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Metallurgy
Properties of metals: Generally, the properties of metals result from both their

crystalline structure and metallic bond

where valence electrons are delocalized and free to move throughout the metal rather than the remaining bounded electrons. 1. Metals are crystalline solids with the exception of mercury and gallium which are liquids at room temperature. Another exception is hydrogen, which is a very reactive metal; it exists as a gas at room temperature.

2. Ionize positively in solution

3. Luster: This arises from the response of the unbound electrons to electromagnetic vibrations at light frequencies, which give the mirrorreflecting property.

4. Opacity results from the ability of the valence electrons to absorb light

5. Electrical and thermal conductors: mobility of the valence electrons are efficient carriers of thermal as well as electrical energy along a potential gradient. 6. High hardness, melting point and boiling point due to the strength of the primary interatomic bonding within the crystalline solid.

7. High density: is related to atomic weight, atomic radius and atomic packing factor.

8. Ductility and malleability: related to the crystal structure and imperfections which allow for plastic deformation. 9. On striking a metal surface, a metallic ring is given. 10. Most metals are white with slight differences in tint. Two metals are non white, gold (yellow) and copper (red).

Shaping Methods of Metals

1- Casting cast structure **Liquid metal **Mould

2. Cold Working Fibrous or wrought Structure

1- At room temperature 2- Stresses should YIELD strength

3. Powder metallurgy (sintering)

4. Electroforming

Solidification of metals Temperature-time (cooling) curve

Pure Metal

Mechanism of Solidification

1- Nucleus formation: nuclei of crystallization. 2- Crystallization: dendrites and grain boundary

1) Nucleus Formation:
When a molten alloy is cooled and approaches its freezing temperature, the atoms try to aggregate forming initial

starting points of crystallization

[nuclei of crystallization] at supper cooling point

Nucleus formation can occur by

A) Homogenous nucleation The atoms of the metal itself form the nuclei of crystallization B) Heterogeneous nucleation Foreign solid metallic particles e.g. iridium, which has a higher melting temperature than that of the liquid metal are added to the liquid metal They share in the formation of the nuclei of crystallization

2) Crystallization:
The metals can solidify in single crystal [grain] which is very rare, or polycrystalline

As cooling continues the nuclei of crystallization grow independently in three dimensions [tree like structure] to form crystals [grains] The growth is stopped when there is contact with adjacent growing crystals ***Give reason:

The grains do not join at their meeting points.

All crystals [grains] have the same space lattice but each crystal [grain] has different orientation, thats why the grain does not join at their meeting points.

Grain boundary
It is a region of transition between different oriented crystal lattice of the two adjacent crystals [grains] The atoms at the grain boundaries are located in distorted positions to bridge the mismatch in the lattice orientation of adjacent crystals [grains]

Effect of grain boundary on properties of metals:

1) Diffusion of atoms occurs more readily along the grain boundaries [Why?] More open structure 2) Formation of new nuclei in the solid phase started at the grain boundary. [Why?] Enough
surface energy to start the formation of new grains

3) The chemical or electrolytic etching during microstructure examination preferentially attacks the grain boundaries [Why?] Higher energy since the atoms take intermediate position between adjacent grains of different orientation 4)They are the sites of corrosion attack [Why?]

Factors affecting grain size

** Time & Temperature controlled 1- Rate of cooling

2- Rate of nucleation and crystallization

crystallization nucleation grain size

3- Nucleating agents (grain refiner)

Relationship of microstructure to mechanical properties:

1) The modulus of elasticity is the resistance
for elastic deformation. It depends on the chemical composition of the material nature of atomic bond.

It is rarely affected by microstructure.

When a material is stressed under its elastic limit it will deform temporarily. So, elastic strain in a metal is mainly due to stretching of the interatomic bonds.

2. Plastic deformation involves the slip

of layers of atoms over each other in certain planes in the metal crystals.
Slip does not occur by the movement of an entire plane of atoms over the next layer in a single movement, which requires enormous stress. ** Instead the slip occurs by: a localized region of shear, which passes progressively through the length of the slip plane. This localized shear zone is called a dislocation and its movement is called movement of dislocation.

3. Dislocation movement
Easy in metals because they have many slip planes. If the movement of dislocation is easy it means that
atoms can move through slip planes without obstruction. The metal is characterized by low strength, low hardness, and high ductility. However, obstructing

the movement of dislocations may occur which may be achieved by:

Grain boundaries Other dislocations Other types of lattice discontinuity Alloying

Therefore, the metal will be characterized by high strength and high hardness due to slip interference. Low ductility is due to consuming the slip planes.

