Appl. sci. Res.

Section B, Vol. 8

PLASMA DYNAMICS IN AN ARC FORMED BY LOW-VOLTAGE SPARKOVER OF A LIQUID DIELECTRIC *)

by P. K. ECKMAN
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology Pasadena, California, U.S.A.

and E. M. WILLIAMS
Electrical Engineering Department, Carnegie Institute of Technology Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

Summary
A n a l g o r i t h m is d e r i v e d for t h e p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s in a l o w - c u r r e n t electrical d i s c h a r g e i n i t i a t e d b y l o w - v o l t a g e s p a r k o v e r b e t w e e n p l a n e electrodes i m m e r s e d in a liquid dielectric. C a l c u l a t e d r e s u l t s are c o n c e r n e d with column-pressure, temperature, voltage gradient, electron density and c o l u m n r a d i u s for a d i s c h a r g e in a l i q u i d n i t r o g e n dielectric. Of t h e s e o n l y c o l u m n r a d i u s c a n b e s t u d i e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y ; e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s are s h o w n to c o m p a r e r e a s o n a b l y well w i t h p r e d i c t e d results.

w 1. Introduction. This paper is concerned with the physica 1 phenomena accompanying the radial growth of the ionized gas columns of electric arcs formed by low-voltage sparkover of gaps between closely-spaced electrodes immersed in a liquid dielectric. The period of interest in this work is the first microsecond after arc formation. Some previous works 1)2) have dealt with the results of experimental studies of the electrode phenomena at the termini of the discharges; this paper deals with deductions from physical theory concerning the state and dynamics of the ionized column itself.
*) Work supported in part by the National Science Foundation, U.S.A., under Grants G3072 and G10520. The work described is abstracted from a dissertation submitted by P. K. E e k m a n in partial fulfilhnent of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Carnegie Institute of Technology.
-2 9 9 --

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P. K. ECKMAN

A N D E . M. W I L L I A M S

Electrical sparkover between metallic electrodes immersed in a liquid dielectric is followed by a high current density arc discharge, the removal of electrode material and the formation of well-defined and characteristic electrode craters. The associated phenomena have been the subject of experimental studies 3)4), originally with emphasis on the formation of colloidal suspensions of the particles eroded from the electrodes, and, more recently, in connection with 'electrical' machining 5) processes in which the electrode-material removal is adapted for purposes analogous to those encountered in conventional machine tools. Despite the development of an extensive art in electrical machining the physical phenomena involved have been incompletely understood. Moreover, although refined experimental techniques 1) are available for the study of the erosion of the electrodes, there is very little possibility of a direct experimental investigation of the discharge dynamics. These considerations have led to the study, the results of which are reported in this paper.

w 2. Rationale o/ solution. This study commenced with the selection of a model configuration for the electrodes, discharge path, and dielectric channels as encountered under simplified circumstances in the relevant technology. This configuration, shown in fig. 1, comprises two plane-parallel electrodes, separated by a small spacing, with a cylindrical discharge column centered in the space between the electrodes. These elements are immersed in a liquid dielectric. The object of the methematical analysis is the description of the system after initial sparkover and formation of the discharge column. The liquid dielectric surrounding the discharge was assumed to be imcompressible. The analysis proceeded by applying the Navier-Stokes equations, written for a cylindrical coordinate system, to a gas column expanding radially from the centre of the model configuration. Conditions of the material within the gas column were determined by approximating an energy balance between the power delivered to the gap and power dissipated from the discharge column. The expanding gas column is considered to be of high enough temperature, pressure and density so that it m a y be treated as a plasma. Quasi-equilibrium equations permit calculation of the state of the gas-column as the expansion continues.

