CONTROL OF SYSTEMS WITH FRICTION

Karl J. strm Department of Automatic Control Lund Institute of Technology, Lund, SWEDEN E-mail:kja@control.lth.se, WWW: http://www.control.lth.se

ABSTRACT Friction appears in all mechanical systems and has a signicant impact on control. Successful design of mechatronic systems requires an understanding of the effects of friction as well as techniques to compensation. Friction phenomena are complicated because they are caused by many different physical mechanisms. Friction can cause a substantial deterioration of the performance of a control system. Typical effects are steady state errors and oscillations. Many attempts have been made to compensate for friction. Early efforts include introduction of dither signals. Other ideas are to based on model based control. This paper reviews several models for friction that have been useful to model friction in motion control systems and to compensate for effects of friction. INTRODUCTION Friction is important in all motion control systems. It leads to deterioration in precisions and can generate limit cycles. It is therefore important to understand friction phenomena to understand and improve the behavior of the systems. Friction has been investigated for a long time. Leonardo da Vinci investigated the motion of rectangular blocks sliding over at surfaces. The French physicist Amonton [1] made similar investigations and concluded that the friction force at a sliding interface is proportional to the normal load. He also discovered that the the friction force does not depend on the apparent area of contact. A small block sliding on a surface thus experiences the same friction as a large block if the normal forces are the same. The French physicist Coulomb [15] found that once the motion starts the friction is independent of the velocity, resulting in the famous Coulombs friction law. Friction phenomena have been extensively studied in tribology see [11], [12] and [19]. Lately there have been
This work has been partially supported by the Swedish Research Council for Engineering Science, contract 95-759.

a resurgence of interest in friction in many scientic communities [42], [26]. This has been driven by scientic curiosity, engineering needs and improved instrumentation such as laser interferometry and atomic force microscopes. Physicists have investigated friction on an atomic scale [6]. Geologists have been investigating friction to better understand earth quakes [40], [25]. Friction plays an important role in micro-mechanical systems. Control engineers have tried to come up with better ways of dealing with frictions in mechatronic systems see [32], [29] and [35]. Even if the phenomenological properties of friction are reasonably well understood the fundamental physical mechanism that cause friction are not well known. For example there are no strong correlation between surface roughness and friction. There are cases where friction is less if a surface is rougher. Experiments with mica surfaces have shown that there is friction even if there are no asperities in the surfaces. In this case the friction is explained in terms of complicated molecular adhesion. The issue of lubrication is also poorly understood. Experiments on some surfaces have indicated that friction is less when surfaces are dry. FRICTION MODELS Before going presenting detailed mathematical model we give a phenomenological description of sliding friction. For this purpose we will consider a rectangular block over a at surface. Friction is the tangential reaction force between the surfaces. If a small tangential force is applied there will initially be a small deection of the block but the block will return to its original position if the force is reset to zero. There may be a small residual off set. The residual off-set increases with increasing force. If the force increases further the block starts to move. The force required to do this is called the break-away force. Its value depends on how long the block has been at rest. The force is also varying depending on many factors. The force required to keep the block moving depends on the velocity and

a)

b)

c)

d)

where the force Fe is the force applied to the block. The model can be thought of as the composition 0 and a Coulomb of two models one for v 0. The model for v 0 friction model for v says that the friction opposes motion as long as the force applied is less than the stiction force FS . The model with Coulomb and viscous friction can also be augmented with a stiction model as is illustrated in Figure 1 c). There are several difculties with the stiction models. One problem is that the friction force is 0. This leads not a function of velocity when v to mathematical complications [10]. The model does not capture the spring like behavior. The stiction model is however one of the simplest model that will describe stick-slip motion. There are also practical difculties in using the model for simulation because it is always difcult to determine precisely when the velocity is zero. The Karnopp model [27] is similar to (2) but the 0 is replaced by v < . This condition v model is widely used in simulation programs for mechatronic system. The model is an improvement over the stiction model but there are difculties because the behavior may depend strongly on the choice of the parameter and the tolerances in the numerical integration routines. Modern software for numerical integration permits test when the a variable such as velocity changes sign and a proper implementation of the stiction model can then be obtained. There is experimental evidence that the friction force does not drop suddenly when velocity increases. Stribeck [43] observed that the friction force had the shape shown in Figure 1 d) with a minimum in the friction force. The velocity vS where the friction force is minimal is called the Stribeck velocity. Stribecks model can be described by F (v) if v 0 Fe if v 0 and Fe < FS (3) F FS sgn( F e) otherwise. The function F (v) can be determined by measuring the force required to maintain a constant velocity. It is often asymmetrical. One form of F (v) that has been suggested is F (v) FC + ( FS FC ) e v/v S
S

Figure 1 Static friction models gives the friction forcea as a function of the velocity.

