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Artikel - Amyotrofische Neuritis - de Patiënt Vleugellam
Artikel - Amyotrofische Neuritis - de Patiënt Vleugellam
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TABEL 2. Kenmerken van II patienten met amyolrofische neuritis
bovenste plexus brachialis (denervatie in M. flexor carpi tie van kazernes in die regio's. Twee patienten waren
radialis en M. biceps brachii; patient K); bij [ N. thoraci werkzaam op dezelfde kazerne. In de literatuur varieert
cus longus-mononeuritis en aantasting van de onderste de man-vrouwverhouding tussen 2:[ en 4:1. 1•3 Amyotrofi
plexus brachialis (denervatie in M. abductor pollicis bre sche neuritis betreft meestal ge"isoleerde gevallen, alhoe
vis; patient D); bij I neuritis van de N. phrenicus gecom weI een familiaire vorm werd beschreven. 15 16 In onze pa
bineerd met een van de ramus anterior van de truncus tientengroep bevonden zich 2 broers die 2 maanden na
superior (re"innervatie M. flexor carpi radialis en ver elkaar amyotrofische neuritis kregen aan dezelfde
lengde H-reflex van N. medianus) en onderste plexus schouder (patienten A en L). Zij woonden niet in het
brachialis (denervatie in M. interosseus dorsalis I; pa zelfde huis.
tient C). Bij Sill patienlen was er denervatie aantoon Voor de differentiaaldiagnose moeten twee fasen van
baar; daarvan wordt de frequentie in de literatuur wisse de ziekte worden onderscheiden. Tijdens de pijnfase,
lend opgegeven (25-9 8 %).3 12 voordat er paresen ontstaan, komen lokale schouder
Over de incidentie van amyotrofische neuritis wordt afwijkingen in aanmerking (zaals bursitis en frozen
in de literaluur geen duidelijke opgave gedaan. In het shoulder), aandoeningen met gerefereerde pijn (galblaas
verleden zijn 2 onderzaeken gepubliceerd, waarin een of leveraandoeningen, myocardinfarct), radiculaire pijn
epidemische vorm van de aandoening wordl suggereerd, door cervicale hernia nuclei pulposi of cervicale spondy
zander dat een verwekker kon worden geYsoleerd.l.1l. De lose bij ouderen, en thoracic outlet-syndroom. De pijn
geografische verspreiding van onze patienten laat een bij amyotrofische neuritis kan sterk lijken op de uitstra
clustering in Midden- en Zuidwest-Nederland zien, lende pijn bij een cervicaal radiculair syndroom. Bij een
waarschijnlijk voornamelijk bepaald door de concentra radiculair syndroom verlopen de verschijnselen mono-
zenuwwortel. Het routinematig vervaardigen van een 2 Tsairis P. Dyck PJ. Mulder DW. Natural history of brachial plexus
rontgenfoto van de cervicale wervelkolom is onder de neuropalhy. Report on 99 patients. Arch Neurol 1972: 21' 109-17.
leeftijd van 40 jaar niet zinvoLJ 3 Tonali P. Uncini A. Di Pasqua PG. So-called neuralgic amyotrophy:
clinical features and long term follow-up. Ital J Neurol Sci 1983: 4:
Wanneer eenmaal paralyse is opgetreden, dient amyo
43 1-7.
trofische neuritis te worden onderscheiden van spinale , Parsonage MJ. Turner JW A. Neuralgic amyotrophy. The shoulder
spieratrofie en van poliomyelitis (bij risicogroepen). AI girdle syndrome. Lancet t948: i: 973-8.
onze patienten waren gevaccineerd tegen poliomyelitis. 5 Spillane JD. Localized neuritis of the shoulder girdle. Lancet 1943;
toond. Liquoronderzoek Iijkt aileen aangewezen wan nosis and a clinical with electromyographic study of 21 cases. Aust
NZ J Med [980; 10: 188-91.
neer er vermoeden van infectie met B. burgdOlferi be 13 Wyburn-Mason RK. Brachial neuritis occurring in epidemic form.
staat. Lancet 1941; ii: 662-3.
