Explain Aristotles Theory of Virtue Ethics and How This Has Been Developed by Later Thinkers

Virtue theory is considered to be one of the oldest normative traditions in Western philosophy, with its origins tracing back to the ancient Greek Civilisation. Aristotle is considered to be one of the most influential contributors to this ethical theory which focuses on the character of a moral agent as a driving force for ethical behaviour, rather than the deontological approach where rules are central, in addition the rightness or wrongness from the outcome is also of less relevance in this ethical theory. Although Virtue theory does not completely reject actions and consequences - it still asks the question 'What is it right or obligatory to do?' - the question of focus is 'How should we be?', as through this theory it is believed that only by becoming better people that a person will do the right thing. A key component of virtue theory is the fact that Virtue ethics concentrates on human character and asks how a person can be a better person. This is tackled by defining good persons and the qualities that make them good. Aristotles interpretation and account of Virtue theory is noted in book two of his Nichomachean Ethics, in which he communicates the idea that when an individual undertakes some form of action it is for an end purpose, and that the ultimate end of all ends is the chief good, the greatest good. This chief good is believed to be what Aristotle refers to as 'Eudamonia'. Aristotle included the concepts of living well and flourishing in his understanding of Eudemonia. In this context living well means being actively engaged in the habitual practice of virtuous actions that will in turn produce virtuous qualities and characters. Furthermore, Eudamonia is thought to be more than mental pleasure but a sense of achievement and virtue. Eudamonia is said by Aristotle to be attained by virtuous action and by practising the virtuous means, so that it becomes a habit, in order to become happy and live good lives. This is illustrated in Aristotles book when he writes We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence then is not an act but a habit.Moral excellence comes about as a result of habit. We become just by doing just acts, temperate by doing temperate acts, brave by doing brave acts Moreover, Aristotle highlights twelve golden/virtuous means-the midway point between the vices of excess and deficiency- which are; courage; Temperance; Liberality; Munificence; Highmindedness; Right ambition; Good temper; Friendliness/civility; Sincerity; Wittiness; Modesty; just resentment. For example, in response the human emotion of fear, Aristotle argues that it is prudent to develop the virtue of courage. If this character trait is carried out excessively then the vice of rashness develops. A lack of this virtuous mean results in cowardice, which is not considered ideal by Aristotle. Aristotle distinguishes between two kinds of virtue: moral virtue and intellectual virtue Aristotle says that moral virtues are not innate, but that they are acquired by developing the habit of exercising them. An individual becomes truthful by acting truthfully, or becomes unselfish by acting unselfishly. Aristotle notes that it may be difficult for an individual to become virtuous if he or she has not acquired the habit of acting virtuously. For example, it may be difficult for an individual to become tactful, if he or she has not acquired the habit of acting tactfully. It may also be difficult for an individual to become unselfish, if he or she has acquired the habit of acting selfishly. The twentieth century philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre re-examined the beliefs of Aristotle concerning virtues, he found that he agreed and subscribed to many of the ideas put forward by Aristotle, this resulted in him developing virtue theory for modern readers and modern times. Alasdair MacIntyre develops three questions, considered central to moral thinking: Who am I?,

Who ought I to become? and How ought I to get there? MacIntyre states that by attempting to answer these questions, the mentality of moral agents will change and encourage virtuous actions, which over time and practical implementation will result in virtuous reactions instantly- this slightly differs from what is asserted by Aristotle. Furthermore, MacIntyre argues that philosophy and society have created three archetypal characters which embody characteristics desirable to sections of society, and who are seen as objects of regard and respect. This includes the Bureaucratic Manager which encompasses political bureaucrats, spin merchants, media moghuls, and directors of multinationals- essentially the elite who have control over commerce, trade and investments. MacIntyre states that this type of person matches their ends to their means in the most efficient way impossible, it is said that these people place higher value on profit than principle. MacIntyre also considers these people to be the dominant character in the modern world. This certain type of person considers themselves as morally neutral characters whose skills enable them to devise the most efficient means of achieving whatever end is proposed. In addition, The Rich Aesthete is another archetypal character given by MacIntyre, this person is believed to pursue greater and more exciting pleasures in full vision of a media obsessed with celebrity, who society is able to live vicariously through, resulting in a celebrity obsessed culture which lacks both virtue and meaning. The Therapist is the final archetype given by MacIntyre, who believes that these people are fundamental in keeping the morally lacking culture going. The therapists are said to charge the rich elite large amounts of money to listen to their values or lack thereof. There existences are often diminished of responsibility and virtue and are almost always self-justifying. These types of people are believed to be partly responsible for a society which is self-centred. Also, the British philosopher Phillipa Foot attempted to modernise Virtue ethics and align it with contemporary thoughts and ideas. Foot attempts to give the theory a practical implementation, by saying that ethics should not be about dry theorising but making the world a better place. Foot did not agree with every element of Aristotles theory. Unlike Aristotle, Foot argues that wisdom is both an intellectual and moral virtue that can be achieved by any person- regardless of gender, social status, political power and an individuals capacity for virtue. Foot disagrees with Aristotle that some people are beyond capable of becoming wise, Foot asserts anybody with the desire to be, can be. One other major modification Foot makes to virtue ethics is by stating that pride is not a virtue, which is inkeeping with the Christian tradition of Virtue ethics. However, both Aristotle and Foot believe that having the right virtues can lead to the good life. Foot also highlights that these virtuous persons are not just virtuous for then doing right things, but also because they can fight away temptation, which leads to ultimate human development. Foot illustrates that persons who are tempted to steal when the opportunity presents itself (and do not) is still virtuous, but not as virtuous and as developed as persons whom have the opportunity (and do not steal) where the temptation and need is much stronger, for example persons whom have a starving family. Of course this example brings up entirely different ethics within itself, but to Foot, whilst stealing would make them 'happy' it does nothing for their human development. In conclusion, we can see that Virtue theory, in its many variants, agree that it is different to other areas of ethics; it does not focus on defining principles by which we should act (good persons are

defined and what makes them good); it does not believe that good behaviour comes before right character (it is the opposite); it does not focus upon actions and (most loving) consequences (what is important is the character of moral persons). The theory's stance is upon human development which was later adapted to include society's development and more specific virtues.