many other factors. Static Models The simplest models describe friction as a function of the difference in the velocities of the sliding surfaces. Such models are often called static models. Coulomb friction which is described by F FC sgn(v)

F N sgn(v),

( 1)

where FC is the friction force FN the normal load and the friction coefcient. This model is illustrated in Figure 1 a). The Coulomb friction model is very useful in spite of its simplicity. It can explain several phenomena associated with friction and it has is commonly used for friction compensation [21, 5]. Many motion control boards have incorporated it in the software. The Coulomb friction model can be improved by adding viscous friction F R v as illustrated in Figure 1 b) [39]. Experiments have shown that the parameters F C and F R often depend on the direction of the velocity. The model with Coulomb and viscous friction has been used very successfully for friction compensation in velocity drives [13]. The model (1) does not describe what happens when the velocity is zero because the sgn function 0. As mentioned in the inis not dened for v troduction of this section friction acts like a spring when a small force is applied. This phenomena is often referred to as stiction [30]. A simple way to capture this is to augment the Coulomb friction model 1 with a specication of the friction force at zero velocity. This results in the model Fe FS sgn( F e) if v if v 0 and Fe < FS 0 and Fe FS

+ F R v.

(4)

Dynamic models

(2)

Strictly speaking neither the stiction model (2), the Karnopp model nor the model (3) are static

Fc

never be larger than F c if its initial value is such that F (0) < F c .
x >0 x <0 x

slope 0 Fc

Notice that in this model the friction force is only a function of the displacement and the sign of the velocity. This so called rate independence is an important property of the model. It makes it possible to use the theory of hysteresis operators [28]. It is also used in extensions of the model [7]. To obtain a time domain model Dahl observed that dF dt For dF dx dx dt dF v dx

Figure 2

Stress-strain curve.

models in the sense that the friction force is a function of the velocity. Because of this the models have both fundamental and practical drawbacks. They can be avoided by recognizing that friction is indeed a dynamic phenomenon which should be modeled as dynamical systems. This a natural viewpoint for a control engineer but it is interesting to see that the need has also been recognized in other communities. The geologist are for example talking about rate and state models [40]. Dahls model Dahl [16], [17] and [18], developed a simple model for the simulating control systems with friction. His starting point was experiments on friction in servo systems with ball bearings. One of his ndings was that bearing friction behaves like solid friction. Dahls experiments indicate that there are metal contacts between the surfaces. This is agrees very well with the results in [11], [12] which show that friction is caused by microscopic irregularities (asperities) that are pressed into the surfaces in contact. This also explained Amontons observation that friction was independent of the apparent surface. Friction is, however, proportional to the true contact area of the surfaces. The starting point for Dahls model is the stressstrain curve in classical solid mechanics [38], [41], see Figure 2. When subject to stress the friction force increases gradually until rupture occurs. Dahl modeled the stress-strain curve by a differential equation. Let x be the displacement, F the friction force, and Fc the Coulomb friction force. Then Dahls model has the form dF dx

F sgn v Fc

v. (5)

1 the Dahl model (5) reduces to dF dt

F v. Fc

Introducing F

z the model can be written as

dz dt F v

v
Fc

z,

z.

(6)

Dahls model has been used extensively to simulate systems with ball bearing friction. For a long time it was the standard simulation model in the aerospace industry. The model avoids the numerical problems with the stiction model and Karnopps models. The model has also been used for adaptive friction compensation, see [46] and [20]. The drawbacks of Dahls model are that it does not describe stick slip motion and that it does not captures the Stribeck effect. The Bliman-Sorine Model Bliman and Sorine have developed a family of dynamic models in a series of papers [8, 9, 10]. It is based on the experimental investigations by Rabinowicz, see [37]. It is assumed that friction only depends on the sign of the velocity and the t variable s 0 v( ) d . The model is given by dxs ds F Axs + Bvs C xs

(7)

F sgn v Fc

where is the stiffness coefcient and is a parameter that determines the shape of the stress1 is most commonly strain curve. The value used. Higher values will give a stress strain curve with a sharper bend. The friction force F will

Because of the rate independence it possible to use the elegant theory of hysteresis operators developed in [28, 45]. The complexity of the models is given by the dimension of the state space. The rst order model is identical to Dahls model. This model does not give stiction, nor does it give a friction peak at a

specic break-away distance as. The second order model A B

1/( f ) 0 f 1/( f ) f 2/ f

1/ f
and C

, (8) (1 1),

The parameter 0 is the stiffness of the bristles, and 1 (v) the damping. The sum 0 + 1 then corresponds to stiction force and 0 to Coulomb friction force. The parameter v0 determines how g (v) vary within its bounds 0 < g (v) 0 + 1 . A common choice of f (v) is linear viscous friction f (v) 2v. It is useful to let the damping 1 decrease with increasing velocity, e.g.

