PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY IN THE ABHIDHARMA

HERBERT V. GUENTHER

M O T I L A L B A N A R S ID A S S P U B L IS H E R S PVT. LTD . D ELH I

Second Revised Edition: Delhi, 1974 R eprinted: Delhi, 1991

M O T I L A L B A N A R S ID A S S P U B L IS H E R S PV T. L T D . ALL RIGHTS RESERVED IS B N : 8 1 -2 0 8 -0 7 7 3 -1

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PRINTED IN IN D IA BY JAINENDRA PRAKASH IA IN AT SH RI JAINENDRA PRESS, A -4 5 NARAINA IN D U STRIA L AREA, PHASE I, NEW D ELH I 1 1 0 0 2 8 AND PUBLISHED BY NARENDRA PRAKASH JA IN FOR MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. L T D ., BUNGALOW RO AD , JAW AHAR N A O A R, D E L H I 1 1 0 0 0 7

To Josep h E . C an n

T h e tit l e P h ilo s o p h y a n d P s y c h o lo g y in th e A b h i d h a r m a o u tlin e s th e s c o p e o f th is b o o k . I t a t t e m p t s to d e a l w ith p h ilo s o p h y a s th e p e r e n n i a l q u e s t fo r m e a n i n g a n d w i t h p sy c h o lo g y a s th e a b s t r a c t u n d e r s t a n d i n g b y w h ic h m a n is e n g a g e d in c o m p r e h e n d in g h im s e lf, as p r e s e n te d i n th e v a s t l i t e r a t u r e o f th e A b h i d h a r m a . I t d o e s n o t c la im to d e a l w i t h th e w h o le o f A b h i d h a r m a l i t e r a t u r e . S u c h a n a t t e m p t w o u ld g o f a r b e y o n d t h e c a p a c i t y o f a s in g le in d iv id u a l. T h e r e f o r e o n ly th o s e to p ic s w h ic h s e e m to h a v e s p e c ia l s ig n if ic a n c e h a v e b e e n s e le c te d . I n r e s tr ic t i n g m y s e lf to a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f p h ilo s o p h ic a l a n d p s y c h o lo g ic a l p r o b le m s in t h e A b h i d h a r m a , I h a v e c h o s e n t h r e e a u th o r s o f o u t s t a n d i n g m e r i t , e a c h o f th e m b e lo n g in g to a d if f e r e n t sc h o o l o f B u d d h is m . T h e y a r e : th e a u t h o r o f th e A t t h a s a lin l, w h o g o es b y th e n a m e o f B u d d h a g h o s a a n d w h o r e p r e s e n ts t h e T h e r a v a d a v ie w ; V a s u b a n d h u , a u t h o r o f t h e A b h id h a r m a - k o S a , e x a m in in g a n d r e v ie w in g t h e S a r v a s t i v a d a - V a i b h a s ik a v ie w fro m th e S a u t r a n t i k a s t a n d p o i n t ; a n d A s a n g a , a u t h o r o f th e A b h id h a rm a s a m u c c a y a , p ro p o u n d in g th e V ijn a n a v a d a (Y o g a c a ra ) v ie w . I n c o n n e x io n w it h th e m I h a v e m e n t io n e d s u c h d e ta ils fr o m o t h e r a u th o r s a s h a v e v a lu e o n a c c o u n t o f s o m e illu s tr a tiv e q u a lity . E v e n in im p o s in g s u c h a r e s t r i c t i o n u p o n m y s e lf I h a d to c o m p r o m is e a t e v e r y t u r n . I a m f u lly a w a r e o f t h e fa c t t h a t m u c h w o u ld h a v e d e s e r v e d a m o r e d e t a i l e d t r e a t m e n t a n d th a t m u c h m o r e m i g h t h a v e b e e n i n c lu d e d . N e v e r th e le s s I b e lie v e a n d h o p e t h a t n o t h i n g o f i m p o r t a n c e h a s b e e n le ft o u t. S in c e m y p r i m a r y i n t e r e s t h a s b e e n p h ilo s o p h y a n d p s y c h o lo g y , in d e a lin g w i t h t h e A b h i d h a r m a l i t e r a t u r e I h a v e c o n s ta n tly t r i e d to fin d o u t f r o m th e o r ig i n a l te x ts w h a t th e a u t h o r s th e m s e lv e s h a d to s a y a n d I h a v e in t e n t i o n a l l y r e f r a in e d fro m d is c u s s in g o p in io n s a b o u t th e A b h i d h a r m a ; th e s e m a y b e q u ite in te r e s t in g t ( a n d s o m e tim e s h ig h ly a m u s in g ) a s f a r a s th e y re fle ct th e a t t i t u d e s o f th o s e l e a r n e d m e n w h o h a v e h e ld th e m , b u t th e y a r e n o t t h e p h ilo s o p h y o f th e A b h i d h a r m a . I h a v e alw a y s a t t e m p t e d to p u t w h a t se e m s to m e to b e th e f u n d a m e n t a l m e a n in g i n m o d e r n te r m s a n d a s p la u s ib le a s p o s s ib le . A n y c ritiq u e