PLASMA DYNAMICS IN AN ARC

301

~
(o)

c o u lm n

dielectric[
z_2
I t

(b)
Fig. I. (a) Configuration selected as a model of a discharge c o l u m n formed in a liquid dielectric b y s p a r k o v e r b e t w e e n closely-spaced plane-parallel electrodes, (b) coordinates used in analysis. The radius of the discharge column is r, and vi and a~ represent the v e l o c i t y and acceleration, respectively, of the b o u n d a r y of this column, v(r) and a(r) represent the v e l o c i t y and acceleration, respectively, of the fluid outside the discharge column at a radius r from the center of the column.

w 3. Details o/ solution. The general expression of the simplified Navier-Stokes equation for imcompressible-fluid flow is given as 6)
d p ~ - (~o) = F -- grad p + #V2to, in which p # p to F = = = == mass density, viscosity pressure, velocity (generalized}, b o d y forces (generalized). (1)

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P. K. ECKMAN AND E. M. WILLIAMS

The continuity expression div o = 0, (2) is also used. For the configuration employed, cylindrical coordinates are most suitable, and r, 0, and z will denote the radial, angular, and axial coordinates, respectively. If we assume (a) radial flow only, (b) zero viscosity and (c) no b o d y forces, then ~o0 , r o z = 0 , 0p 0p 00 ' 0z - - 0 '

# = O,
and we obtain
( ~Or

Fr, FO, Fz = O,

~O)r ~

- - Opr

P\
and

Ot + C ~

,]--

Or

(3)

---

Ogor Or

(Dr r

o.

(4)

Using the dimensions of fig. 1. Ok and, since

v(r) ~ v i --, r

Ov(r) Ov(r) -] _ ~t + v(r) Or _J

-- Op(r) Or

(5)

Yi

(4) becomes
Or(r) Or V#" i r2 '

(6)

in which vi, r, are not functions of r b u t only of t. Thus (5) becomes P Since

I Ov(r) 0t

vi2ri2 I r3 --

Op(r) 0r

(7)

a(r) --

Or(r) Ovi r, vi Ori -+ -- -Ot Ot r r Ot

P L A S M A D Y N A M I C S I N AN A R C

303

and
3vc ~rc
-ai,

St
(7) m a y be written

St

--

VC,

acre + ve2 r r

vpre 2 ) r~ --

Op(r) ~r

(8)

Integration of (8) from r = re to r = r0 yields

Pe--Po (r@~) [ (r@l) rc2 P --acreln + v c 2 In + 2ro~--- 89 .

Solving for ac we find

(9)

Pe -- Po
ae -p

ve2 l n ( r ~
~-1

+ vp(ro2 -- rc~)
2ro 2 , (10)

re ln( r~ ~
\
ye I

in which ro, p and P0 are fixed, Pc varies as re, and re and ve vary with ac.

w 4. Computation methods. Results have been calculated with an IBM-650 Data-Processing System. The computation procedure has involved a systematic study of the effects of various parameters upon discharge column growth. Using (10) and assuming that (re)0 and ve(0) are specified, we can find rc and ve at any time t > 0 by a purely iterative process, taking increments of t small enough so that none of the significant parameters of the problem changes b y more than a few percent with each iteration. For most of the computation (Vc)o is assumed to be zero (sample calculations have shown that the initial choice of (ve)0 and (re)0 have a negligible effect on the solution for t > 10-s seconds). The major problem is to relate Pc to the size of the gas column. To do this, three quite general equations are used: (a) the ionization equation, (b) the resistivity equation, (c) the total-radiation equation. With the extremes of current-density and pressure of this problem, three independent variables in these equations enable us to describe the discharge conditions. This is in marked contrast to

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P. K. ECKMAN

A N D E . M. W I L L I A M S

the complexities encountered under other discharge conditions. As developed in the Appendix, these equations are for (a), (b) and (c) respectively

Ne2 -- 2.43 1 0 2 1 T e ~ e x p ~ e ] ,
N~ E 221

/ eV~ \

(11) (12) (13)

j -- Te a loglo\-

( 6 . 2 5 104 ) ~V~ '

g ' J = 1.42 lO-4~

E J 2s Vg I K

89

Ne Nn Te
e V~ We

= electric-field intensity and IEI = Vd2s, = current density, and [J[ = I/~rri 2, = length of electrode gap, = the positive-column gap voltage, = the total discharge current, = Boltzmann's constant, = the density of electrons in the discharge column, = the density of neutral atoms, = the electron temperature, = the electronic charge, = the ionization potential of the dielectric material. also have the continuity relations

No = Ne + Nn
and (No)t = (No)o (rt)o2/(ri)t 2,

(14)