will, however, give stiction. This model can be viewed as a parallel connection of a fast and a slow Dahl model. The fast model has higher steady state friction than the slow model. The force from the slow model is subtracted from the fast model, which results in a stiction peak. Both the rst and second order models can be shown to be dissipative. Bliman and Sorine also show that, as f goes to zero, the rst order model behaves as a classical Coulomb friction model, and the second order model as a classical model with Coulomb friction and stiction. The LuGre Model The LuGre model [14] is another generalization of Dahls model. This model is given by dz dt F v z, g ( v) dz 0 z + 1(v) + f (v), dt v 0

1(v)

1 e(v/vd) .
2

(12)

Physically this is motivated by the change of the damping characteristics as velocity increases, due to more lubricant being forced into the interface. Another reason for using (12) is that it gives a model which is dissipative, see [32]. A more detailed description of these and many other friction models is given in [35]. EFFECTS OF FRICTION In this section we will illustrate behaviors caused by friction in motion control systems. We will also illustrate how the models presented in Section 2 can be used to explain what happens. Stick-slip motion Stick-slip motion is a classic common problem phenomena that occurs in system with friction. It can be observed experimentally simply by pulling a spring attached to a block on a surface. The block starts to move when the spring is extended so much that the string force exceeds the breakaway force. The motion stops when the spring is compressed. The net result is a jerky motion which switches between sticking and slipping. The phenomenon also occurs when a chalk is drawn at a proper speed on a black board creating a squeaky noise. Stick-slip motion occurs in in motion control system with slow motion and in metal processing. It is of course highly undesirable is of course highly undesirable in a motion control system. Stick slip motion cannot be explained using a Coulomb friction model (1). The stiction model (2) is a simple model that captures stick-slip motion. This model also explains that stick-slip does not occur if the velocity of the spring is sufciently high. This is illustrated in the simulation in Figure 3. The system simulated is described by

(9)

The state variable z can be interpreted as the average deection of the asperities. Extensive analysis of the model and its application are be found in [32]. The model captures many properties of friction such as stiction rate dependent friction an frictional lag. The model also includes rate dependent friction phenomena such as varying break-away force and frictional lag. For constant velocity the steady state friction force is F g (v) sgn(v) + f (v).

(10)

Any velocity dependence can thus be obtained by a proper choice of the function g (v). One possible choice which gives the Stribeck effect is g ( v) compare with (4). Linearization of (9) around zero velocity and zero state gives d( z) dt F

0 + 1 e(v/v0) ,
2

(11)

v, 0 z + ( 1(0) + f (0)) v.

2 1 0 0 0.4 0.2 0 0

y, x y
10

a)

Theta from the real pendulum 0.1 0.05 b) 2 1 Angle (rad) 0 -1 -2 0 d)

Phi from the real pendulum

x
20 Time
Angle (rad)

0 -0.05 -0.1 0

dx/dt

5 Time (s) Theta from simulations

10

5 Time (s) Phi from simulations

10

10

20 Time

c)

Angle (rad)

0 0

0 -0.05 -0.1 0

Angle (rad) 5 Time (s) 10

F , k( x y)

0.1 0.05

2 1 0 -1 -2 0

10

20 Time

Figure 3 Simulation of stick-slip motion. The upper curve shows the positions of mass and the spring. The curve in the middle shows the velocity of the mass and the bottom curve shows the friction force and the spring force.

5 Time (s)

10

Figure 4 Limit cycles caused by friction when controlling an inverted pendulum. The variable correspond to the tilt of the pendulum and the variable correspond to cart position.

the equations m d2 x dt2 dy dt k( y x) F vre f the force is instead created by the integral action in a controller. This is called hunting [31]. Unstable modes in a system can also generate the increasing force. This happens for example in control of an inverted pendulum on a cart. The cart sticks because of friction when the pendulum is close to the upright position and the cart is close to its desired position. The pendulum starts to fall and the control signal then increases until break away occurs. Figure 4 shows comparisons of simulations with the LuGre model and experiments results from experiments using a rotating pendulum [44]. Analysis Methods It is in general difcult to analyze systems with friction because of the the friction models are strongly nonlinear. The Coulomb friction model being so simple is one exception. If the rest of the system is linear the system can be represented as a feedback connection of a linear system and a relay representing the Coulomb friction. Approximate analysis of limit cycles can then be made using describing functions [3]. By using special techniques it is also possible to analyze limit cycles with Coulomb friction and stiction exactly [33]. With more complicated friction models we have to resort to simulation. Simulation can also be difcult for models with switches and care must be taken to obtain reliable results. Both experiments and simulations have shown that the tracking error for systems with friction is far from Gaussian [34]. This means that traditional stochastic analysis is not appropriate. It also