o f th e view s o f th e v a rio u s a u th o r s e ith e r follow s th e a rg u m e n ts o f th e c r itic iz in g r iv a l sch o o l o f B u d d h ism o r is m a d e fro m th e fo ru m o f th e M a d h y a m ik a p h ilo s o p h y w h ic h u p to th e p re s e n t d a y h a s k e p t p h ilo s o p h y as a q u e s t fo r m e a n in g a liv e a n d h as p re v e n te d th is g ig a n tic ta sk fro m d e g e n e r a tin g in to sp iritless fo rm a lis m . I h a v e to th a n k m y frie n d J o s e p h E . C a n n , w h o se n a m e a p p e a r s o n th e d e d ic a tio n p a g e , fo r h is a p p re c ia tiv e c ritic ism o f a n d c o n s ta n t in te r e s t in m y w o rk w h ic h ow es its o rig in to h is s u g g e stio n to w rite o n B u d d h is t p h ilo s o p h y fro m a B u d d h ist p o in t o f view . U n f a ilin g h e lp a n d in s p ira tio n h a s b e e n g iv e n m e b y m y w ife w h o m in p a r t i c u l a r I h a v e to th a n k fo r th e p r e p a r a tio n o f th e in d e x . M y th a n k s a r e also d u e to R e v . G . P r a jn a n a n d a , R e s id e n t B h ik sh u o f th e B u d d h a V ih a r a , L u c k n o w , fo r h is c o n s ta n t e n c o u ra g e m e n t. L a s t n o t le a s t, I a m g re a tly in d e b te d to M rs . I r e n e B. H u d s o n , M .D ., fo r h e r g e n e ro sity w h ic h h a s m a d e it p o ssib le t h a t a b o o k o n p h ilo s o p h y as a g u id e to a w a y o f life sees th e lig h t o f th e w o rld w h ic h o n th e w h o le is p r e ju d ic e d a g a in s t p h ilo s o p h y b e c a u s e o f som e c o n te m p o ra ry m is c o n c e p tio n s a b o u t th e n a tu r e a n d fu n c tio n o f p h ilo s o p h y . Lucknow University 1957 D r. H .V .G .

T h is b o o k h a s b e e n o u t o f p r i n t fo r se v e ra l y e a rs . A s th e re h a s b e e n a g ro w in g d e m a n d a m o n g sc h o la rs a n d s tu d e n ts fo r a r e p r i n t , th is is n o w b e in g issu ed w ith th e e n c o u ra g e m e n t a n d a t th e in s tig a tio n o f M essrs. M o tila l B a n a rsid a ss, th e w e ll-k n o w n p u b lis h in g h o u se o f I n d o lo g ic a l s tu d ie s. M y sin c e re th a n k s a r e d u e to th e m . I n th is e d itio n I h a v e n o t o n ly c o r re c te d th e m a n y m is p r in ts o f th e first e d itio n , b u t h a v e a lso c la rifie d p o in ts o f im p o r ta n c e b y r e p h r a s in g o r re w r itin g a n u m b e r o f p a ra g ra p h s . T h e r e p r i n t , th e re fo re , is v ir tu a lly a n e w e d itio n . H .V .G .

