one gene, one enzyme 5' cap(7methylguanylate + 3P grp)recognition signal; basal transcription complex.

genes contain info to make proteins polyAtail extends life of it. metabolic pathway- series of steps Has untranslated areas to stabilize and regulate. transcriptional control- avoid making mRNA AG-purine TC-pyrmidine translational control- alters mRNA to stop translation Central Dogma- dna >rna >prot can flow backward Eukaryo vs bacteria post translational control- protein is not activated DNA transcribed to RNA called mRNA Packaging: E: chromatin structure need to be open for transcriptional slower/save more nrg >translational>post translation- mRna > protein genotype (DNA) -> basal factors +polymerase to work b/c packaging is tight, translational ( fast,costly) phenotype (protein) has neg feedback. B: Promoters always on constitutively-always transcribed. alleles-same gene diff DNA sequence. Produces diff E: needs to be spliced not 1:1 Inducer- mlcl stimulates expression of genes a.a/proteins E much more complex b/c more eukaryo proteins RNAs-help regulate genes to transcribe, process mRNA, E:made at diff time B:same time lacza,y,i genes that code for proteins if has (-) it is transport a.a, makes peptide bond mutated. aminoacyl tRNA- type of tRNA covalently linked to i-: keeps making even without inducer(diff unit frm ayz) codon- 3 bases for specific a.a a.a. Resp for catalyzing addition of a.a to tRNA. z-: cant cleave lactose even if inducer present reading frame- sequence of codes Different aminoacyl tRNA for each a.a y-: cant bring lactose inside( transport) 1-2 deleted = terrible 3 deleted- slightly altered tRNA- allow a.a to interact w/ mRNA. Bases can make a-: doesnt encodes the gene product H bonds in diff region of same mlcl code at 3' end bind captial Lac= the proteins made from genes ribonucleotides- sugar is ribose deoxyribonucleotides- w/ a.a opp loop = anticodon- bind w/ mRNA negative regulation- when the protein blocks sugar is deoxyribose wobble hypothesis- Wobble because last nucleotide transcription. Needs to be activated to work ribose has OH group bond to 2nd carbon- deoxy only H might not be exact. positive regulation- inducer when nucleotides polymerize, nucleic acids are made. operon:genes located/transcribed together makes mrna condensation 5' +3' C:phosphodiester linkage sugar ribosomes seperated (large small) small holds mRNA in operator- regulatory sequence of dna in operon phosphodiester backbone place large provid peptide bond. group for tRNA. A= malt PQ:enzymes that break +modify maltose always goes 5>3 but can be written as 3<5 accept P=peptidyl( middle) E=exit malt T: positive regulator seperate form PQ phosphorylated: raises p.e of substrate to allow 3steps:trna starts at P moves down makes Pept bond with MalT: binds upstream promoter unlike LacI (on) endergonic reaction to start other then leaves. initiation- @small site.mRnas's ribosome binding site promoter must be used to start transcript. Operator Dna = antiparallel strands twisted to make double helix binds with initiation factors. first trna has f-met (mod of controls rate of transcription. bases on inside H bond (adjacent bonds too), sugarmet).lrg group completes phosphate backbones elongation-. a.a are held in ribosome' active site(peptide Reverse transcriptase: rna to dna. dna=cDna 3 h bonds GC > 2 h bond AT bond form). recombinant dna uses plasmid as a vector and splices soluble b/c out=philic in=phobic Translocation- ribosome move down mRNA 5>3. endonuclease(madam) dna. Results in sticky ends(not template strand- original 3'-5' complementary strand-moves A into P, P into E, E to exit. perfect splits) then combines it to plasmid with ligase. copy of it 5'-3' Depends on energy from GTP mlcls and elongation Contains promoter so bacteria can make plenty of it. more stable than RNA b/c dont have OH in 2' but factors. Ribosomes constantly changes shape. ineffective catalyst Polyribosomes-ribosomes bind to start and quickens polymerase chain reaction:make copies of specific production. Euka + Prok gene. Need dna primer and dNtps. Use taq Rna forms:Hairpin stem- formatoin of a dbl helix Termination- release factor fills A site, causes polymerase.Denature dna then let it cool and primer will can have tertiary, quarternary structure hydrolysis, Modifications- folding sped up by mlclular bind to template then heat a lil and dNtps will ribozymes- enzyme like rna. Condensation of