De prognose bij amyotrofische neuritis is goed. Spon 14 Barbos V. Somodska V. Epidemiologic study of a brachial plexus
taan herstel treedt bij het overgrote deel van de patien neuritis outbreak in northeast Czechoslovakia. World Neurol [96[;
ten op: na I jaar is 60% volledig hersteld en na 2 jaar 2: 973-9.
15 Geiger LR, Mancall EL, Penn AS, Tucker SH. Familial neuralgic
80%;2 restafwij kingen worden gevonden bij ongeveer amyotrophy. Report of [hree families with review of the literature.
14%. Recidieven van amyotrofische neuritis zijn zeld Brain 1974: 91' 87- 102.
zaam (5%). Van onze 11 patienten verbeterde de ge 16 Martinelli P, Pazzaglia P, Marchiori L, Lugaresi E. Simultaneous oc
currence of neuralgic amyo[rophy in three members 01 one family.
zondheid bij 3 spontaan (patient C na I jaar; patient E na Eur Neurol t980; 19: 316-9.
7 maanden; patient F na 2 jaar; zie tabel 2) en tot nu toe
bij I patient gedeeltelijk (patient Ana 3 maanden).
Voor amyotrofische neuritis is nog geen causale thera Aanvaard op 5 augustus 1993
pie bekend. Adequate pijnstilling is vaak noodzakelijk in
het eerste stadium. Wanneer zich paresen hebben ont
wikkeld, is fysiotherapie ter voorkoming van contractu
ren te overwegen. Van behandeling met corticostero'j
den is nimmer aangetoond dat deze het herstel bevor Bladvulling
dert of de uitkomst verbetert. 3
De dokler en de ziekle
Dames en Heren, met deze ziektegeschiedenissen heb En welk was nu het grondbeginsel door Hygieia voorgestaan en
ben wij u het klinische beeld van amyotrofische neuritis door haar alom verkondigd? Dit: door onreinheid en vervuiling
wordt de mensch aan al1erlei ziekten blootgesteld, niet het
willen schetsen. Het herkennen van dit ziektebeeld is be minst aan epidemische. In de steden inzonderheid was het wa
langrijk teneinde overbodig onderzoek te voorkomen en ter verontreinigd, dat men dronk; de bodem vervuild, waarop
de patient gerust te kunnen stellen waar het de prognose men tiep; de lucht bedorven, die men inademde. De faecalien
voor het herstel van de verlamming betreft. Tevens wil werden door de bewoners in hun huizen zorgvuldig bewaard,
len wij benadrukken dat het ziektebeeld sterk kan Iijken en uit deze stegen schadelijke gassen op, die op den duur, zij het
op cervicale hernia nuclei pulposi of Lyme-ziekte en dat ook in geringe hoeveelheden ingeademd, tot typheuse en an
bij twijfel gericht aanvullend onderzoek dient plaats te dere koortsen moesten aanleiding geven. Vervuiling del' huizen
vinden. in de achterbuurten gaf aanleiding tot het enorm hooge sterfte
cijfer, dat die buurten opleverden, vanwaar uit verder allerlei
soart van meststoffen zich over de betere gedeelten del' steden
Wij danken mw.A.L.Emmelot-Lamaison en mw.H.M.C.Have verspreidden. En aan epidemieen van welken aard ook werd
laar-Schepers, klinisch-neurofysiologisch laboranten, voor hun zoodoende het voedsel in ruime mate geleverd, dat zij tot haar
medewerking bij het verrichten van de klinisch-neurofysiologi ontwikkeling en voortbestaan noodig hadden.
sche onderzoeken en prof.dr.F.G.l.Jennekens, neuroloog, voor
her kririsch doorlezen van her manuscript. (Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 1894; 38 II: 1013.)