Wrought Metals
Procedure By hammering or rolling at room temperature, plastic
deformation occurs by dislocation movement along the slip planes. The dislocation movement becomes difficult, if it meets any obstruction Greater stress is required to produce further slip With further cold working, fracture will occur due to accumulation of dislocations leading to lattice discontinuity [i.e. local rupture of crystal lattice] Properties: A cold worked structure is highly stressed structure with increased strength and hardness [strain hardened] but lower ductility and corrosion resistance

Cold working & Strain hardening:

Heat treatment annealing

Reverses the effect of cold working
by heating the cold worked structure below the melting temperature of metal

Stress-relief anneal recovery Recrystallization Grain growth

Effect of annealing on the mechanical properties

Alloys
An alloy
is a combination of two or more metals which are soluble (miscible) in the molten condition.

Phase:
1. Homogeneous 2. Physically distinct 3. Mechanically separable portion of a system

Classification of alloys

a. According to the number of constituting metals; Binary, ternary, quaternary etc. b. According to solubility in the solid state:

Solid-Solution alloy

Intermetallic Compound

Eutectic alloy

Solid Solution Alloys

The metals are said to be soluble in each other in the solid state, the structure is homogenous.

Types of solid solutions

Interstitial Solid Solutions Substitutional Solid Solutions **Ordered **Disordered

Conditions for S.S.

1. Same space lattice type. 2. Same valence. 3. Atomic size difference must be less than 15 %; other wise, interstatial S.S. may form. 4. No chemical affinity; other wise, intermetallic compounds may form

Properties of S.S.
1. Due to difference in atomic size localized distortion of the lattice dislocation movement becomes more difficult, which results in:

strength, Hardness

and

ductility

2. Being one phase system (homogenous structure), the resistance to tarnish and corrosion is high. 3. The S.S. alloy has a melting range

Equilibrium phase diagram of solid solution

Interpretation of phase diagram of solid solution

From the phase diagram the following can be noticed:
**The melting point of silver Is 960 0C, that of palladium is 15550C **The line ABC is the liquidus line, and the line ADC is the solidus line, the solid and liquid phases exist between. **Consider an alloy of composition 65% palladium and 35% silver at various temperatures:
--At temperature 1500 0C only liquid is present with a composition of 65% palladium and 35% silver as indicated by the dotted line PO --At temperature 1400 0C liquid and solid phases are present. To determine the composition of the alloy first solidifying, the line RM (the tie line) is drawn parallel to the base line. The tie line intersects the liquidus line at R and the solidus line at M. --At temperature 1370 0C; please identify by yourself the composition of the different phases.

Coring:
*** Non uniform composition of the crystal during solidification.
**The center (core) of the crystal is rich in the metal of higher M.P. The periphery of the crystal is rich in the metal of lower mp. Causes: 1. Great difference between mp of constituent metals. 2. Rapid rate of cooling (WHY?) Because the rapid rate of cooling doesnt allow for atomic diffusion towards equilibrium Properties: Heterogeneous structure has lower corrosion resistance.

Homogenization:
It is a solid state (heat treatment), below solidus temperature to eliminate Coring , by allowing atomic diffusion

to produce
homogenous structure.

Eutectic Alloys
Definition:
**Upon solidification, the two metals show partial solubility or in extreme theoretical cases complete insolubility. -Eutectic is a Greek word that means lowest melting. -For an alloy system that has a eutectic composition there is a eutectic temperature which is a melting point not a melting range. -It is the lowest solidification temperature shown in the whole system

Properties of eutectic alloys: 1. Eutectic alloys are brittle because the presence of insoluble phases definitely inhibits slip. 2. Strength and hardness surpass those of the constituent metals heterogeneous structure of the alloy 3. They have poor corrosion resistance due to the heterogeneous structure having different phases with different electrode potentials

Differences between solid solution and eutectic alloys

Solid solution **Solubility in the - Complete solid state **Phases - One phase homogeneous **Melting Properties - Melting range **Properties -Similar to the parent metals with increase in strength and hardness and decrease in ductility **Resistance to - High tarnish and corrosion **Uses - Most of metallic dental restorations are solid solution alloys e.g. base metal alloys and gold alloys Eutectic Partial

Two phases heterogeneous Melting point Strong, hard, brittle

Very low

Only: In soldering & admixed amalgam alloy

Complete Insolubility

-From the phase diagram, the following features are noticed:

**Melting temperature of silver (Ag), copper (Cu) are 962 0C and 1083 0C **Its eutectic composition is 28.1% copper and 71.9% silver **The eutectic temperature is 779.4 0C

Partial Solubility

**Solid solubility of Cu in Ag is a maximum of 8.8% at the and eutectic temperature while that of Ag in Cu is 8% at the same solid solutions. temperature **Solubility limit changes within the previously mentioned percentages if the alloy is slowly cooled as indicated by the solidus line **At the eutectic composition, the eutectic solid that precipitates is formed of alternating layers of

Intermetallic Compound
Definition: Upon solidification, both metals have chemical affinity towards each other forming intermetallic compounds with certain composition and below certain temperature. Properties of intermetallic compound: ** They are usually very hard and brittle. ** Their properties commonly differ from those of metals making up the alloy.

