COMPRESSOR-LESS PORTABLE REFRIGERATOR

INTRODUCTION
What is refrigeration? Refrigeration is a process in which work is done to move heat from one location to another. Refrigeration has many applications including but not limited to; household refrigerators, industrial freezers, cryogenics, air conditioning, and heat pumps. Cold is the absence of heat, hence in order to decrease a temperature, one "removes heat", rather than "adding cold." In order to satisfy the Second Law of Thermodynamics, some form of work must be performed to accomplish this. The work is traditionally done by mechanical work but can also be done by magnetism, laser or other means.

Historical applications
Ice harvesting

The use of ice to refrigerate and thus preserve food goes back to prehistoric times. Through the ages, the seasonal harvesting of snow and ice was a regular practice of most of the ancient \ cultures: Chinese, Hebrews, Greeks, Romans, Persians. Ice and snow were stored in caves or dugouts lined with straw or other insulating materials. The Persians stored ice in pits called yakhchals. Rationing of the ice allowed the preservation of foods over the warm periods. This \practice worked well down through the centuries, with icehouses remaining in use into the twentieth century.In the 16th century, the discovery of chemical refrigeration was one of the first steps toward artificial means of refrigeration. Sodium nitrate or potassium nitrate, when added to water, lowered the water temperature and created a sort of refrigeration bath for cooling substances. In Italy, such a solution was used to chill wine and cakes. During the first half of the 19th century, ice harvesting became big business in America. New Englander Frederic Tudor, who became known as the "Ice King", worked on developing better insulation products for the long distance shipment of ice, especially to the tropics. FIRST REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

The first known method of artificial refrigeration was demonstrated by William Cullen at the University of Glasgow in Scotland in 1756. Cullen used a pump to create a partial vacuum over a container of diethyl ether, which then boiled, absorbing heat from the surrounding air. The experiment even created a small amount of ice, but had no practical application at that time. In 1758, Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley, professor of chemistry at Cambridge University, conducted an experiment to explore the principle of evaporation as a means to rapidly cool an object. Franklin and Hadley confirmed that evaporation of highly volatile liquids such as alcohol and ether, could be used to drive down the temperature of an object past the freezing point of water. They conducted their experiment with the bulb of a mercury thermometer as their object and with a bellows used to "quicken" the evaporation; they lowered the temperature of the thermometer bulb down to 7 F (-14 C) while the ambient temperature was 65 F (18 C). Franklin noted that soon after they passed the freezing point of water (32 F) a thin film of ice formed on the surface of the thermometer's bulb and that the ice mass was about a quarter inch thick when they stopped the experiment upon reaching 7 F (-14 C). Franklin concluded, "From this experiment, one may see the possibility of

freezing a man to death on a warm summer's day".

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In 1805, American inventor Oliver Evans designed but never built a refrigeration system based on the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle rather than chemical solutions or volatile liquids such as ethyl ether. In 1820, the British scientist Michael Faraday liquefied ammonia and other gases by using high pressures and low temperatures. An American living in Great Britain, Jacob Perkins, obtained the first patent for a vapor- compression refrigeration system in 1834. Perkins built a prototype system and it actually worked, although it did not succeed commercially. In 1842, an American physician, John Gorrie, designed the first system for refrigerating water to produce ice. He also conceived the idea of using his refrigeration system to cool the air for comfort in homes and hospitals (i.e., air-conditioning). His system compressed air, then partially cooled the hot compressed air with water before allowing it to expand while doing part of the work required to drive the air compressor. That isentropic expansion cooled the air to a temperature low enough to freeze water and produce ice, or to flow "through a pipe for effecting refrigeration otherwise" as stated in his patent granted by the U.S. Patent Office in 1851. Gorrie built a working prototype, but his system was a commercial failure.

Alexander Twining began experimenting with vapor-compression refrigeration in 1848 and obtained patents in 1850 and 1853. He is credited with having initiated commercial refrigeration in the United States by 1856. Dunedin, the first commercially successful refrigerated ship. Meanwhile in Australia, James Harrison began operation of a mechanical ice-making machine in 1851 on the banks of the Barwon River at Rocky Point in Geelong, Victoria. His first commercial ice-making machine followed in 1854 and his patent for an ether liquid-vapour compression refrigeration system was granted in 1855. Harrison introduced commercial vaporcompression refrigeration to breweries and meat packing houses, and by 1861 a dozen of his systems were in operation. Australian, Argentine, and American concerns experimented with refrigerated shipping in the mid 1870s, the first commercial success coming when William Soltau Davidson fitted a compression

refrigeration unit to the New Zealand vessel Dunedin in 1882, leading to a meat and dairy boom in Australasia and South America. J & E Hall of Dartford, England outfitted the 'SS Selembria' with a vapor compression system bring 30,000 carcasses of mutton from the Falkland `Islands in 1886.

The first gas absorption refrigeration system using gaseous ammonia dissolved in water (referred to as "aqua ammonia") was developed by Ferdinand Carr of France in 1859 and patented in 1860. Due to the toxicity of ammonia, such systems were not developed for use in homes, but were used to manufacture ice for sale. In the United States, the consumer public at that time still used the ice box with ice brought in from commercial suppliers, many of whom were still harvesting ice and storing it in an icehouse. Thaddeus Lowe, an American balloonist from the Civil War, had experimented over the years with the properties of gases. One of his mainstay enterprises was the high-volume production of hydrogen gas. He also held several patents on ice making machines. His "Compression Ice
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Machine" would revolutionize the cold storage industry. In 1869 he and other investors purchased an old steamship onto which they loaded one of Lowes refrigeration units and began shipping fresh fruit from New York to the Gulf Coast area, and fresh meat from Galveston, Texas back to New York. Because of Lowes lack of knowledge about shipping, the business was a costly failure, and it was difficult for the public to get used to the idea of being able to consume meat that had been so long out of the packing house. Domestic mechanical refrigerators became available in the United States around 1911.