JAMES W. RUSSELL
ANTHONY J. WINDEBANK
INTRODUCTION
The brachial and lumbar plexuses are susceptible to a variety of injuries. The
most frequent form of brachial plexus neuropathy is the idiopathic form,
which is presumed to be inflammatory in type. This chapter will deal with the
natural history and pathophysiology of this condition.
forearm - - - - - - - - - - - ..1/
tetanus toxoid, and swine flu vaccinations (Weintraub and Chia, 1977), and
a variety of antibacterial serums no longer in medical use (Hughes, 1944). In
Medial cutaneous nerve of arm'
one case, 18 days after administration of antitetanus serum, myasthenic
symptoms developed in conjunction with the brachial plexus palsy (Ionescu
Figure I. The anatomical relations of the brachial plexus. showing its main components. trunks. Drinea et aI, 1973). This was not associated with generalized serum sickness
divisions. cords. and terminal nerves.
and recovery of the myasthenia preceded that of the brachial plexus neur
opathy. This suggests that a common, but fairly selective, immunogenic
response was induced by administration of the serum. In contrast the
Epidemiology response to rubella vaccination is more generalized, affecting the brachial
and lumbar plexuses, roots, nerves and joints and occurs after a mean of 25
Many of the estimates of incidence of brachial plexus neuropathy are based days (Gilmartin et aI, 1972).
on cases presenting to military hospitals during World War II. A more Epidemics of acute brachial plexus neuropathy have been observed
realistic incidence in civilian practice is provided by a study from Olmsted (Wyburn-Mason, 1941; Bardos and Somodska, 1961). In a Czechoslovakian
County, Minnesota between 1970 and 1981. The estimated annual incidence outbreak, brachial plexus neuropathy, following a flu-like illness, was more
was 1.64/100000 population (Beghi et ai, 1985). The condition appears to be likely to occur in workers in crowded conditions with poor hygienic stan
more common in men than women by a ratio ranging from 1.6: 1 to 3.75: 1 dards. These workers used knitting machines which required long hours of
(Wyburn-Mason, 1941; James and Miles, 1966; Tsairis et aI, 1972; Favero et repetitive stretching of the arm (Bardos and Somodska, 1961). The brachial
al, 1987). It affects all ages from infants to the elderly, but is more common plexus neuropathy may have been due to two factors; the immunologically
in young to middle aged adults (Tsairis et aI, 1972). Acute brachial plexus mediated susceptibility to nerve injury and prolonged, repetitive mechan
neuropathy is bilateral in 15-34% of cases (Spillane 1943; Turner, 1944; ical trauma. In some cases brachial plexus neuropathy has followed local
James and Miles, 1966; Tsairis et aI, 1972), more common on the right in injection of non serum-containing medications (Spillane, 1943), or intra
54% (Tsairis et aI, 1972) to 95% (Foo and Swann, 1983) of unilateral cases, venous infusions of medications like cytarabine (Scherokman et ai, 1985),
and according to one series, more common on the left in 53% (James and and drugs such as impure heroin (Challenor et ai, 1973). It therefore appears
Miles. 1966) of unilateral cases. Dominant handedness does not influence that many agents may act as non-specific stimuli to a selective reaction
the affected side (Tsairis et aI, 1972). Recurrence of neuritis occurs in against the brachial plexus.
":1 177
>,!, BRACHIAL AND LUMBAR NEUROPATHIES
176 1. W. RUSSELL AND A. 1. WINDEBANK
for biopsy in the acute stage, and the difficulty in performing even a fascicu
]
~~
lar biopsy without inducing further injury. A further problem, limiting the
usefulness of brachial plexus biopsy, is obtaining material from an affected
area, since the process tends to be patchy. In one of our own cases, a
fascicular biopsy of the plexus was performed 2 months after onset, with
intraoperative electrophysiological monitoring on affected segments. The
biopsy showed a few individual perivascular, epineurial, mononuclear cells,
surrounding small arterioles and venules. The vessel walls were preserved
and little evidence of demyelination or axonal degeneration was seen on
teased fibre preparations or upon embedded semithin sections (Windebank,
1984).