(15)

in which No = the total density of the particles in the dielectric. It is assumed, at the start, that t = 0 is the instant at which breakdown has occurred. That is, conduction is present and the current flowing is determined b y the properties of the energy source, circuit, and the arc drop. The formative period 1) of the spark has passed (25-50 10.9 seconds). If we start b y specifying the initial voltage across the gap and assume that the initial particle density (N0)0 is the same as that of the liquid prior to breakdown, the simultaneous solution of (I 1) through (14) will yield (ri)o, (J)o, (Ne)o, (Te)o and (P~)o. Assuming that (vdo = 0, it follows from (10) that at = / ( p , , vi, rd and the

PLASMA D Y N A M I C S IN AN ARC

305

growth of the discharge interface can be calculated by choosing small increments of time d t and letting rj+l = rj + vj~t + laj(At)2 and Vj+l : Vj + ajAt. At the end of each At interval (1 I) through (14) are again solved, and new values of J, Xe, Te, p*, and a new Vg are found. From (10) a new a, is found, and similar successive iterations permit determination of ri as a continuing function of time. Most of the calculations of this work were carried out for a liquidnitrogen dielectric. Liquid nitrogen was advantageous for use in both the theoretical and experimental work of this study because its ionization potential (15.4 volts) and initial particle-density (3.49 1028 m -3) a r e more accurately known than those of the hydrocarbon-mixture dielectrics commonly employed in electricspark machining.

w 5. Discussion o/ approximations employed. A. A s s u m p t i o n of n o n - v i s c o u s flow. The fluid-flow problem has been treated with the assumption of zero viscosity. The validity of this assumption can be tested by calculating the pressure drop across the fluid due to viscous flow (in the steady state) and comparing this with the pressure drop found in the non-viscous solution. Such considerations show that the pressure drop across the liquid between the electrode gap (see fig. 1) is 3riv, ro Pl--P0-s2 # l n - - , (16)
ri

while a continuous check of the quantity Pi -- P0 during the various stages of the problem-solution has shown that the viscous pressure never exceeds 1~o of the column pressure for the dielectric and configuration employed. B. A s s u m p t i o n of s y m m e t r y in t h e d i s c h a r g e c o n f i g u r a t i o n . In the model chosen it was assumed that the discharge occurs along the axis of symmetry. Although discharges seldom occur at the exact centre of the configuration, it is clear that if the discharge column diameter is small compared with the electrode diameter, the electrode configuration approximates that of two infinite planes in any case, symmetrical or asymmetrical.

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P. K. E C K M A N AND E. M. W I L L I A M S

C. Z e r o a r c - f o r m a t i o n i n t e r v a l . This work is confined to the phenomena encountered after the arc is established; it is implicitly assumed that the formative time of the arc is zero. The solution is thus unrealistic in the vicinity of t ---- 0; however, since the formative time is very much smaller than the time interval under study, the solution becomes more realistic, in so far as this assumption is concerned, as time increases. D. P o t e n t i a l distribution between the anode and c a t h o d e . The potential difference between electrodes comprises three rather distinct parts, the cathode drop Vc, the anode drop Va and the discharge column drop Vg, which is necessary to maintain an electric field inside the plasma or ionized gas between the anode and cathode. The voltage-drop Vc occurs over a distance of an electron meanfree-path from the cathode surface (corresponding to the very high gradient necessary to account for the extremely high currentdensities measured in typical instances) l) 7)s), while the voltage drop Va covers a distance of several mean free paths from the anode surface. Both Vc and Va are of the order of 6 to 8 V, generally of the same order as the ionization potential of the electrode material, and remain relatively constant during a discharge. The maj or component of the gap-voltage drop Vg occurs across the 'positive column' of the discharge. This voltage is expected to vary with time, depending upon the initial over-voltage across the gap, the dielectric particle density, current density and the radial expansion of the discharge column. E. C o n d i t i o n s in t h e p l a s m a . In the discharge column the E field is relatively uniform over the entire length. The power developed in the column is
E . J = Brad + ~XeK

~Te

St '

(17)

in which Prac~ = "free-free" radiation (from a plasma). A uniform current density within the arc channel is assumed. Furthermore, b y assuming zero viscosity and infinite thermal conductivity (in the plasma), it has been implied that particle density (and drift velocity along the discharge axis) is constant across the discharge cross-section. Some question might arise as to whether there is temperature