NEED OF REFRIGERATION 1. Widespread commercial use

Loading blocks of factory-made ice from a truck to an "ice depot" boat in the fishing harbor of Zhuhai, China
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By the 1870s breweries had become the largest users of commercial refrigeration units, though some still relied on harvested ice. Though the ice-harvesting industry had grown immensely by the turn of the 20th century, pollution and sewage had begun to creep into natural ice making it a problem in the metropolitan suburbs. Eventually breweries began to complain of tainted ice. This

raised demand for more modern and consumer-ready refrigeration and ice-making machines. In 1895, German engineer Carl von Linde set up a large-scale process for the production of liquid air and eventually liquid oxygen for use in safe household refrigerators. Refrigerated railroad cars were introduced in the US in the 1840s for the short-run transportation of dairy products. In 1867 J.B. Sutherland of Detroit, Michigan patented the refrigerator car
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designed with ice tanks at either end of the car and ventilator flaps near the floor which would create a gravity draft of cold air through the car. By 1900 the meat packing houses of Chicago had adopted ammonia-cycle commercial refrigeration. By 1914 almost every location used artificial refrigeration. The big meat packers, Armour, Swift, and Wilson, had purchased the most expensive units which they installed on train cars and in branch houses and storage facilities in the more remote distribution areas. It was not until the middle of the 20th century that refrigeration units were designed for installation on tractor-trailer rigs (trucks or lorries). Refrigerated vehicles are used to transport perishable goods, such as frozen foods, fruit and vegetables, and temperature-sensitive chemicals. Most modern refrigerators keep the temperature between -40 and +20 C and have a
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maximum payload of around 24 000 kg. gross weight (in Europe). 2. Home and consumer use With the invention of synthetic refrigerants based mostly on a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) chemical, safer refrigerators were possible for home and consumer use. Freon is a trademark of the Dupont Corporation and refers to these CFC, and later hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) and hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) , refrigerants developed in the late 1920s. These refrigerants were considered at the time to be less harmful than the commonly used refrigerants of the time, including methyl formate, ammonia, methyl chloride, and sulfur dioxide. The intent was to provide refrigeration equipment for home use without danger: these CFC refrigerants answered that need. However, in the 1970s the compounds were found to be reacting with atmospheric

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ozone, an important protection against solar ultraviolet radiation, and their use as a refrigerant

worldwide was curtailed in the Montreal Protocol of 1987.

AIR

COMPRESSOR

An air compressor is a device that converts power (usually from an electric or diesel or gasoline engine) into kinetic energy by pressurizing and compressing air, which is then released in quick bursts. There are numerous methods of air compression, divided into either positivedisplacement or negative-displacement types.

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Positive-displacement air compressors work by forcing air into a chamber whose volume is reduced to effect the compression. Piston-type air compressors use this principle by pumping air into an air chamber through the use of the constant motion of pistons. They use unidirectional valves to guide air into a chamber, where the air is compressed.[1]Rotary screw compressors also use positive-displacement compression by matching two helical screws that, when turned, guide air into a chamber, the volume of which is reduced as the screws turn. Vane compressors use a slotted rotor with varied blade placement to guide air into a chamber and compress the volume.

Negative-displacement air compressors include centrifugal compressors. These devices use centrifugal force generated by a spinning impeller to accelerate and then decelerate captured air, which pressurizes it.

The air compressors seen by the public are used in 5 main applications:

To supply a high-pressure clean air to fill gas cylinders

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To supply a moderate-pressure clean air to supply air to a submerged surface supplied diver

To supply a large amount of moderate-pressure air to power pneumatic tools

For filling tires

To produce large volumes of moderate-pressure air for macroscopic industrial processes (such as oxidation for petroleum coking or cement plant bag house purge systems).

Most air compressors are either reciprocating piston type or rotary vane or rotary screw. Centrifugal compressors are common in very large applications. There are two main types of air compressor's pumps: Oil lubed and oil-less. The oil-less system has more technical development, but they are more expensive, louder and last for less time than the oiled lube pumps. However, the air delivered has better quality.

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GAS COMPRESSOR
A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume.

Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible, while some can be compressed, the main action of a pump is to pressurize and transport liquids.

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TYPES OF COMPRESSORS

The main types of gas compressors are illustrated and discussed below:

Hermetically sealed, open, or semi-hermetic

A small hermetically sealed compressor in a common consumer refrigerator or freezer; it typically has a rounded steel outer shell that is permanently welded shut, and which seals operating gases inside the system. There is no route for gases to leak, such as around motor shaft
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seals. On this model, the plastic top section is part of an auto-defrost system which uses motor heat to evaporate the water.

Compressors are often described as being either open, hermetic, or semihermetic, to describe how the compressor andmotor drive is situated in relation to the gas or vapour being compressed. The industry name for a hermetic ishermetically sealed compressor, while a semi- is commonly called a semi-hermetic compressor.

In hermetic and most semi-hermetic compressors, the compressor and motor driving the compressor are integrated, and operate within the pressurized gas envelope of the system. The motor is designed to operate and be cooled by the gas or vapour being compressed.

The difference between the hermetic and semi-hermetic, is that the hermetic uses a one-piece welded steel casing that cannot be opened for repair; if the hermetic fails it is simply replaced with an entire new unit. A semi-hermetic uses a large cast metal shell with gasketed covers that can be opened to replace motor and pump components.

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The primary advantage of a hermetic and semi-hermetic is that there is no route for the gas to leak out of the system. Open compressors rely on either natural leather or synthetic rubber seals to retain the internal pressure, and these seals require a lubricant such as oil to retain their sealing properties.

