Polar Coordinates

Polar Coordinates
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Calculus II
Introduction 2
Relations between Cartesian and Polar Coordinates 3
Sketch of Graphs in Polar Coordinates 5
Intersection of Two Curves in Polar Coordinates 10
Slope of a Tangent 11
Areas 13
Arc Lengths 15
Surfaces of Revolution 16
Introduction
Cartesian Coordinate plane Polar Coordinate plane
Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 1
Polar Coordinates
y
p (r,)
p (x, y)
y vectorial angle
x x 0 origin polor axis
(pole) (initial axis)
Example
y
P( 2 , 45)
p (1, 1) 2

1 x 0 45
1
N.B. (1) is positive if it is measured anti-clockwise.
(2) is negative if it is measured clockwise.
0
P (4,
6
) -
6
4

6
Q (4, -
6
)
0
(3) r can be negative.
A ( 2 ,
3
) A ( 2 ,
3
)
2 2
3
2
0 B (- 2 ,
3
)
(4) If r > 0 , P ( r, ) = P ( r, 2n+ ) , n Z .
e.g. P ( r, ) = P ( r, 3 ) = P ( r, - )
p (r, 3)
p (r, )
r
p (r, -) 0
(5) If r = 0 , O ( 0, ) is called the pole or origin , R .
(6) If r > 0 , Q ( -r, ) = Q ( r, + ) .

3
0
4
Page 2
Polar Coordinates
Q (4, +
3
) or Q (-4,
3
)
(7) Q is an imaginary point (which r<0) and P is a real point (which r>0) .
Relations between Cartesian and Polar Coordinates
x r
y r
r x y
y
x
'
'

cos
sin
tan

2 2
1
y
P (x, y) P (r, )

r y
x (polar axis)
0 x
Example Express the Cartesian coordinates in polar coordinates
(a) ( , ) 2 3 2 , (b) ( , ) 2 2
(a) 4 4 12
2 2
+ + y x r

6
3
1
tan
3 2
2
tan
1 1

so the polar coordinates= )
6
, 4 (

(b)
Example Express the polar coordinates in Cartesian coordinates
(a) (-2 , ) , (b) ( , ) 2 3
6

Page 3
Polar Coordinates
Definition Polar Equations : r = f()
Example r=2cos , r=2(1-sin) , r=3 , etc.
Example Investigate the loci represented by the following polar equations.
(a) = , where is a constant.
(b) r = a , where a is a constant.
(a) =
tan
1
y
x

y
x
m tan (say)

y mx
it is a straight line with inclination to the initial line and passing through the pole.
(b)
Example Express the following loci in polar coordinates :
(a) The straight line with normal form
p y x + sin cos
.
(b) The circle 0 2
2 2
+ ax y x .
Page 4
Polar Coordinates
Sketch of Graphs in Polar Coordinates
Example Plot the polar curve cos 2 r for 2 0 .
Solution
0
4

4
3

.
2
3
.
2
r 2 2 1 0 - 2 -2 . 0 . 2
y
P( r, )
r
0

x (polar axis)
1 2
r=2cos
N.B. (1)
2 2
2 2
2 cos 2
y x
x
y x r
+
+

2 2 2
1 ) 0 ( ) 1 ( + y x (which is a circle)
(2) If
) ( ) ( f f
, the polar curve is symmetric with respect to the initial line.
(r, )

0 e.g. r=2cos , r=2(1-cos)
-

(r ,- )
(3) If
) ( ) ( or , ) ( ) ( f f f f
, the curve is symmetric with respect to the
vertical line
2
.
(-r, -)=(r, -) (r, )
e.g. r=2sin , r=a(1+sin)
-
0
Page 5
Polar Coordinates
(4) If
) ( ) ( or , ) ( ) ( r g r g f f +
, the curve is symmetric with respect to the pole.
(r, )
0 e.g. r
2
= a
2
sin2
(-r, )
=(r, +)
I. Cardioids
Example Sketch the graph of the polar equation
) cos 1 ( 2 r
for 2 0 .
Solution Let f() = 2(1-cos)
f() = 2[1-cos(-)] = f()
The graph is symmetric wiyh respect to the initial line.

0

6

3
2

4
3

6
5
r 0 2- 3 2-
2
1 2 3 2+ 2 2+ 3 4
The graph is
R=2(1-cos)
(4, ) 0
Example Sketch the graph of the polar equation
) cos 1 ( 2 + r
for 2 0 .
Since f(-)=2[1+cos(-)]=2(1+cos)=f() so the graph is symmetric w.r.t. the initial line.
N.B. r=a(1+sin) r=a(1-sin)
Page 6
Polar Coordinates
(2a,
2
) (0, ) 0 (a, 0)
(a,) 0 (a, 0)
(2a ,
2
3
)
II. Limacons
Example Sketch the graph of the polar equation cos 4 2 + r .
N.B. r=a+bcos (0<a<b) r=a+bcos (0<b<a)
0 0
r=a+bsin (0<b<a) r=a+bsin (0<a<b)
0
0
III. n-Leafed Roses
r=acos3 (a>0 ,
0 2
) r=asin3 (a>0 ,
0 2
)
=
3
2
=
3