PLASMA D Y N A M I C S IN AN ARC

307

equilibrium in the classical sense. In low-pressure discharges, it is often true that equilibrium does not exist between the electrons, ions and gas molecules. However, at higher and higher pressures the electron temperature and gas temperature approach the same value. S p i t z e r 9) considers an electron-proton gas, the velocity and distribution of which is arbitrarily altered (perhaps b y sudden changes in the E field, density and/or temperature) and shows that equipartition will be established between electrons and protons in a time 5.9 X 10aTe ~
Tee. = Ne In f2

inwhichf2=
'

3 (K3Tea) 89
2e3~Ne

Calculation of the equipartition times throughout the problem has shown that these times are of roughly the same time scale as the time increments used in the computation. As long as

OE At ~ E, SNe A t O N e and STe At ~ Te St St St and the increment At is as great or greater than ter we may apply
the thermal-ionization equation with reasonable accuracy. Recently B r a g i n s k i 1~ has applied such equilibrium conditions to the growth of sparks in a high-density gas and found excellent agreement with experiment. F. H e a t l o s s e s . In the simple cylindrical model chosen, heat loss will occur b y conduction into the electrodes at the ends of the column and b y conduction and mixing at the boundary between the plasma and the surrounding fluid. Both phenomena act to retard column growth. It has been assumed that the rate of heat loss to the electrode is of the form Q1 = hlAO, (18) in which hi = a heat conduction coefficient at the electrode, A = cross-sectional area of the discharge column, 0 = temperature difference between the column and the electrode surface. Values of hi may be obtained b y considering the heat flow into a semi-infinite slab at a point on its surface. It can be shown 8) that if a steady heat flow Q1 is begun at t = 0, then at any later time t,

308

P.

K. ECKMANAND E. M. WILLIAMS

at a distance r from the source, the temperature of the slab is increased by an amount

OIr tl
in which

Q1 ~ V1

erf (_~_) br ~ ,

(19)

2he~
and p = density, c = electrode t h e r m a l c a p a c i t y ,

hc = electrode thermal conductivity.

Since there is little evidence 1)2) of electrode melting (except for electrodes with melting points below about 700~ we can place an upper bound on Q1 at any time by means of (19) and an upper bound on hi by (18). For short-duration discharges, values of hi as high as 1 104 J/m2s~ may occur. At the interface between the discharge column and the liquid dielectric conditions are quite obscure. Certainly there are turbulent and mixing effects and other phenomena occurring. An estimate for heat loss here has been made in the form Q2 = h2(2~rl)(2a) Te, (20)

in which ha is an interface heat conduction coefficient. Such a correction has been applied to the calculation of radial growth. G. S i n g l e - m u l t i p l e i o n i z a t i o n . All calculations are based on an assumed single ionization of the dielectric material. The extent of any multiple ionization varies during the discharge and depends upon the temperature, electron density and partition function of a stage of ionization (which itself is temperaturedependent) and may be calculated by use of the general Saha ionization equation. However, the complete calculation increases the number of individual computations by at least an order of magnitude. This refinement would not be justified in view of the m a n y other approximations and uncertainties inherent in the simple configuration and analysis employed. H. P i n c h e f f e c t . The material pressure Pi in the dischargecolumn is modified by a certain amount because of the "pinch

PLASMA DYNAMICS IN AN ARC

309

e f f e c t " 11). T h e m a g n e t i c pressure Pm is a direct result of t h e intera c t i o n of t h e c u r r e n t in t h e p l a s m a w i t h t h e m a g n e t i c field c a u s e d b y t h a t c u r r e n t . T h e p i n c h pressure in t h e p l a s m a is

Vm = B/8~#
and

(21) (22)

B
0.36

2#I/r.

&" 0.28 I=30(~omps E

.E 0.24

/
[=17 for
"~

0.20

o
t.

o16
0.12 0.08 0.04

/
h

g o
";
Ul :3 o n-

'~ he,Oa

z.,:,o _r , . ~ _ . . ~ h-" _i. ~~

0.3 0,6 0,9 1.2 1.5 Time (microseconds) Fig. 2. Curves showing the dependence of the computed discharge-radius upon the duration of the discharge for various currents and heat-transfer constants and a curve of measured crater radius. The additional curve of measured data is for a kerosene (K) dielectric. Rough estimates of heattransfer for copper electrodes suggest that a reasonable value of hi is in the range 1 l0 s < hi < 1 10a. No very satisfactory basis has been found for estimating h2. All data except the single curve for kerosene, are for a liquid-nitrogen dielectric.