An open pressurized system such as an automobile air conditioner can leak its operating gases, if it is not operated frequently enough. Open systems rely on lubricant in the system to splash on pump components and seals. If it is not operated frequently enough, the lubricant on the seals slowly evaporates, and then the seals begin to leak until the system is no longer functional and must be recharged. By comparison, a hermetic system can sit unused for years, and can usually be started up again at any time without requiring maintenance or experiencing any loss of system pressure.

The disadvantage of hermetic compressors is that the motor drive cannot be repaired or maintained, and the entire compressor must be removed if a motor fails. A further disadvantage is that burnt out windings can
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contaminate whole systems requiring the system to be entirely pumped down and the gas replaced. Typically hermetic compressors are used in low-cost factory-assembled consumer goods where the cost of repair is high compared to the value of the device, and it would be more economical to just purchase a new device.

An advantage of open compressors is that they can be driven by nonelectric power sources, such as an internal combustion engine or turbine. However, open compressors that drive refrigeration systems are generally not totally maintenance free throughout the life of the system, since some gas leakage will occur over time.

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

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Figure 1: A single stage centrifugal compressor

Centrifugal compressors use a rotating disk or impeller in a shaped housing to force the gas to the rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity of the gas. A diffuser (divergent duct) section converts the velocity energy to pressure energy. They are primarily used for continuous, stationary service in industries such as oil refineries, chemical and petrochemicalplants and natural gas processing plants. Their application can be from 100 horsepower (75 kW) to thousands of horsepower. With multiple staging, they can achieve extremely high output pressures greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa).

Many large snowmaking operations (like ski resorts) use this type of compressor. They are also used in internal combustion engines as superchargers and turbochargers. Centrifugal compressors are used in small gas turbine enginesor as the final compression stage of medium sized gas turbines. Sometimes the capacity of the compressors is written in NM3/hr. Here 'N' stands for normal temperature pressure (20C and 1 atm ) for example 5500 NM3/hr.
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DIAGONAL OR MIXED-FLOW COMPRESSORS

Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors are similar to centrifugal compressors, but have a radial and axial velocity component at the exit from the rotor. The diffuser is often used to turn diagonal flow to an axial rather than radial direction.

AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS

Axial-flow compressors are dynamic rotating compressors that use arrays of fan-like airfoils to progressively compress the working fluid. They are used where there is a requirement for a high flow rate or a compact design.
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The arrays of airfoils are set in rows, usually as pairs: one rotating and one stationary. The rotating airfoils, also known as blades or rotors, accelerate the fluid. The stationary airfoils, also known as stators or vanes, decelerate and redirect the flow direction of the fluid, preparing it for the rotor blades of the next stage. Axial compressors are almost always multi-staged, with the cross-sectional area of the gas passage diminishing along the compressor to maintain an optimum axial Mach number. Beyond about 5 stages or a 4:1 design pressure ratio, variable geometry is normally used to improve operation.

Axial compressors can have high efficiencies; around 90% polytropic at their design conditions. However, they are relatively expensive, requiring a large number of components, tight tolerances and high quality materials. Axial-flow compressors can be found in medium to large gas turbine engines, in natural gas pumping stations, and within certain chemical plants

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

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A motor-driven six-cylinder reciprocating compressor that can operate with two, four or six cylinders.

Reciprocating compressors use pistons driven by a crankshaft. They can be either stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric motors or internal combustion engines.[1][4][5] Small reciprocating compressors from 5 to 30 horsepower (hp) are commonly seen in automotive applications and are typically for intermittent duty. Larger reciprocating compressors well over 1,000 hp (750 kW) are commonly found in large industrial and petroleum applications. Discharge pressures can range from low pressure to very high pressure (>18000 psi or 180 MPa). In certain applications, such as air compression, multi-stage double-acting compressors are said to be the most efficient compressors available, and are typically larger, and more

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costly than comparable rotary units.[6] Another type of reciprocating compressor is the swash plate compressor, which uses pistons which are moved by a swash plate mounted on a shaft - see Axial Piston Pump.

Household, home workshop, and smaller job site compressors are typically reciprocating compressors 1 hp or less with an attached receiver tank.

Rotary screw compressors

Diagram of a rotary screw compressor

Rotary screw compressors use two meshed rotating positive-displacement helical screws to force the gas into a smaller space. These are usually
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used for continuous operation in commercial and industrial applications and may be either stationary or portable. Their application can be from 3 horsepower (2.2 kW) to over 1,200 horsepower (890 kW) and from low pressure to moderately high pressure (>1,200 psi or 8.3 MPa).

Rotary screw compressors are commercially produced in Oil Flooded, Water Flooded and Dry type.

ROTARY VANE COMPRESSORS

Rotary vane compressors consist of a rotor with a number of blades inserted in radial slots in the rotor. The rotor is mounted offset in a larger housing which can be circular or a more complex shape. As the rotor turns, blades slide in and out of the slots keeping contact with the outer

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wall of the housing. Thus, a series of decreasing volumes is created by the rotating blades. Rotary Vane compressors are, with piston compressors one of the oldest of compressor technologies.

With suitable port connections, the devices may be either a compressor or a vacuum pump. They can be either stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric motors or internal combustion engines. Dry vane machines are used at relatively low pressures (e.g., 2 bar or 200 kPa; 29 psi) for bulk material movement while oil-injected machines have the necessary volumetric efficiency to achieve pressures up to about 13 bar (1,300 kPa; 190 psi) in a single stage. A rotary vane compressor is well suited to electric motor drive and is significantly quieter in operation than the equivalent piston compressor.

Rotary vane compressors can have mechanical efficiencies of about 90%.