More convincing examples of inflammation in the brachial plexus were
described by Cusimano et al (1988). Polyclonal mononuclear cell infiltrates,
comprising lymphocytes, histiocytes, plasma cells and macrophages, were
seen around endoneurial vessels and scattered between nerve fibres in the
endoneurium (Figure 2). Endoneurial oedema was observed. Some affected
veins also showed mural infiltration. Onion-bulb formation was frequent.
Focal necrosis of endoneurial capillaries was seen on electron microscopy.
Onion-bulb formation around demyelinated axons, with mononuclear cell
infiltrates between the Schwann cell processes, were observed. Both
patients were atypical for acute brachial plexus neuropathy, in having a
protracted course, several recurrences of symptoms, and a supraclavicular
mass. They did not appear however to be familial, or to have an underlying
connective tissue disorder and pathologically were unlike a perineuroma or
neurofibroma. It is therefore likely that the pathology observed, possibly
'l
represents the changes occurring in acute inflammatory brachial plexus
neuropathy. Biopsies of a cutaneous branch of the radial nerve in patients
with severe plexus involvement, have shown profound axonal degeneration
and atrophy (Tsairis et ai, 1972).
Treatment
Treatment in acute brachial plexus neuropathy is aimed at controlling pain
in the acute phase and enhancing functional recovery of the weak limb in the
chronic phase. Steroids are of use during the acute phase to help control
pain, but there is no evidence that they speed recovery of the neurological
lesion or reduce the final disability (Tsairis et ai, 1972). There is often a
dramatic decrease in the pain when high dose prednisone (40-60 mg p.o.) is
given, and once the pain has been satisfactorily suppressed, the dose can be
tapered by IOmg every 3 days, or more slowly if there is recurrence of the
pain. Steroid administration should only be required for up to 3 weeks.
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents administered every 4-6 hours, with
Figure 2. Cross-section of nerve fascicles removed from the brachial plexus of two patients with
recurrent brachial plexus neuropathy. (A) Diffuse mononuclear cell infiltration and oedema in or without a narcotic analgesic, such as codeine 30-60 mg, are useful as
the endoneurium (H&E x 21). (8) Infiltration of an endoneuria I vessel wall hy mononuclear substitutes for steroids, or may be introduced once the steroids have been
cells. with disruption of wall structural elements (H&E x 1\3). (C) Electron micrograph discontinued. Use should be limited to the duration of significant pain.
indicating focal necrosis of an endoneuria I vessel wall. There is disruption of the endothelium Adequate pain control is also advantageous because it encourages early
(arrow). and accumulation of necrotic debris in the perivascular space (x 52(0). From
Cusimano ct al (191\1\). with permission mobilization of the limb, and helps prevent contracture formation, which in
itself may cause pain. Most patients find that movement of the limb worsens
182 J. W. RUSSELL AND A. J. WINDEBANK BRACHIAL AND LUMBAR NEUROPATHIES 183
the pain, and therefore tend to immobilize the arm in an adducted position. lesions may take up to 3 years to achieve normal function. There was a 90%
In selected severe cases, an arm sling may lessen the pain, reduce the chance probability of complete recovery after 3 years. Those with residual neuro
of humeral subluxation when there is severe shoulder girdle weakness and logical findings usually had very mild deficits not likely to cause significant
may prevent injury if the limb is flailed. The disadvantage of the sling, is that functional impairment (Tsairis et ai, 1972). Other series support this favour
it prevents early mobilization, thus increasing the chance of limb oedema able prognosis, with nine of 11 patients, followed for 68 months, recovering
and contractures developing. Physiotherapy does not appear to increase the completely orwith minor residual symptoms (Beghi et ai, 1985), and 93% of