O 0

' ~ k

""~'at, er gro wth)

H e n c e t h e m a g n e t i c p r e s s u r e a t t h e i n t e r f a c e is g i v e n b y

Pm=/~I2/2~r 2.

(23)

I n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n p e r f o r m e d , Pm h a s b e e n f o u n d to be negligible c o m p a r e d t o P l t h r o u g h o u t t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e d i s c h a r g e sonsidered.

310

P. K. ECKMAN

AND

E.

M. WILLIAMS

w 6. Results. Fig. 2 shows computed curves of discharge radius as a function of discharge duration for cases in which negligible thermal losses are assumed and cases in which more 'realistic' values of thermal loss have been taken into account, together with curves of measured discharge radius. Some of the discrepancies between measured and computed values m a y be accounted for b y the experimental situation, as discussed below. The theoretical work of this study suggests no explanation for the markedly smaller discharge

9 g 5xlO 5
in L,,

jo
,

\,\\\
05 I=lOol

h,-o
h~.O

E
,,o

x,,~l= i0 ~

b.I

O0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Time (microseconds}

Fig. 3. Calculated time-variation of electron temperature with time, in a discharge in a liquid-nitrogen dielectric, for two values of current and two conditions of heat-transfer. column radius encountered in the hydrocarbon dielectric, which is regarded as too chemically complicated to be analyzed b y the methods of this paper. Calculations have indicated that initial particle density will have relatively small effects on discharge radius, for instance. Although one expects higher particle densities to result in higher values of p,, the 'temperature' in the discharge is less, so that higher particle densities result in only slight increases in column radius.

PLASMA DYNAMICS IN AN ARC

311

Curves of current density versus discharge duration are not shown, since current density can be calculated directly from current and discharge radius. A discharge column of 10 A and 0.04 mm radius corresponds to a current density of approximately 2 109 A/m 2, for example. Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6 are concerned with various conditions within the discharge. In computing these data, heat transfer has been either neglected or treated somewhat less thoroughly than in the
I 029

(D
0

E
Q.

C 0 L_ CD qJ

z" 1025 ~I= IOC amps

omps ~

g
,;i,

I024

0.I

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Time (microseconds)
Fig. 4. Calculated t i m e - v a r i a t i o n of electron-density in a discharge in a liquid-nitrogen dielectric. H e a t transfer has been neglected in this example.

data of fig. 2, since the authors were concerned primarily with orders of magnitude. The variation of electron temperature with time suggests some limitations of the analysis employed. Starting with values of Te of the order of 3 105 ~ (fig. 3) the temperature falls as the discharge column expands and electron densities (fig. 4) drop rapidly. The "free-free" radiation equation (13) is not accurate at temperatures below 40000-50000~ since Stefan-Boltzmann (black-body) radi-

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P. K. E C K M A N A N D E . M. W I L L I A M S

ation becomes first a significant factor as the temperature is reduced and, subsequently, a dominant factor. Thus the validity of solutions shown here is open to question after the time at which such low temperatures are reached. B y the time that the temperature has dropped to 30000 ~ the percentage of ionization is down to 95% and is falling rapidly. This is clear from the points of inflection in the Nc vs t and E vs t curves (figs 4 and 5).

"2
ID

E
e~

106

I~ \
10 4 ~

!I= lo
//~amos

~ ~''~

h~o

uJ 10 3
0 O.I

~ u m p s h,=I0'
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0,6

Time (microseconds)
Fig. 5. Calculated time-variation of potential gradient in the dischargecolumn drop-region in a liquid-nitrogen dielectric.