SCROLL COMPRESSORS

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Mechanism of a scroll pump

A scroll compressor, also known as scroll pump and scroll vacuum pump, uses two interleaved spiral-like vanes to pump or compress fluids such as liquids and gases. The vane geometry may be involute, archimedean spiral, or hybrid curves. They operate more smoothly, quietly, and reliably than other types of compressors in the lower volume range.

Often, one of the scrolls is fixed, while the other orbits eccentrically without rotating, thereby trapping and pumping or compressing pockets of fluid or gas between the scrolls.

This type of compressor was used as the supercharger on Volkswagen G60 and G40 engines in the early 1990s.

DIAPHRAGM COMPRESSORS

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A diaphragm compressor (also known as a membrane compressor) is a variant of the conventional reciprocating compressor. The compression of gas occurs by the movement of a flexible membrane, instead of an intake element. The back and forth movement of the membrane is driven by a rod and a crankshaft mechanism. Only the membrane and the compressor

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box

come

in

contact

with

the

gas

being

compressed.

The degree of flexing and the material constituting the diaphragm affects the maintenance life of the equipment. Generally stiff metal diaphragms may only displace a few cubic centimeters of volume because the metal can not endure large degrees of flexing without cracking, but the stiffness of a metal diaphragm allows it to pump at high pressures. Rubber or silicone diaphragms are capable of enduring deep pumping strokes of very high flexion, but their low strength limits their use to low-pressure applications, and they need to be replaced as plastic embrittlement occurs.
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Diaphragm compressors are used for hydrogen and compressed natural gas (CNG) as well as in a number of other applications.

A THREE-STAGE DIAPHRAGM COMPRESSOR

The photograph included in this section depicts a three-stage diaphragm compressor used to compress hydrogen gas to 6,000 psi (41 MPa) for use in a prototype compressed hydrogen and compressed natural gas (CNG) fueling station built in downtown Phoenix, Arizona by the Arizona Public Service company (an electric utilities company). Reciprocating compressors were used to compress the natural gas.

The prototype alternative fueling station was built in compliance with all of the prevailing safety, environmental and building codes in Phoenix to demonstrate that such fueling stations could be built in urban areas.

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AIR

BUBBLE

COMPRESSOR

Also known as a trompe. A mixture of air and water generated through turbulence is allowed to fall into a subterranean chamber where the air separates from the water. The weight of falling water compresses the air in the top of the chamber. A submerged outlet from the chamber allows water to flow to the surface at a lower height than the intake. An outlet in the roof of the chamber supplies the compressed air to the surface. A facility on this principal was built on theMontreal River at Ragged Shutes near Cobalt, Ontario in 1910 and supplied 5,000 horsepower to nearby mines. TEMPERATURE

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Compression of a gas naturally increases its temperature, often referred to as the heat of compression

where

so

with n taking different values for different compression processes (see below).

Adiabatic - This model assumes that no energy (heat) is transferred to or from the gas during the compression, and all supplied work is added to the internal energy of the gas, resulting in increases of temperature and pressure. Theoretical temperature rise is[14]: with T1 and T2 in degrees Ran kine or kelvins,

and k = ratio of specific heats (approximately 1.4 for air). Rc is the compression ratio; being the absolute outlet pressure divided by the absolute inlet pressure. The rise in air and temperature ratio means compression does not follow a simple pressure to volume

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ratio. This is less efficient, but quick. Adiabatic compression or expansion more closely model real life when a compressor has good insulation, a large gas volume, or a short time scale (i.e., a high power level). In practice there will always be a certain amount of heat flow out of the compressed gas. Thus, making a perfect adiabatic compressor would require perfect heat insulation of all parts of the machine. For example, even a bicycle tire pump's metal tube becomes hot as you compress the air to fill a tire. The relation between temperature and compression ratio

described above means that the value of n for an adiabatic process is k (the ratio of specific heats).

Isothermal - This model assumes that the compressed gas remains at a constant temperature throughout the compression or expansion process. In this cycle, internal energy is removed from the system as heat at the same rate that it is added by the mechanical work of compression. Isothermal compression or expansion more closely models real life when the compressor has a large heat exchanging surface, a small gas volume, or a long time scale (i.e., a small power level). Compressors that utilize inter-stage cooling between compression stages come closest to achieving perfect isothermal compression. However,
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with practical devices perfect isothermal compression is not attainable. For example, unless you have an infinite number of compression stages with corresponding intercoolers, you will never achieve perfect isothermal compression. For an isothermal process, n is 1, so the value of the work integral for an isothermal process is:

When evaluated, the isothermal work is found to be lower than the adiabatic work.

Polytropic - This model takes into account both a rise in temperature in the gas as well as some loss of energy (heat) to the compressor's components. This assumes that heat may enter or leave the system, and that input shaft work can appear as both increased pressure (usually useful work) and increased temperature above adiabatic (usually losses due to cycle efficiency). Compression efficiency is then the ratio of temperature rise at theoretical 100 percent (adiabatic) vs. actual (polytropic). Polytropic compression will use a value of n between 0 (a constant-pressure process) and infinity (a constant volume process). For the typical case where an effort
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is made to cool the gas compressed by an approximately adiabatic process, the value of n will be between 1 and k.

