ., . ;.:, -. , .

Rrimc:q Plas$ic Est&e;KanditJi

',i: 8' 5 1 .

, \.. , - , (,' ' I 'I + ', *t ir .I" ..

-.,

,-;

% : .

>,,

_ ., .a I,

. ., -, :

- .a

. . , *, :

_, >. *2:.

, < _ -:

. , * -. *_ _ . ..

.-

.
1 .

4-1 I

7 ,?

., r

BIBLIOGRAPHY e .QJ P) I ,' 9 , :, ' ,_,) , ~ ._ 11 )~'~~,,~~Eb~l~d,; .('.E. ',and Vogler, J:Al. , Remoulding thelFuture, i ., ,.C' .. ,; I+P.L. 1982 _, ,_9 2. \ . . 'I .;t? _',.' . ,: ,.y;. q( a , '.Gail?,,A.-J. and Hane'ock, E.G., Plas;ics and Synthetic Y+ . ; .. '? ,:,i * Rubbers, Pergamon, 1970 i,* --,I, 2.. > .' >' //~. - c ..~ I iv-.v. ,,q; L ,, , .'Cb', t V.E., Plastics in the Modern . +,+y, COUZ.-J' E.G. and Yarsley, -';: .I 1968 World, Penguin Pelickln, . ;.'..,._ A :-2 .a
: % _ _ , ,> .X( -. ,> ,.i .

,.

_. 1 :
.

4)

';.Dubdis,

,i ,; 5)
6)

.,

;Kati, Hall, Milby,

J.H. and John, F:W., Plastics, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1974 * f S., Pla'stics.Designs and Materials,. . ,Studio Vista, 1978, d ,C.-, Polymer Materials, MacMillan, 1981. R.V., Plasti,cs Technology, ,': ;'McGraw Hill, 1973> i?

' 1

b
s

._.

~3

'

8,) 5:
-9)

Arnold, .a _:

10)

e -.--pi

LL.K., Introduction to Plastics, Allen & Unwin . m (i Bown; J., Injection Moulding of'Plastic cGraw-Hill (U.K.) -Al 979-:-

.?. Components,

0.

.&
I

11)

12) '

17) -<

iThe Elements of InjGction Moulding . Mad'laren . RAPRA(Rubb'er and Plastics Research Assooiation)k Programqed Learning Texts Teaching-Manuals o ' I' Applied Science ,Publishers Ltd., . Emminger,- H., A Recycling'Conception for Plastics Wastes, . .: ... Recycling International 1982, '. _ Verlag fur Umwelttechnik; , Berlin. ',b , *--, .I ' 'Leidner,.r&,r'. Plastics. Waste - Recovery of Economic ' Value, *Marcel Decker Inc. 1'981.-

The Plastic's Institute, of Thermoplastics,

1. c.

!J.A.,'Work from Waste -'Intermediate Technology. Publicati.ons.Ltd., 1982. * P -~~ +A.,1,: : ,,') , ?s) 'Sittig, M., Organic and Polymer'Waste Reclaiming-' 1 :' F L ~~~.~ -~--~EhcycTbpeaJi-~, No& -fl&$; ~6$-p-;'-.~-@j-e. . .. j f',,'; I,: _ .I * _-*_' , u,.T' I _ L.5 1~6) Saunders, K.J.;, Identifica,tion of Plastics and Rubbe& / ".,. r. " .? _ . . Chapman and Hall, 1966: ,. ,' ~ ' \ . . L "* I e + .._ L >I - .c ._ , + * L.* ..T _ 5, ',

14) QVogler,

17)

Collins,

J-H., Testing The Identification Monograph

.,

and Analysis of Plastics,

T)

of Plastics Plastics
*

,- Part Institute

I.

Some popular B$i UlK.

Y

plastic's.journa,ls -

and magazines' % 4

' 1 .

-. . 3 Plastics and Rubber Weekly (incl,udes advertisements.for new -and secondhand machinery and for reclaimed plastic). I .British Europe *
. ,

Plastics

and Rubber
.