Fig. 6 shows the material pressure Pi during typical discharges. The pressure Pi begins at high values, about 106 atmospheres, gradually falling (as both Te a n d Ne are reduced) to values in the range of 1 to 10 atmospheres for microsecond pulses. The pinch pressure, while large for small values of t, never becomes an appreciable fraction of Pi, and its effect on column growth is negligible for the range of currents considered here. It would appear that for

PLASMA D Y N A M I C S IN AN ARC

313

high currents (I > 1000 A) and longer pulses the effects of pinch pressure should be included in finding the net column pressure. Experimental tests were conducted to study the effects of single, unidirectional current discharges in a liquid-nitrogen dielectric. The magnitudes and durations of the pulses employed have been limited to a range in which electrode melting will be negligible and in which the column temperature will remain high. In the procedure used, sparkover was initiated in a liquid dielectric between polished, plane-parallel, cylindrical electrodes of 1.27 cm diameter, and the applied voltage was adjusted over the range from

w7. Experimental investigation.

I 0 IC

E I0 9
O ,i,=

3=
.=

107
:3 Q

N=

I0 6

)\
\
N

IOO a rips

I0aml~ s~
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

0.2

0.4

Time (microseconds)
Fig. 6. Calculated time-variation of the discharge-column pressure in a liquid-nitrogen dielectric. Heat transfer has been neglected.

50 to 3000 volt. The circuit was arranged to deliver, following sparkover, a single current pulse of substantially constant amplitude and of adjustable duration from .015 to 1.50 microseconds. A "pressure head" from 1.25 to 7.50 cm of dielectric was maintained

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P. K. E C K M A N A N D E. M. W I L L I A M S

above the gap level (see fig. 1). The apparatus utilized has been described previously b y S m i t h and W i l l i a m s 1)2) who were concerned with a kerosene dielectric. Following each discharge, the diameter of the electrode craters formed b y the discharge was measured. It is usually assumed that the crater diameter is equal to the maximum discharge diameter. There is, of course, no assurance that thermal processes such as melting (and subsequent solidification) do not take place after the discharge itself has ceased. However, it seems even more likely that the growth of crater area m a y lag the growth of the discharge column. In fact, a clearly defined area of surface discoloration commonly surrounds the crater and is perhaps of twice the diameter of the craters themselves. Whether this discolored area is due to thermal processes in the electrode itself or to a column diameter of larger size is not known. It seems most reasonable that at any instant during the discharge the crater area will be less than the actual area of the discharge column. It has been observed that the electrode gap, i.e. discharge length, has no effect on electrode crater-area within the range of electrode gaps studied. The only experimental difficulty encountered was in keeping the polished electrode surfaces free from frost during immersion in the nitrogen.

w 8. Conclusions. It is clear from the comparison of calculated and measured values of discharge column radius that the analytical results are accurate to better than an order of magnitude. It m a y be inferred that other results, such as calculated pressures, temperatures, and electric field intensities, for which direct experimental measurements are not feasible, are of comparable accuracy. It is expected that the results presented can be used to improve understanding of the perplexing process of electrode erosion in the shortduration low-current electrical discharge which is initiated b y sparkover of a liquid dielectric. Also, the reasonable success of the analytical study, as demonstrated experimentally, may contribute to the growing development of analytical methods in the field of plasma dynamics.

PLASMA DYNAMICS IN AN ARC APPENDIX

315

A. Ionization equation. The ionizing effects of the molecular collisions, radiation, and electron collisions which occur in gases at high temperature are generally classed as 'thermal ionization'. If the gas is considered as being in a state of dynamic equilibrium with "chemical" changes occurring in two different directions, we may use a thermodynamic treatment to determine the relative number of electrons (and ions) and excited atoms for a given gas as a function of its absolute temperature and pressure. S a h a 12) first developed such a treatment in which the temperature and the ionization potential of the material are used to characterize the state of the gas which 'dissociates" into electrons and ions. The results have an important bearing, not only on discharge problems 13) but also in the field of astrophysics 14)15). In its most general form, the relationship found b y S a h a and later derived more rigorously b y Menze116) is
.Nq+INq ... Pe=3"35 in which

lO-eTel Eexp (-- 5040Tegq+l)~ Pe = kNeTe

[2Bq+l(Te}7 k Bq(Ye) -J' (24)

(25)

Nq ---- density of particles in the qth stage of ionization Vq ---- the ionization-potential of particles in the qth stage. The correction term

2Bq+l(Te)

Bq(Te)
is a function of temperature for any given atom, depending on the number and type of energy states. The term m a y be computed from atomic theory, and published tables 9)15) are available which give this correction factor. In practical calculations the correction is frequently omitted 13)17). If we write the ionization equation as N1 Pe

No

3.35

lO-2Te'exp( -5040V1 ) Te
( -- 5040V1 )
Te - .