STAGED COMPRESSION
In the case of centrifugal compressors, commercial designs currently do not exceed a compression ratio of more than a 3.5 to 1 in any one stage (for a typical gas). Since compression generates heat, the compressed gas is to be cooled between stages making the compression less adiabatic and more isothermal. The inter-stage coolers typically result in some partial condensation that is removed in vapor-liquid separators. In the case of small reciprocating compressors, the compressor flywheel may drive a cooling fan that directs ambient air across the intercooler of a two or more stage compressor. Because rotary screw compressors can make use of cooling lubricant to remove the heat of compression, they very often exceed a 9 to 1 compression ratio. For instance, in a typical diving compressor the air is compressed in three stages. If each stage has a compression ratio of 7 to 1, the compressor can output 343 times atmospheric pressure (7 7 7 = 343 atmospheres). (343 atm/34.8 MPa; 5.04 ksi)

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PRIME MOVERS
There are many options for the "prime mover" or motor which powers the compressor:

gas turbines power the axial and centrifugal flow compressors that are part of jet engines

steam

turbines or water

turbines are

possible

for

large

compressors

electric motors are cheap and quiet for static compressors. Small motors suitable for domestic electrical supplies use single phase alternating current. Larger motors can only be used where an industrial electrical three phase alternating current supply is available.

diesel engines or petrol engines are suitable for portable compressors and support compressors. Common in

automobiles and other types of vehicles (including pistonpowered airplanes, boats, trucks, etc.), diesel or gasoline engines can power compressors using their own crankshaft power (this setup known as asupercharger), or, using their waste exhaust gas to spin a turbine connected to the compressor (this setup known as a turbocharger).

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INTRODUCTION

From keeping our veggies fresh, to storing our favorite ice creams and juices, refrigerators have become essential for modern day living. The first refrigerators, so to say, were built as ice houses. These buildings consisted of man-made underground chambers, which were built close to natural sources of winter ice such as freshwater lakes. During winter, this ice and snow would be packed into the ice house along with straw or sawdust that was used for insulation. The ice house kept the ice intact for several months on end, even through summer. Many countries claim to be the home of the refrigerator. Over the years, refrigerator technology has evolved in leaps and bounds. One of the first home refrigeration units was installed at Biltmore Estate in North Carolina in around 1895. That same year, the first commercial refrigeration unit was opened by the Vestey Brothers in London. Modern day refrigerators primarily work on electric power, although some of the older models use gas as a source of energy. Today, a
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domestic refrigerator is present in 99.5% of American homes. It works using phase change heat pumps operating in a refrigeration cycle. An industrial refrigerator is simply a refrigerator used in an industrial setting, usually in a restaurant or supermarket where large quantities of food stocks are stored. They may consist of a cooling compartment (a larger refrigerator), a freezing

compartment (a freezer) or both. The dual compartment was introduced commercially by General Electric in 1939. Some refrigerators are now divided into four zones for the storage of different types of food at different temperature.

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Conventional cooling systems Refrigerators or air conditioners rely on the properties of gases to cool and most systems use the change in density of gases at changing pressures to cool. The coolants commonly used are either harmful to people or the environment. Freon, one of the fluorochlorocarbons banned because of the damage it did to the ozone layer, was the most commonly used refrigerant. Now, a variety of coolants is available. Nevertheless, all have problems and require energy-eating compressors and lots of heating coils.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

LIST of Components 1. 2. 3. 4. Insulating box DC Battery Aluminum Container Selector Switch

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5. 6. 7.

Exhaust Fan AC power Supply Pelteir Junction Apparatus

Material used for insulation The material used for the assembly components deserves careful thought. The heat sink and cold side mounting surface should be made out of materials that have a high thermal conductivity (i.e., copper or aluminum) to promote heat transfer.

However, insulation and assembly hardware should be made of materials that have low thermal conductivity (i.e., polyurethane foam and stainless steel) to reduce heat loss.

Environmental concerns such as humidity and condensation on the cold side can be alleviated by using proper sealing methods. A perimeter seal (Figure 4) protects the couples from contact with water or gases, eliminating corrosion and thermal and electrical shorts that can damage the thermoelectric module.
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Materials used to built thermocouples. Silicon, Bismuth, Nickel ,Cobalt ,Palladium, Platinum, Uranium, Copper, Manganese, Titanium, Mercury, Lead , Tin, Chromium, Molybdenum ,Rhodinium ,Iridium ,Gold ,Silver,

Aluminum, Zinc, Tungsten, Cadmium Iron, Arsenic, Tellurium, Germanium Theoretical Principle PELTIER EFFECT The thermoelectric refrigerator works on the PELTIER effect that The PeltierSeebeck effect, or thermoelectric effect, is the direct conversion of thermal differentials to electric voltage and vice versa. Related effects are the Thomson effect and Joule heating. The PeltierSeebeck and Thomson effects are reversible (in fact, the Peltier and Seebeck effects are reversals of one another); Joule heating cannot be reversible under the laws of

thermodynamics.

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Seebeck effect

The Seebeck effect is the conversion of temperature differences directly into electricity. This effect was first discovered, accidentally, by the German physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck in 1821, who found that a voltage existed between two ends of a metal bar when a temperature difference T existed in the bar. The effect is that a voltage, the thermoelectric EMF, is created in the presence of a temperature difference between two different metals or semiconductors. This causes a continuous current to flow in the conductors if they form a complete loop. The voltage created is of the order of several microvolt per degree difference.