=
6
Page 7
Polar Coordinates
=
6
5
r=acos2 (a>0 ,
0 2
) r=asin2 (a>0 ,
0 2
)
Example Sketch the graph of the polar equation 3 sin a r , where a>0.
Example Sketch the graph of the polar equation 2 cos a r , where a>0.
IV. Two-Leafed Lemniscates
r
2
=a
2
cos2 (a>0 ,
0 2
) r
2
=a
2
sin2 (a>0 ,
0 2 )
Page 8
Polar Coordinates
V. Spirals of Archimedes.
r=a (a>0 ,
0)
r e
a

(a>0 ,
0)
r e
a

(a<0 ,
0)
Intersection of Two Curves in Polar Coordinates
Example Find the points of intersection of the circle 2 r and the cardioid
) cos 1 ( 2 r
.
Example Find the points of intersection of the circle cos 2 r and the four-leafed rose 2 sin r .
Page 9
Polar Coordinates
Slope of a Tangent
x r
y r
dx
d
dr
d
r
dy
d
dr
d
r
'
'
cos
sin
cos sin
sin cos
dy
dx
dr
d
r
dr
d
r
sin cos
cos sin
tan
tan

dr
d
r
dr
d
r
The angle between the tangent at P to the polar
curve r=f() and radius vector OP is given by
y r=f()
tan
r
dr
d
tangent at point p

p(r, )
x
0
Page 10
Polar Coordinates
Example Given the polar curve cos 2 2 r , 2 0 < .
(a) Find (i) the slope of tangent at
4
,
(ii) the points at which the tangent is horizontal,
(iii) the points at which the tangent is vertical,
(iv) the values of at which the angle between the radius vector and
tangent is
4
.
(b) Sketch the polar curve.
Page 11
Polar Coordinates
Areas
Theorem The area enclosed by the polar curve
) ( f r
betweem the lines = and = is given by
r=f() =
d r A
2
2
1
=
where
0 ) ( f r
on [ , ].
0
Example Find the area enclosed by the cardioid
) cos 1 ( a r
, a>0.
Example Find the area of the inner loop of the curve cos 4 2 + r .
Solution Since the inner loop bounded by the curve corresponds to the interval
1
]
1
3
4
,
3
2
.
Page 12
Polar Coordinates
N.B. (1)
) ( ), ( g r f r
Area enclosed = [ ] [ ] { }
d g f

2 2
) ( ) (
2
1
= [ ] [ ]
d g f

2 2
) ( ) (
2
1

=
=
r = f()
r = g()
(2) If the pole O lies within a closed polar curve, then
the area enclosed=
d r
2
0
2
2
1
.
Example (a) Find the area inside the circle cos 5 r and outside the limacon cos 2 + r .
(b) Find the area inside the circle cos 5 r and the limacon cos 2 + r .
Page 13
Polar Coordinates
Arc Lengths
The arc length S of the curve
) ( f r
form= to = is
S =
ds
dy ds
=
( ) ( )
2 2
dy dx
dx
=

d
d
dy
d
dx

,
_
+
,
_
2 2
r=f()
=
d r
d
dr
r
d
dr

,
_
+ +
,
_
2 2
cos sin sin cos
=
d r
d
dr
+
,
_
2
2
provided that r is differentiable on ( , ) and the curve does not intersect itself on ( , ).
Example Find the length of the circumference of the cardioid
) cos 1 ( a r
, where a>0.
Example Find the length of the curve of the circle cos 5 r that is outside the limacon cos 2 + r .
Page 14
Polar Coordinates
Surfaces of Revolution
Theorem The area of surface revolution S of the curve from = to = about the inital line is
yds S 2

d r
d
dr
r
+
,
_
2
2
sin 2 r=f()
ds

y

0
Theorem The area of surface revolution S of the curve from = to = about the line
2

(i.e. y-
axis) is
xds S 2

d r
d
dr
r
+
,
_
2
2
cos 2

x ds

0
Example Find the surface area generated by revolving the circle sin 2a r , a>0 about the line
2
.
Page 15
Polar Coordinates
Example Find the surface area generated by revolving the cardioid
) cos 1 ( a r
, where a>0 , about
the initial line.
Example The equation of a curve C in polar coordinates is
sin 1+ r , 2 0 < .
(a) Sketch curve C.
(b) Find the area bounded by curve C. [HKAL94] (5 marks)
Page 16
Polar Coordinates
Example
y
p

Q

0 a 2a x
Let C be the circle given by the polar equation r=2acos (where a>0) , P be a variable point on C and
O be the origin. Let Q be a point lying on the line through O and P such that P and Q are on the same
side of O and
Page 17
Polar Coordinates
2
a OQ OP .
Show that the Cartesian equation of the locus of Q is
2
a
x .
[HKAL93] (5 marks)
Page 18

Polar Coordinates

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Polar Coordinates

Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

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