Heat treatment
-It allows for atomic diffusion in the solid state by heating the solid below its solidus temperature. -It is performed to control the physical properties of dental gold alloy.

There are two processes

Softening heat ttt.
10 min. 700 0C

Hardening heat ttt. (Age hardening)

15-30 min. 200-450 0C

quenched in water

quenched in water

disordered (F.C.C.)
low strength, low hardness, high ductility.

super lattice (ordered F.C.T) in (disordered F.C.C)

high strength, high hardness, low ductility

Heat treatment of gold-copper alloy (Au/Cu)

From the phase diagram of gold copper system the following can be recognized:
Melting temperature of gold is 1063 0C, while that of copper is 1083 0C The melting range is very narrow for all compositions indicating a low tendency for coring The liquidus and solidus lines are nearly touching at a percentage of 80.1% Gold (Au) The gold copper alloy [whatever the composition], when cooled rapidly from solidus temperature to room temperature, form a disordered substitutional solid solution [face centered cubic] But if gold copper alloy is allowed to cool slowly **At temperature below 424 0C with a composition of gold 64-88%, a super
lattice AuCu, an ordered face centered tetragonal, is formed within the disordered substitutional solid solution [face centered cubic]

**At temperature below 396 0C with a composition of gold 39-64%, a super

lattice AuCu3, an ordered face centered cubic, is formed within the disordered substitutional solid solution [face centered cubic]

Both super lattices AuCu & AuCu3 offer higher strength and hardness but lower ductility than the parent disordered S.S.S [face centered cubic] {Why?} This is because they are ordered phases [i.e. stronger phases]. Moreover they are precipitated in disordered substitutional solid solution [face centered cubic] hindering the dislocation movement thus increasing strength and hardness and decreasing ductility.

Give reason:
-- In dentistry, super lattice AuCu [ordered F.C.T] is more preferable than the super lattice AuCu3 [ordered F.C.C]? 1) the super lattice AuCu [ordered F.C.T] has different dimensions than the parent lattice [disordered F.C.C] It offers greater obstruction to the dislocation movement than the super lattice AuCu3 **It is more efficient than AuCu3 in increasing strength, hardness and decreasing ductility 2) the super lattice AuCu [ordered F.C.T] contains less copper than AuCu3 [ordered F.C.C] **AuCu is more resistant to tarnish and corrosion in the oral cavity

Methods of altering the mechanical properties of alloys

1) Solution hardening
The unit cell of two constituent metals is distorted This distortion hinders the dislocation movement so raising the strength and hardness, and decreasing the ductility

2) Order hardening
An ordered structure causes an increase in the mechanical properties of an alloy, than the disordered structure of the parent alloy that forms at higher temperature.

3) Precipitation hardening
Atomic diffusion in the solid state aided by temperature for sufficient time may cause precipitation of certain phases within the structure of the parent alloy. This creates localized lattice distortion in the parent alloy inhibiting the dislocation movement Strength and hardness are increased while ductility is decreased. New precipitated phases increase the heterogeneity of the alloy decreasing its corrosion resistance For example, in gold alloys, the precipitation of supper lattice AuCu (F.C.T.) in the disordered S.S.S. (F.C.C.) will hinder dislocation movement.

** Solid state reactions include:

1- Annealing heat treatment of cold worked structure 2- Homogenization of cored structure 3- Heat treatment of gold alloy

** Any stressed structure (e.g. cold worked structures) and any heterogeneous structure (e.g. cored
structures or eutectic alloys) will have the following

properties;
1- High strength and hardness 2- Low ductility 3- Low resistance to tarnish and corrosion (i.e. cannot be used inside patient mouth)

** The properties which are changed by heat or mechanical treatment are;

1- Strength (proportional limit & yield stress). 2- Hardness. 3- Ductility (% elongation). This may give idea about Toughness. *** Elastic modulus is not affected as it is composition dependent.

Give reason: 1** Any cold worked structure should be annealed before insertion in the oral cavity. - Relief of internal stresses to prevent warp age or fracture during service - Increase in corrosion resistance 2** If the temperature is held for longer time, there is decrease in strength of metal. - Further grain growth occurs - Change from fine to coarse crystal [grain] structure The metal will be characterized by detrimental decrease in strength and hardness and very high ductility