A
a

r\
\ t

Modern Plastics I. European Plastics). Kunstoffe Industrial U.S.A. Plastics

rnterdkt.&onal News (incorporating -British .,\, . ,. ,_ .:. i I .-*

German Plastics des PPastiques,Moderng Y a et Elastomers , .~ / "..< '.I'* ,-..1 . I 0 :r 5 ?

r' ,t

, .' I Modern Plastics International _1 Plastics Technology

,' ..

~,

I _ -

D I I

s. , *, . _ I

I,,,,,, .,. -, q. J

.T

, , .P ~. --*

, * . .-

_I =

r e

-_ . f . .~ pa *

&

The I.2termediate Technolsgy Development Group was founded in 1965 by the late I%. E.F. Schumacher< ITDG,%n independent charity, gathers 2nd disseminates information, and advises In addition, the Group is on the choice of technologies appropriate for developing countries. I . _ also involved in an-expanding programme of work on technologychoice for Britain. 1 , .. ri -_ i I . SOME OTHER INTERMEDIATE, ?ECI-&LOGY, PUBLICATIQ,NS *. ,. i I I , * k iork Eroi k3ste: Recycling wastes to The Sten-screen .. [Making and using :a low-cost printing 1 createemployment . J Vogler process - , 1 I. authoritative, detailed _ Practical, - I The combination of stencil duplicating handbook that sh~yrs how &nploymnnt can with- screen process printing enables one be created by recycling all kinds of to build a press for approximately t1.0. refclse: David Astor: , .a -z: I _ ; No sophisticated components are required s for ,either Construction or implementThis book deals tiith wastes, theiriorigins, i-uses _a&l n?ethods of processing, which ation. The process is capable of prjnting new activities and create a wide range of formats; one_ can also~~ ~ stimylafe I print upon a variety of materials including employment. The book is divided into two paper, textiles and plasti?s. No electrical main parts. P.art I contains-details of the a -. _ wide. range of materials that can be supply is required. I Illus. 2opp. E1.95. recycled and the processes involved. Part -* ,I1 describes how to set up and run a small I D business recycling wastes.. 2 February 1982. ISBN 0 How to make a Foot-C>perated Pillar Drill ,a 3Y6pp. Illus. by Paul Smith 903031 79 5. E6.50. _ I This is the latest in a~series of workshop The Low-cost wooden- duplicator. Ho& to manuals demonstrating me, equipment , make it. How to use it constructing owr: -1 thods of your machinery. Full illustrations and detailed The low-cost wooden stencil duplicator- is * ~building .instructions are provided for the -a cheap printings machine whiqh dan 6e 1 made for us-e in schools,- colleges and, .AmanuEacture of a foot-oper$ed vertical Tne duplicator is drill- for use with either metal or wood. small 0rgQpizations. made mostly from wood-and you need only The book ~111 be useful to rural works.hops.,.~. I..~ .,.___ 1 and-training c&%tCes throu-@out the -w$$k-2 simple wood-work tools tobuild, It -is-ve!y- -. Broken or as\ well as to com,mercial manufacturers. i * j easy to use and maintain. of workshop t$ol-s. , damaged parts are simple to replace Price: E1.95. . because, you can probably .make them v . ., . yourself. ~_ -1 The Harnessing of 3raught Animals1 Illus. iC1.95. by Ian Barwe and IMichael Ayre Y ; Micro-Hyd.ro: A Techn)ical Brief This study concentrates specifically on : / by Ray Holland I * , 1 i A summary of the present state of the art 1 in micro-hydce wi-t-h a se&on .e~ the-; economics of mirrom-hydro G-rstallationand This is the first of a series1 operation. ! which .will be invaluable to engineers, _..A..consultants ---and field- _urorkers- in This first publication .I. , 1 developing world. to will also be of great .interest homesteaders and others i smallholders, . interested in practising self-suffi$en.cy . p 0 Price! E2.50..
.a m