(13)

The friction force is given by (2) with FS 1.5 1. Linear viscous friction with F R and FC 0.4 is added to the linear process model and the 0.1, m 1, and k 2. The parameters are vre f system starts with the mass is at rest. The force from the spring increases linearly as y increases. The spring force is balance by the friction force and the mass remains still. The mass starts to slide when the spring force exceeds the stiction force FS and the friction force drops to the Coulomb level FC . The mass accelerates but as it moves the spring contracts and the spring force decreases. The mass slows down and nally the motion stops. The phenomenon then repeats itself in another FC . Notice the rapid cycle. is no limit cycle if F S change of the friction force when the mass stops. Some care has to be exercised in a simulation of this type. Simulation with the LuGre model is more robust since no switching occurs [14]. This gives a better description of what happens when the velocity is close to zero. Notice that stick-slip motion cannot be explained using Dahls model. Creation of stick-slip motion requires that there is friction that can keep the mass at rest and that there is a mechanism that creates a force on the mass that increases when it is at rest. In the classical stick slip motion the force is created by pulling the string. In many motion control system

Tracking reference

Friction observer
[rad]

4 2

+ xr +

Linear Controller

1 Js

1 s

0 -2 -4

Real Friction

-6

10

20

30

40

50 60 Time [sec] Tracking error

70

80

90

100

Figure 5 Block diagram of the model-based friction compensation scheme.

[rad]

0.1 0.05 0 -0.05

means that traditional quality measures such as standard deviations can be very misleading [34]. FRICTION COMPENSATION Since friction occurs in all motion control systems it is of course very interesting to investigate to methods for compensating for friction. Several different schemes have been attempted. Dither Dither is a simple way to eliminate some effects of friction. A mechanical vibrator was the earliest form of dither [36] which was used in gyroscopes in the 1940s. Electrical dither signals can easily be superimposed on the signals generated by the controller. This is used to improve conventional control valves [23]. Acceleration Feedback The advances in micro-electronics have given several new cheap components, micro-mechanical accelerators is one example. By closing a feedback loop around an accelerometer it is possible to obtain a high gain loop that controls the acceleration of a mass directly. This is perhaps the simplest an most robust way of eliminating friction. Model Based Friction Compensation Many schemes form model based friction compensation have been proposed. The key idea is shown in Figure 5. The system is provided with a friction observer which tries to estimate the friction based on available measurements and a friction model. is then added as an input The estimated friction F to the system. Effective friction compensation requires that good velocity measurements are available and that the input is introduced in such a way that there is little dynamics between the injection point and the point where friction acts. There are many schemes of this type that mainly differ in the complexity of the friction model used.

-0.1 without friction compensation 0 10 20 30 40 with fixed friction compensation 50 60 Time [sec] 70 80 90 100

Figure 6 Experiments that show the effect of model based friction compensation [29]. The upper curve shows the tracking signal and the lower curve shows the tracking error.

Some schemes use a simple Coulomb friction models. They are available in many standard system for motion control. Since the properties of friction changes signicantly it is essential to adapt the friction model [2]. The paper [22] describes a model reference adaptive system and [13] describes a self-tuning controller for velocity control. A static friction model with an asymmetric Coulomb and viscous friction model is used. There are other schemes that use more elaborate dynamic friction models [32], [29]. Design of friction compensation is difcult because of the strong nonlinearities. Passivity is one technique that has been used very successfully to design compensators with guaranteed stability [34]. The technique is based on the idea that a system with friction observer can be represented as a feedback connection of a linear system and a passive system. The dynamics of the linear system depends on the controller. In some cases it is possible to design the controller so that the linear system is passive and the stability of the closed loop system then follows from the passivity theorem, see [47] and [24]. The LuGre model has passivity properties, [14], [4]. Figure (6) illustrates what can be achieved with model based friction compensation for a tracking servo. The time segment 0-50 shows a typical behavior for a system with friction. Large errors occur when the system sticks at the velocity reversals. Friction compensation based on the LuGre model is applied for the time segment 50-100. Notice that the large spikes in the tracking error are drastically reduced.

CONCLUSIONS Friction is important in all motion control systems. There is currently much research on friction in many different elds which is generating much knowledge and insight. This can be used to increase our understanding of friction phenomena and to design better friction compensators. This paper has reviewed models for friction and techniques for friction compensation. There are two promising methods for friction compensation, acceleration feedback and adaptive model based friction compensation. Development of dynamic models for friction and adaptive friction compensation schemes are interesting research areas which have good application potential for motion control. REFERENCES [1] G. AMONTONS. On the resistance originating in machines. In Proc. of the French Royal Academy of Sciences, pp. 20622, 1699.

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