(26)

and substitute (25) in (26), we obtain

Ne2 -- 2.43
No

X 10~lTe ~ exp

(27)

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P. K. ECKMAN

A N D E . M. W I L L I A M S

This assumes that N1 = Ne (single ionization only) and is the form of the ionization equation actually used in this paper. It is important to keep in mind the limitations imposed by the assumptions made in deriving the equation. The gas is assumed to be homogeneous. Walls, turbulence and other factors are assumed not to interfere with the ideal thermal equilibrium. Ample indirect evidence from investigation of arcs is) seems to justify the thermodynamic treatment, even in cases where, instead of pure thermal equilibrium, a small energy flow is present in the gas. B. Resistivity equation. The resistivity of a gas supporting a highcurrent discharge is of the form:
E _ K1 l n I/K 2 - - ' Te . a

Te a

\Nell

(28)

From the definition of ~, we may use

= j/F, (29)

We shall determine a in an electron gas as follows. The force on one electron due to an electric field is eE ; this causes an electron to move parallel to the E field with an average driftvelocity yD. The electron loses a certain momentum every time it collides with an ion; the ions are considered stationary because of their much larger mass and limited mobility, and the average momentum lost per collision is mevD. If there are/5 such collisions per unit time, then the average retarding (viscous) force is given by /smcvD. The drift-velocity vo adjusts itself, so that the force owing to the E field and that owing to viscosity are equal,

eE

/smeVD or me~5
e

VD --

E.

(30)

In their random motion, the electrons have an average or mean free path 2e and an average thermal velocity ~7. The number of collisions per unit time/5 is given by 15 = rJ/2e, so that we can find

(31)
(32)

e2eE
UD
-

mev

tzeE,

PLASMA D Y N A M I C S IN AN ARC

317

in which fie is defined as the mobility of the electrons and #e = e2e/me~. (33)

Now, knowing the drift velocity and the charge density eNe, we can obtain the current density J = vh(eNe) = eNe#eE. A definition = eNefe is consistent with the usual definition of ~. Since (r = e2Ne2e/me~, the problem now is to find ~7 and 2e. From kinetic theory
= ,v/3kT/me,

(84) (35)

(36)

(37)

and it can easily be shown (19) that e = 1/(NoQo + N+Q+),

(38)

in which N+ = density of positive ions, Q+ is the effective crosssection for electron-positive ion collisions and Qo is the effective cross-section for electron-atom collisions. Thus, the conductivity is given as e2Ne {~ = (39) ~/3mekT(NoQo + N+Q+) If a plasma is actually present, No ~ N+, and 2e -= 1/N+ Q+ Thus, for a plasma = e2Ne ~f 3rnekT N+Q+ Various authors 20)21) have derived expressions for Q+ b y calculating the deflection of electrons as a result of the Coulomb forces of the positive ions. On the average, in a homogeneous, uniform, positive column the electric fields of separate electrons and positive ions will neutralize each other and the average space charge is equal to zero. But at distances of the order of magnitude of the (41) (40)

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P. K . E C K M A N A N D E . M. W I L L I A M S

average interval between ions, these fields are still noticeable. In such calculations it is necessary to assume a finite distance at which the field of a single positive ion is negligible compared to the other nearby ions in order that the resulting integrals converge. Thus, the results of such calculations vary in their numerical coefficients, but agree in general form and order of magnitude. For purposes of numerical computation the relationship originally proposed by G v o s d o v e r z~) has been retained. G v o s d o v e r reasons that if N+ positive ions are in a unit volume, then the greatest distance d over which the field of the ion is spread is d---- (N+)-t. When distances are smaller than d, we can assume that the interaction of ions and electrons take place according to Coulomb's law. By choosing d as the "cut-off" distance rather than the classical Debye-Htickel shielding distance, he arrives at the value Q+ = 7e4/(kT) 2 in which 7------ In
4

(42)

kr,
e~Nfl / "

(43)

Using this value, we obtain

1 --

7e~/3mee 2
In

[ kTe \
-

(44)

In this derivation it has been implicitly assumed that there is: Single ionization of a gas without boundaries, 2. No ~ Ne, and hence Ne ~ N+, 3. A uniform current (and hence ion) distribution. It should be noted that the expression given here for resistivity depends primarily on Te and Ne, and neither the kind of gas nor the configuration appears explicitly in the equation. This expression for resistivity then holds, providing )a) Te is sufficiently high to yield an ionization of about 30% or more and (b) the power input is assumed equal to that dissipated (quasi -equilibrium).
.

