Building A Computer

Inform a tion is encod ed w ith bits: 0 's a nd 1's .

(we've already seen 2's com plem ent num bers)

These a re encod ed using + w ell und erstood

voltages...

+ ea s y to genera te, d etect - a ffected b y environm ent

B ut w hy 1's a nd 0 's only?

Digital Representation
Example: representing a B&W picture: Black = 0 V White = 1 V 80% grey = 0.8 V ... Represent by scanning picture in xed order. Let's try doing some computation with the voltages...

Digital Representation
Flip image:
Flip back and forth...

What really happens...

Have to build system to tolerate some error (noise).

Logic Levels

Store just one bit on a wire... Gain reliability

0V
"unknown"

3.3V

anything here is logic level 0

anything here is logic level 1

Different conventions are possible

5V
"unknown"

5V

anything here is logic level 1

anything here is logic level 0

Combinational Devices

A combinational device: Output is a function of inputs only ("memoryless") Takes input to valid, stable outputs Combinational devices restore marginally valid signals!
valid input logic 0 0V valid input logic 1 3.3V

valid output logic 0

noise margin

valid output logic 1

Example

Input: logic 0 if O utput logic 0

< Vil , logic 1 if < Vol , logic

Vih Voh
Vin

if 1

> Vih if > Voh

3.3V

Vil

Vout

Vout avoid these regions!

Vol
0V 3.3V

Vin

Digital View

If input is 0 , output is 1 If input is 1, output is 0

N orm a lly w ritten in a ta b le, like this :

In 0 1

O ut 1 0

C a lled a "truth-ta b le".

Im p le m e n t a t io n : S w itc h in g N e t w o rks

Lots of ways to build switches... relays vacuum tubes transistors ...

Ptransistor
a g b g

Ntransistor
a

Connect a and b if g = 0.

Connect a and b if g = 1.

Switching Networks: Inverter

Vdd

in
in out

out 1 0

0 1

GND

Function: NOT Called an inverter Symbol:

in out

Switching Networks: NAND

Vdd

a
a

b out 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0

0
out

1 0
b

GND

Function: NAND Symbol:

a out b

Switching Networks: NOR

Vdd b

a
a out

b out 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 1

GND

Function: NOR Symbol:

a out b

Building Functions From Gates

AND:
=

OR:
=

Can specify function by describing gates, truth table, or logic equations.

Logic Equations

AND:

out = a b out = ab out = a b

OR: NOT:

out = a + b out = a b

out = in out = in

Logic Equations
Fun with identities:
a+a=1 a+0=a a+1=1

aa = 0 a0=0 a1=a a(b + c) = ab + ac (a + b) = a b (a b) = a + b a + ab = a + b

Check by writing truth tables, or by manipulating logic equations.

Let's Build An Adder

Write down function: Two 1-bit inputs, a and b Two 1-bit outputs, sum and carry Truth-table: a 0 1 0 1 b carry sum 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

Let's Build An Adder

Sum output: a 0 1 0 1 Logic equation: Circuit:

a b a b ab

b sum Logic term 0 0 ab 0 1 ab 1 1 ab 1 0 ab

ab ab + ab

ab+ab

Let's Build An Adder

Carry output: a 0 1 0 1 Logic equation: Circuit: b carry Logic term 0 0 ab 0 0 ab 1 0 ab 1 1 ab
ab
a b ab

Let's Build An Adder

Final Circuit:
+0 +0

a b

ab

+2

carry

a b a b

ab
+3 +3

ab + ab
+5

sum

ab

Numbers indicate the number of sequential steps from input to output (worst-case).