THERMO-ELECTRIC COOLING
Thermoelectric coolers are solid state heat pumps used in applications where temperature stabilization, temperature cycling, or cooling below ambient are required. There are many products using thermoelectric coolers, including CCD cameras (charge coupled device), laser diodes, microprocessors, blood analyzers and portable picnic coolers.
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The typical thermoelectric module is manufactured using two thin ceramic wafers with a series of P and N doped bismuthtelluride semiconductor material sandwiched between them The N type material has an excess of electrons, while the P type material has a deficit of electrons. One P and one N make up a couple, as shown in Figure 1. The thermoelectric couples are electrically in series and thermally in parallel. A thermoelectric module can contain one to several hundred couples. Designing of thermal emf refrigeration Th = Tamb + (O) *(Qh) where TH=The temperature of hot side Tamb=The ambient temperature O=thermal resistance of heat exch Qh=heat realeased heat released to the hot side of the thermoelectric (watts). Qh = Qc + Pin Where

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Qh = the heat released to the hot side of the thermoelectric (watts). Qc = the heat absorbed from the cold side (watts). Pin = the electrical input power to the thermoelectric (watts). The temperature difference across the thermoelectric (T) relates to Th and Tc according to Equation T = Th Tc The thermoelectric performance curves in Figures 2 and 3 show the relationship between T and the other parameters. Estimating Qc, the heat load in watts absorbed from the cold side is difficult, because all thermal loads in the design must be considered. Among these thermal loads are: Active: I2R heat load from the electronic devices Any load generated by a chemical reaction Passive: Radiation (heat loss between two close objects with different temperatures) Convection (heat loss through the air, where the air has a different temperature than the object)

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Insulation Losses
Conduction Losses (heat loss through leads, screws, etc.) Transient Load (time required to change the temperature of an object) As the thermoelectric operates, the current flowing through it has two effects: (1) the Peltier Effect (cooling) and (2) the Joulian Effect (heating). We know that joulian effect is proportional to the squire of the current so heating effect will dominates the cooling effect that why we can not increase the current to a maximum value called Imax for themoelectric. The thermal resistance of the heat sink causes a temperature rise above ambient. If the thermal resistance of the heat sink is unknown, then estimates of acceptable temperature rise above ambient are: Natural Convection20C to 40C Forced Convection10C to 15C Liquid Cooling2C to 5C (rise above the liquid coolant temperature)

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As we have done our design on a Melcor thermoelectric . The specifications for the are(these specifications are at Th = 25C): 1. 2. 3. 4. Qmax = 51.4 watts Vmax = 15.4 volts Imax = 6.0 amps Tmax = 67C

To determine if this thermoelectric is appropriate for this application, it must be shown that the parameters T and Qc are within the boundaries of the performance curves. 5. Our main aim to maintain the temperature of container 5C which

contain 16 litres of air in 0.5minute. we know 1000litres =1m3 16 litres=0.016 m3 density of air=1.293 kg/m3. mass of air =0.016*1.293=0.020688kg specific heat of air=1kJ/Kgk As Q=m*s*(th-tc)=0.020688*1000*(35-5)=620.64 J

this is maintain in 0.5minutes so

46

Required power=620.64/(0.5*60)=22 watts (As we assume that the ambient temperature Tamb=25c the rise in the temperature due to sink resistance is 10c So final temperature will be =25+10=35c)

Performance Curve (T vs. Qc) Performance Curve (T vs. Voltage ) So by the graph maximum current = 3.6amp . Corresponding voltage by graph between temperature and voltage Voltage=10v Now we will determine the corresponding value of temperature by these values of current and voltage. We know that the temperature at hot side Th = Tamb + (O) *(Qh) Value of heat released at hot side

47

Qh = Qc + Pin Now Pin that is the input power to produce this effect is Pin=V*I V=10volt I=3.6amp Pin=10*3.6=36watt And Qh=Qc+Pin =22+36 =58 watts And Th= Tc +Rcon*Qh

Now the temperature is also rise due to its convective resistance , we assume that the convective resistance of the sink is 0.15C So Th=25+0.15*58=33.7C

The calculated Th is close enough to the original estimate of Th, to conclude that the CP1.4-127-06L thermoelectric will work in the given application

SINGLE STAGE VS. MULTISTAGE

48

Given the hot side temperature, the cold side temperature and the heat load, a suitable thermoelectric can be chosen. If T across the thermoelectric is less than 55C, then a single stage thermoelectric is sufficient. The theoretical maximum temperature difference for a single stage thermoelectric is between 65C and 70C. If T is greater than 55C, then a multistage thermoelectric should be considered. A multistage thermoelectric achieves a high T by stacking as many as six or seven single stage thermoelectric on top of each other.

TEMPERATURE
Compression of a gas naturally increases its temperature, often referred to as the heat of compression. Where so with n taking different values for different compression processes (see below). Adiabatic - This model assumes that no energy (heat) is transferred to or from the gas during the compression, and all supplied work is added to the internal energy of the gas, resulting in increases of temperature and pressure. Theoretical temperature rise is with T1 and T2 in degrees Rankine or kelvins, and k = ratio of specific heats (approximately 1.4 for air). Rc is the compression ratio; being the absolute outlet pressure divided by the absolute inlet pressure. The rise in air and temperature ratio means compression does not follow a simple
49

pressure to volume ratio. This is less efficient, but quick. Adiabatic compression or expansion more closely model real life when a compressor has good insulation, a large gas volume, or a short time scale (i.e., a high power level). In practice there will always be a certain amount of heat flow out of the compressed gas. Thus, making a perfect adiabatic compressor would require perfect heat insulation of all parts of the machine. For example, even a bicycle tire pump's metal tube becomes hot as you compress the air to fill a tire. The relation between temperature and compression ratio described above means that the value of n for an adiabatic process is k (the ratio of specific heats). Isothermal - This model assumes that the compressed gas remains at a constant temperature throughout the compression or expansion process. In this cycle, internal energy is removed from the system as heat at the same rate that it is added by the mechanical work of compression. Isothermal compression or expansion more closely models real life when the compressor has a large heat exchanging surface, a small gas volume, or a long time scale (i.e., a small power level). Compressors that utilize inter-stage cooling between compression stages come closest to achieving perfect isothermal compression. However, with practical devices perfect isothermal compression is not attainable. For example, unless you have
50

an infinite number of compression stages with

corresponding

intercoolers, you will never achieve perfect isothermal compression. For an isothermal process, n is 1, so the value of the work integral for an isothermal process is: When evaluated, the isothermal work is found to be lower than the adiabatic work. Polytropic - This model takes into account both a rise in temperature in the gas as well as some loss of energy (heat) to the compressor's components. This assumes that heat may enter or leave the system, and that input shaft work can appear as both increased pressure (usually useful work) and increased temperature above adiabatic (usually losses due to cycle efficiency). Compression efficiency is then the ratio of temperature rise at theoretical 100 percent (adiabatic) vs. actual (polytropic). Polytropic compression will use a value of n between 0 (a constant-pressure process) and infinity (a constant volume process). For the typical case where an effort is made to cool the gas compressed by an approximately adiabatic process, the value of n will be between 1 and k.