p-linkage, chaperones. synthesize. Dbls amount each time. peptide bonds Eukaryotic- chemical grps added, sorting signal, sugar / lipid groups. + - Phosphate. dna polymerase- adds de...nucleotides to dna Rna polymerase is globular, has several channels dna sythesis=exergonic b/c Dntps high nrg dna goes thru NTPs come in RNA formed Before transcription Eukaryotes need to have replication bubble/origin of replication:site. Bacteria sigma(protein subunit) to begin transcription- forms Chromatin remodelled- to loosen so polymerase can has single point, Eukaryotes have many. holoenzyme binds w/ promoter first bind. Rna process- create mature mRNA Helicase opens up dna, ssbps holds them apart, promoters- sections of dna (TATAAT) aka -10box dna negatively charged histones positively topoisome cuts/join dna downstream of repl.. fork. +1 site: where starts -10:downstream chromosome made of chromatin(dna w/ protein) Primase makes primer (oh req to bond) start synth of -35:upstream chromatin remodelling complexs w/ atp and leading strand. Dna poly...aseIII extends strand 5>3 towards 3 = downstream acetylation+methylation adds acetyl or methyl. poly has a sliding clamp to hold in place Sigma binds to promoter, DNA helix opens up, template Histone acetyl transferases-adds acetyl makes less Lagging:has okazaki frags: not all made at same time strand goes thru channel into active site, monomers= attraction histone deacetylases-recondenses it by dna poly...ase I removes primer and replaces with ribonucleoside triphosphates (NTP) makes exergonic cuz removing acetyl group deoxy...ties. Later joined together by ligase. P, pairs with complementary base on template strand and epigenetic inheritence- when gene patterns are passed Rna polymerization begins, Sigma is released when down, muscle inherit histone types not genes though telemore:end of chromosome. Uses enzyme initiation is complete; mRNA STILL synthesizes. telemorase(carries RNA template) combines w/ unrep Elongation- zipper opens dbl helix rudder steers stand Tata box- specific base sequence allows sigma like part + adds deoxy..tide to complete strand + lil longer thru protein to contact DNA. Tata binding protein- in only in repro organs or else they'll get out of ctrl Termination- when transcription ends. Stops when Eukar, binds promoter. reaches DNA sequence that codes for termination causes Regulatory sequences- sections of DNA controls dna polymerase proofread+replaces. Mismatch repair RNA to fold into Hairpin -disrupts bond btwn activity of genes nucleotide excision repair: detects ireg structure then it polymerase and transcript. promoter proximal elements- type of reg seq upstream excises it then polymerase fills in and ligase connects. promoter. binds reg proteins eukaryo- many basal transcription factors -prot that Enhancer- reg seq far from promoter, located in introns -sugar can have same amount of C but diff functions cuz matches polymerase w/ promoter. or untranscribed areas. Positive control Silencer- opp arrangement of OH. Exist as mirrors too, so dbl 3 type of RNA: RNA pol I,II,III of enhancer, negative control -alpha bond: 1C oh on bot beta:1C oh on top. I= large subunit, II= produce mRNA III= 1 of small subunit + trna, II+III= snRNP regulatory transcription factors proteins that bind to -sugar bond w/ glycosidic linkage:specific place/angle TATA box= 30 upstream enhancers, silencers, promoter proxmial elements. Resp stach/glycogen:used for nrg storage, alpha 1-4. RNA processing steps after. DNA seq seperated 4 expression of certain genes glycogen more branched than starch alpha 1-6 Exons part of final mRNA introns are not. basal transcription factors- interact w/ promoter cellulose,chitin,peptidoglycan: structural support, Primary RNA transcript- contains intron and exon. needed for transcription to start. beta1-4( flipped) peptid... parallel strands bond w/ pept Removed by splicing(snRNPS) bind to 5' exon intron Coactivators- proteins needed to start transciption. Link bond, cellulose and chitin with hydrogen bond border. form splicosome. then intron forms loop with 'factors' to dna. Adenine gets cut out then exons bonded by Transcription in eukaryotic: chromatin opens -CH2O+O2=> CO2 +H20 +ATP. Free nrg given off phosphodiesterbond. DNA/promoter region, factors bind to specific sequence, when electrons transferred to highly electroneg atoms. DNA loops for reg + basal factors to connect, forms Phosphorylase/amylase : enzyme breaks glycosid links