rate of recovery (Tsairis et aI, 1972), but is useful in preserving optimal 38 patients having a favourable prognosis (James and Miles, 1966). Gen
function of the affected limb. The patient with brachial plexus neuropathy erally factors which adversely affect recovery are: (i) involvement of the
should be carefully instructed by a skilled physiotherapist, should perform lower or whole brachial plexus; (ii) bilateral brachial plexus lesions; (iii)
range of motion exercises at least twice a day, and understand how to involvement of the anterior or posterior interosseus nerve; (iv) prolonged
.:
position the limb to prevent dependent oedema. Usually sensory loss is of and severe pain, or recurrence of the pain; (v) onset in childhood (Turner
secondary concern, compared to the weakness. However, those patients and Parsonage, 1957; Magee and Dejong, 1960; Tsairis et ai, 1972; Bale et
with hand insensitivity, should be warned of the increased risk of injury from ai, 1979; Mumenthaler et ai, 1984). Brachial plexus neuropathy may recur,
daily trauma, pressure and burns. often many years after the original event. The recurrence may occur in the
same limb or the contralateral side. Isairis et al ~ found only a 5% 't--
Prognosis
recurrence of pain and weakness, and this wasnb -as severe as the initial
event. In one series of 39 patients, there was a 14% incidence of recurrence
The prognosis for non-traumatic brachial plexus neuropathy is generally (Favero et ai, 1987). Recurrence is more common in patients with inherited
very good. In one large series the rate of recovery was 36% 1 year after onset plexus neuropathy (Windebank, 199)). .
of the disorder and 89% after 3 years (Figure 3). Generally patients with
.- !\
upper plexus lesions (60% recovery at 1 year) did far better than those with
lower plexus lesions (0% recovery at 1 year). Those with lower plexus LUMnQSACRAL PLEXUS NEUROPATHY
'.
100
This disord is in many ways a counterpart to acute idiopathic brachial
plexus neuropa y, but is less well characterized than the latter disorder.
Nothing is known bout the incidence of lumbosacral plexus neuropathy.
, "JD (2) This is due to several asons, including its relative infrequency compared to
(1)
801- (13) / / ....... (1)
acute brachial plexus n ropathy, and the difficulty distinguishing some
§
>.
.0
60 Unilateral ]V:, . . . . .
cases from other disorders ffecting the plexus or nerve root. The patho
cases - logical changes in the idiopa ic form of lumbosacral plexus neuropathy
~
(1)
> remain to be elucidated. "
o 60 "
--
(j
~
"0 Anatomy of the lumbosacral plexus
g 24 Bilateral cases '.
The lumbar plexus arises from the anterior p~imary rami of lumbar roots L1
:g
.0
40
to L3, the greater part of L4, and receives a brartch from T12 (Figure 4). The
ea. plexus lies within the posterior part of the psoas major. There are various
"0
2 anatomical variations, but the following branc~es of the plexus are
til
.~ 20
described. The iliohypogastric nerve arises from Ll with a component of
(;;
T12; the ilioinguinal nerve from the upper branch of L1; the genitofemoral
w
nerve from the lower branch of Ll and a branch of L2; the obturator from
the anterior branches of L2-L4; the lateral cutaneous nerve of the thigh
from posterior branches of L2 and L3; and the femoral from the posterior
2 3 4
branches of L2-L4. The lumbosacral trunk comprises the portion of the
Years after onset anterior ramus of L4 and the whole of the anterior ramus of L5. The sacral
Figure 3. Recovery rates in patients with unilateral and bilateral brachial plexus neuropathy,
plexus is an anatomical extension of the lumbar plexus (Figure 4). It is
followed from time of onset. The number of patients in parentheses are those who had not fully formed from the lumbosacral trunk, the anterior rami of 51-53, and part of
recovered but were still under observation. From Tsairis et al (1972), with permission. the ventral ramus of 54. The union of the anterior divisions of lumbosacral