STAGED COMPRESSION
In the case of centrifugal compressors, commercial designs currently do not exceed a compression ratio of more than a 3.5 to 1 in any one stage (for a typical gas). Since compression generates heat, the compressed gas
51

is to be cooled between stages making the compression less adiabatic and more isothermal. The inter-stage coolers typically result in some partial condensation that is removed in vapor-liquid separators. In the case of small reciprocating compressors, the compressor flywheel may drive a cooling fan that directs ambient air across the intercooler of a two or more stage compressor. Because rotary screw compressors can make use of cooling lubricant to remove the heat of compression, they very often exceed a 9 to 1 compression ratio. For instance, in a typical diving compressor the air is compressed in three stages. If each stage has a compression ratio of 7 to 1, the compressor can output 343 times atmospheric pressure (7 7 7 = 343 atmospheres). (343 atm/34.8 MPa; 5.04 ksi)

PRIME MOVERS
There are many options for the "prime mover" or motor which powers the compressor: gas turbines power the axial and centrifugal flow compressors that are part of jet engines steam turbines or water turbines are possible for large compressors

52

electric motors are cheap and quiet for static compressors. Small motors suitable for domestic electrical supplies use single phase alternating current. Larger motors can only be used where an industrial electrical three phase alternating current supply is available. diesel engines or petrol engines are suitable for portable compressors and support compressors. Common in automobiles and other types of vehicles (including piston-powered airplanes, boats, trucks, etc.), diesel or gasoline engines can power compressors using their own crankshaft power (this setup known as asupercharger), or, using their waste exhaust gas to spin a turbine connected to the compressor (this setup known as a turbocharger).

INTRODUCTION
From keeping our veggies fresh, to storing our favorite ice creams and juices, refrigerators have become essential for modern day living. The first refrigerators, so to say, were built as ice houses. These buildings consisted of man-made underground chambers, which were built close to natural sources of winter ice such as freshwater lakes. During winter, this ice and snow would be packed into the ice house along with straw or sawdust that was used for insulation. The ice house kept the ice intact for several months on end, even through summer.
53

Many countries claim to be the home of the refrigerator. Over the years, refrigerator technology has evolved in leaps and bounds. One of the first home refrigeration units was installed at Biltmore Estate in North Carolina in around 1895. That same year, the first commercial refrigeration unit was opened by the Vestey Brothers in London. Modern day refrigerators primarily work on electric power, although some of the older models use gas as a source of energy. Today, a domestic refrigerator is present in 99.5% of American homes. It works using phase change heat pumps operating in a refrigeration cycle. An industrial refrigerator is simply a refrigerator used in an industrial setting, usually in a restaurant or supermarket where large quantities of food stocks are stored. They may consist of a cooling compartment (a larger refrigerator), a freezing compartment (a freezer) or both. The dual compartment was introduced commercially by General Electric in 1939. Some refrigerators are now divided into four zones for the storage of different types of food at different temperature.

CONVENTIONAL COOLING SYSTEMS

Refrigerators or air conditioners rely on the properties of gases to cool and most systems use the change in density of gases at changing pressures to cool. The coolants commonly used are either harmful to
54

people or the environment. Freon, one of the fluorochlorocarbons banned because of the damage it did to the ozone layer, was the most commonly used refrigerant. Now, a variety of coolants is available. Nevertheless, all have problems and require energy-eating compressors and lots of heating coils.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

55

LIST of Components 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Insulating box DC Battery Aluminum Container Selector Switch Exhaust Fan AC power Supply
56

7.

Pelteir Junction Apparatus

MATERIAL USED FOR INSULATION

The material used for the assembly components deserves careful thought. The heat sink and cold side mounting surface should be made out of materials that have a high thermal conductivity (i.e., copper or aluminum) to promote heat transfer. However, insulation and assembly hardware should be made of materials that have low thermal conductivity (i.e., polyurethane foam and stainless steel) to reduce heat loss. Environmental concerns such as humidity and condensation on the cold side can be alleviated by using proper sealing methods. A perimeter seal (Figure 4) protects the couples from contact with water or gases, eliminating corrosion and thermal and electrical shorts that can damage the thermoelectric module.

Materials used to built thermocouples.

57

Silicon, Bismuth, Nickel ,Cobalt ,Palladium, Platinum, Uranium, Copper, Manganese, Titanium, Mercury, Lead , Tin, Chromium, Molybdenum ,Rhodinium ,Iridium ,Gold ,Silver, Aluminum, Zinc, Tungsten, Cadmium Iron, Arsenic, Tellurium, Germanium

THEORETICAL PRINCIPLE
58

PELTIER EFFECT

The thermoelectric refrigerator works on the PELTIER effect that The PeltierSeebeck effect, or thermoelectric effect, is the direct conversion of thermal differentials to electric voltage and vice versa. Related effects are the Thomson effect and Joule heating. The PeltierSeebeck and Thomson effects are reversible (in fact, the Peltier and Seebeck effects are reversals of one another); Joule heating cannot be reversible under the laws of thermodynamics.