9.1 light reaction makes O2 from water and makes ATP phosphorylation: addition of p group, chng sub shape low portential when strong bond high when shared 10.3 litotrophs,chemolitotrophs: uses inorganic as e-high wavelength only system I works low only II, needs phototroph,chemoorganheterotroph: use organic/light to find optimal area. chemo... e-&nrg source Photosystem II: pheophytin binds to e- and goes to etc autotroph: produce own food hetertroph: doesnt in thylakoid. PQ transports H+ to lumen and ATP is anabolic: nrg from small mlcls catabolic:opposite made in stroma. Process is photophosphorylation when light atp. 9.2 -e comes from h2o that is split by light. Oxygenic: 4 steps: glucose broken down to pyruvate>processed to oxygen producing anoxygenic:no oxygen produced. acetyl coa> krebs cycle> etc / oxidative phosphorylation Photosystem I: excited e are taken in by Nadp+ after etc oxidative phosphorylation: adp+P+e- from oxidized -Z scheme when they work together substrate lvl phosphorylation: by enzymes nrg frm P 9.3 -glycolysis has 10 reactions 1. glucose + atp to glucose 6 phos 2. enzyme makes it to fructose 6 p 3. atp added 4. splits into 2 3 C sugars 5. rearranges shape 6. reduction of nad+ splits 2P to 10.4 bond w/ 2 3 C. 7. 2 adp added 2 atp made. Calvin cycle:Co2 reduction 8&9 rearranges. 10. 2 adp added makes 2 more atp. -takes 3 spins to make one G3P - regulated by amount of atp. If too much doesnt make. fixation phase: ribulose biphosphate (RuBP)5 carbon + Atp either binds to + or regulatory site Co2 then divides to 2 3-phosphoglycerate. Reduction phase: 3-phos....ate phosphorylated by ATP 9.4 and reducted by Nadph makes glyceraldehyde-3Pyruvate needs to be processed into Acetyl CoA. phosphateB(G3P) used to make glucose. -acetyl(coch3) is transferred and is made by enzyme Regeneration Phase: G3P made back to RuBp w/ atp pyruvate dehydrogenase -process is under + and control.

9.5 krebs cycle: contains 8 enzymes that eventually makes 1 gtp, 2 CO2, 3Nadh, 1Fadh. But there is 2 acetyl so dbl - can be turned off at mltple places cuz its a cycle.

9.6 electron transport chain: uses e- from nadh and fadh to pump protons across gradient and passes thru atp synthesase while coming back to make atp and h20. -coenzyme Q/ubiquinone and complexs: transport e-electrons pass thru mlcls that have more electroneg each time until it reaches O. total net of free nrg= lot chemiosmotic: a protein gradient creates atp -c and q, since each e- comes with proton, q, transports e- to other complexs and moves H outside atp synthase: stalk and knob region can both hydrolyze and synthesize ATP. Protons pass thru F0 causes stalk between to spin makes ATP. -26 ATP produced here e- are presented as Hydrogen atoms.

9.7 fermentation: regernerates nad+ and it allows substrate lvl phosphorylation to proceed. Since it breaks bond between 2adp and allows p bond w/ 3 C. -use fermentation + respiration: facultative aerobes 10.1 6CO2 +12H2O+light=> glucose+6O2+6H2O 2 part: Light dependent reactions and Calvin Cycle