362

Superconductivity

Io
Fig.14.2

Momentum

Momentum

A one-dimensional representation of the energy momentum curve for seven electrons in a conductor. (a) All electrons in their lowest energy states, the net momentum is zero. (b) There is a net momenh,rm to the right as a consequence of an applied electric field.

They received jointly the Nobel Prize in i956.

supercondutivity are refutable'. In 1957, Bardeen, Schrieffer. and Cooper produced a theory (called the BCS theory) that managed to explain all the major properties of superconductivity for all the superconductors known

at the time. Unfortunately, the arrival of a host of nerv superconducring materials has cast fresh doubts on our ability ever to produce a complete theory. For the time being BCS is the best theory we have. The essence of the theory is that superconductivity is caused by electron-lanice (or. using tnore sophisticated language, by electron-phonon) interaction and that the superconducting electrons consist ofordinary electrons paired up. There is not much point in going into the details of this theory; it is far
* In actual fact. the first man to suggest the pairing of electrons rvas R-A. Ogg. Accordrng to Gamow's limerick:

In Ogg's theory it was his intent That the current keep florving,
once sent: So to save himself trouble.

He put them in double,

too complicated, but a rough idea can be provided by the fblloiving qualitatire explanation due to Little. Figure 14.2(a) shows the energy-momentum curve of an ordinary conductor with seven electrons sitting discreetly in their discrete energy levels. In the absence of an electric held the current from electrons moving to the right is exactly balanced by that from electrons moving to the left. Thus. the net current is zero. When an electric held is applied, all the electrons acquire some extra

And instead of stopping. it uent.

Ogg preceded Cooper by about

decade, but his ideas were put lorward in the language olan experimental chemist,

which is unforgivable. No one believed him, and his suggestion faded into oblivion. This may seem rather unfair

to vou. but that is how contemporary

science works. In every discipline there is a select band of men rvhose ideas are taken up and propagated, so if.vou rvant to invent something great. try to associale

yourselfwith the right kind ofpeople. Do not try to make any contributions to theoretical physics unless you are a trained theoretical physicist, and do not meddle in theology unless you are a
bishop.

momentum, and this is equivalent to shifting the whole distribution in the direction of the electric field, as shown in Fig. 14.2(b). Now what happens rvhen the electric field is removed? Owing to collisions rvith the vibrating lattice, with impurity atoms, or with any other irregulariry, the faster electrons will be scattered into lower energy states until the original distribution is re-established. For our simple model, it means that the electron is scattered from the energy level, a, into energy level, b. In the case of a superconductor, it becomes energetically more favourable for the eiectrons to seek some companionship. Those of opposite momenta (the spins incidentally must also be opposite, pair up to form a new particle called a superconducting electron or, after its discoverer, a Cooper pair.* This link between two electrons is shown in Fig. 14.3(a) by an imaginary mechanical
spring. We may ask now a few questions about our newly bom composite particle. First of all, what is its velocify? The lwo constituents of the particle move