SEEBECK EFFECT
59

The Seebeck effect is the conversion of temperature differences directly into electricity. This effect was first discovered, accidentally, by the German physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck in 1821, who found that a voltage existed between two ends of a metal bar when a temperature difference T existed in the bar. The effect is that a voltage, the thermoelectric EMF, is created in the presence of a temperature difference between two different metals or semiconductors. This causes a continuous current to flow in the conductors if they form a complete loop. The voltage created is of the order of several microvolt per degree difference.

THERMO-ELECTRIC COOLING
Thermoelectric coolers are solid state heat pumps used in applications where temperature stabilization, temperature cycling, or cooling below ambient are required.
60

There are many products using thermoelectric coolers, including CCD cameras (charge coupled device), laser diodes, microprocessors, blood analyzers and portable picnic coolers. The typical thermoelectric module is manufactured using two thin ceramic wafers with a series of P and N doped bismuth-telluride semiconductor material sandwiched between them The N type material has an excess of electrons, while the P type material has a deficit of electrons. One P and one N make up a couple, as shown in Figure 1. The thermoelectric couples are electrically in series and thermally in parallel. A thermoelectric module can contain one to several hundred couples.

Designing of thermal emf refrigeration

61

Th = Tamb + (O) *(Qh) where TH=The temperature of hot side Tamb=The ambient temperature O=thermal resistance of heat exch Qh=heat realeased heat released to the hot side of the thermoelectric (watts). Qh = Qc + Pin Where Qh = the heat released to the hot side of the thermoelectric (watts). Qc = the heat absorbed from the cold side (watts). Pin = the electrical input power to the thermoelectric (watts). The temperature difference across the thermoelectric (T) relates to Th and Tc according to Equation T = Th Tc The thermoelectric performance curves in Figures 2 and 3 show the relationship between T and the other parameters.
62

Estimating Qc, the heat load in watts absorbed from the cold side is difficult, because all thermal loads in the design must be considered. Among these thermal loads are: Active: I2R heat load from the electronic devices Any load generated by a chemical reaction Passive: Radiation (heat loss between two close objects with different temperatures) Convection (heat loss through the air, where the air has a different temperature than the object)

Insulation Losses
Conduction Losses (heat loss through leads, screws, etc.) Transient Load (time required to change the temperature of an object) As the thermoelectric operates, the current flowing through it has two effects: (1) the Peltier Effect (cooling) and (2) the Joulian Effect (heating). We know that joulian effect is proportional to the squire of the current so heating effect will dominates the cooling effect that why we
63

can not increase the current to a maximum value called Imax for themoelectric. The thermal resistance of the heat sink causes a temperature rise above ambient. If the thermal resistance of the heat sink is unknown, then estimates of acceptable temperature rise above ambient are: Natural Convection20C to 40C Forced Convection10C to 15C Liquid Cooling2C to 5C (rise above the liquid coolant temperature) As we have done our design on a Melcor thermoelectric . The specifications for the are(these specifications are at Th = 25C): 1. 2. 3. 4. Qmax = 51.4 watts Vmax = 15.4 volts Imax = 6.0 amps Tmax = 67C

To determine if this thermoelectric is appropriate for this application, it must be shown that the parameters T and Qc are within the boundaries of the performance curves.

64

5.

Our main aim to maintain the temperature of container 5C which

contain 16 litres of air in 0.5minute. we know 1000litres =1m3 16 litres=0.016 m3 density of air=1.293 kg/m3. mass of air =0.016*1.293=0.020688kg specific heat of air=1kJ/Kgk As Q=m*s*(th-tc)=0.020688*1000*(35-5)=620.64 J

this is maintain in 0.5minutes so Required power=620.64/(0.5*60)=22 watts (As we assume that the ambient temperature Tamb=25c the rise in the temperature due to sink resistance is 10c So final temperature will be =25+10=35c) Performance Curve (T vs. Qc)

65

Performance Curve (T vs. Voltage )

So by the graph maximum current = 3.6amp . Corresponding voltage by graph between temperature and voltage Voltage=10v

66

Now we will determine the corresponding value of temperature by these values of current and voltage. We know that the temperature at hot side Th = Tamb + (O) *(Qh) Value of heat released at hot side Qh = Qc + Pin Now Pin that is the input power to produce this effect is Pin=V*I V=10volt I=3.6amp Pin=10*3.6=36watt And Qh=Qc+Pin =22+36 =58 watts And Th= Tc +Rcon*Qh

Now the temperature is also rise due to its convective resistance , we assume that the convective resistance of the sink is 0.15C

67

So

Th=25+0.15*58=33.7C

The calculated Th is close enough to the original estimate of Th, to conclude that the CP1.4-127-06L thermoelectric will work in the given application

SINGLE STAGE VS. MULTISTAGE

Given the hot side temperature, the cold side temperature and the heat load, a suitable thermoelectric can be chosen. If T across the thermoelectric is less than 55C, then a single stage thermoelectric is sufficient. The theoretical maximum temperature difference for a single stage thermoelectric is between 65C and 70C. If T is greater than 55C, then a multistage thermoelectric should be considered. A multistage thermoelectric achieves a high T by stacking as many as six or seven single stage thermoelectric on top of each other.

APPLICATIONS

1. 2.

Domestic Household Refrigerator Commercial Cold Storage

68

3. 4.

Cooling Tower of Nuclear Power Plant Small size ice boxes in vehicles

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
1. Ferro electric polymers polarpolymers include poly(vinylidene and poly(vinylidene fluoride-

fluoride-trifluoroethylene)

trifluoroethylene)-chlorofluoroethylene. 2. 3. Magnetic field refrigeration, but electricity is more convenient. Flat panel refrigerator.

REFERENCES
1. Qiming Zhang, distinguished professor of electrical engineering

Penn State researchers. 2. 3. Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/253045 The U.S. Department of Energy.
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