C. Radiation equation. The dissipation of energy in the column is assumed to be f ~ 2~zrBNe2Te 89 dr (45)

P L A S M A D Y N A M I C S IN AN A R C

319

in W/unit length. This follows from an expression by Cillie 23) for the power radiated per unit-volume in a high-temperature plasma. The value of the constant is B = 1.4 x 10-4~ if Ne is electrons/ma and Te is in degrees Kelvin. This expression begins to break down for temperature below the range of 105~ The expression is of this form because at higher temperatures recombination radiation (electrons becoming captured, thus emitting radiation) is negligible compared to bremsstrahlung (freefree transition-radiation). Assuming a Maxwellian velocity distribution, the total amount of energy radiated per unit volume is

NeN+~25e6 ( 2~kTe ) ~ -3hmec ~ 3me

If we have only single ionization, the nNe ----N+ and = 1.42 x lO-27NeZTe2Te89 ergs/cmZs or the power radiated is P = 1.42 lO-4~

(46)

89 W/m.

This is based on the Born approximation 24)25).

Received 20th April, 1960

REFERENCES 1) W i l l i a m s , E. M. and R. E. S m i t h , Trans. Amer. Inst. Elect. Engrs 74 pt 1 (1955) 164. 2) W i l l i a m s , E. M. and R. E. S m i t h , Trans. Amer. Inst. Elect. Engrs 76 pt 1 (1957) 93. 3) B r e d i g , G., Z. angew. Chenfie I (1898) 951. 4) B e n e n d i c k s , C., Ark. Mat. Astr. Fys. B (1912). 5) W i l l i a m s , E. M., J. B. W o o d f o r d , Jr. and R. E. S m i t h , Trans. Amer. Inst. Elect Engrs 73 pt 2 (1954) 83. 6) S c h l i c h t i n g , H., Boundary Layer Theory, McGraw-Hill 1955. 7) F r o m m e , K. D., Proc. Soc. B 62 (1949) 805. 8) G e r m e r , L. H. and F. E. H a y w o r t h , J. Appl. Phys. 20 (1949) 1085. 9) S p i t z e r , Jr. L., Physics of Fully Ionized Gases, Interscience, London 1956. 10) B r a g i n s k i , S. I., Soviet Physics (JETP) 34 (1958) 1068. 11) P o s t , R. F., Rev. Mod. Phys. 28 (1956) 338. 12) S a h a , M. N., Phi.1 Mag. 40 (1920) 472.

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P L A S M A D Y N A M I C S IN AN ARC

13) C o b i n e , J. D., Gaseous Conductors, Dover Publications 1953. 14) H y n e k , J. A., Astrophysics, McGraw-Hill (1951). 15) A l l e r , L. H., Astrophysics - The Atmosphere of the Sun and Stars, Ronald Press, New York 1953. 16) M e n z e l , D. M., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 19 (1933) 40. 17) S u i t s , C. G., Gen. Elec. Rev. 39 (1936) 194. 18) K i n g , R. B., Astrophys. J. 108 (1948) 429. I9) S p r o u l l , R. L., Modern Physics, J o h n Wiley 1956. 23) C h a p m a n , S. and T. G. C o w l i n g , The Mathematical Theory of Non-Uniform Gases, University Press, Cambridge 1953. 21) M a e c k e r , H., Z. Phys. 140 (1955) 119. 22) G v o s d o v e r , S. D., Physik Z. Sowjetunion 12 (1937) 164. 23) Cillie, C., Mon. Not. Roy. Astr. Soc. 9 ~ (1931) 820. 24) B e t h e , H., H a n d b u c h der Physik XXIV/1, 1933. 25) H e i t l e r , W., Q u a n t u m Theory of Radiation, Oxford Press, New York 1954.