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Page
PREFA CE I. IN T R O D U C T IO N A b h id h a rm a : I ts M e a n in g I I . M IN D A N D IT S STA TES 4 15 30 48 88 95 v ii

and

Scope

T h e Im p o rta n c e o f a H e a lth y A ttitu d e P e r c e p tio n a n d A p p e r c e p t i o n C o n c o m it a n t F u n c tio n - E v e n ts in a n A t t i t u d e I C o n c o m i ta n t F u n c t io n - E v e n t s f in a n A t t i t u d e I I U n h e a l t h y A t t it u d e s C o n c lu s io n III. M E D IT A T IO N W o r ld lin e s s a n d G e s t a l t u n g > T h e D if f e r e n c e s in T e m p e r a m e n t T h e T o t a l i ti e s a n d M e d i t a t i o n T h e I n f i n i tu d e s M a s te r ie s a n d F r e e d p m s C o n c lu s io n T H E IN T E R P R E T A T IO N O F T H E W O R L D W E L IV E IN T h e W o r ld a s w e p e r c e iv e i t T h e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e P e r c e iv e d W o r ld A to m s a n d S t r u c t u r e C o n c lu s io n

97 101 116 126 134 141

IV .

144 163 181 189

V . T H E PA TH T h e W ay O u t T h e T h e r a v a d a C o n c e p tio n o f th e P a t h T h e V a i b h a s i k a C o n c e p tio n o f th e P a t h T h e V i j n a n a v a d a C o n c e p tio n o f th e P a t h C o n c lu s io n V I. IN D E X V II. TABLES A F

191 195 215 233 246 249 261

IN T R O D U C T IO N
A B H ID H A R M A : IT S M E A N IN G A N D S C O P E T h r o u g h o u t th e v a r y in g p h a s e s o f its h is to r ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t , B u d d h is t p h ilo s o p h y h a s u n m is ta k a b ly p r e s e rv e d c e r ta in tr a its w h ic h a t t h e o u ts e t f o r m e d t h e v e r y life f o rc e o f B u d d h is t th o u g h t a n d w h ic h s till v ita lly c o n c e r n us a s a tr u l y s p ir itu a l fo rc e . T h e s e a r e t h e e m p h a s is o n i m m e d ia te e x p e r ie n c e a n d th e r e je c tio n o f e v e r y th in g t h a t m i g h t m a k e u s lo se w h a t is e s s e n tia l in o u r d e a lin g s w i t h t h e p r o b le m s o f life . F o r b y s u c h a loss w e a r e a t o n c e e n ta n g le d in a ll s o rts o f s p e c u la tio n s a n d a r g u m e n ts a b o u t s o m e th in g w h ic h h a s n o lo n g e r a n y p r a c t i c a l m e a n in g f o r h u m a n life . T h e v e r y f a c t t h a t n o a m o u n t o f d is c u rs iv e r e a s o n in g w ill e v e r c o n v e y t h a t w h ic h m u s t b e e x p e r ie n c e d w ith in o u rs e lv e s a n d w h ic h th e r e f o r e is a ls o k n o w n q u i t e in d e p e n d e n tly o f lo g ic a l m e th o d , m a y b e g a t h e r e d fro m th e le g e n d a r y h is to r y o f th e o r ig in o f t h e A b h i d h a r m a w h ic h th e B u d d h a is s a id to h a v e firs t re v e a le d w h ile r e s id in g i n th e h e a v e n o f th e T a v a tim s a g o d s .1 T h e w o r ld o f g o d s a n d w h a t is c o m m o n ly c a lle d th e d i v i n e is e s s e n tia lly a s y m b o lic e x p re s s io n o f th e f a c t t h a t in te r e s t a n d a t t e n t i o n h a v e b e e n d r a w n a w a y f r o m th e s u rfa c e o f s e n s u o u s o b je c ts a n d h a v e b e e n d ir e c te d to w a r d th e w ith in , th e b a c k g r o u n d a n d s o u rc e o f a l l th in g s . T h e tr a n s c e n d e n c y o f th e w o r ld o f g o d s is d u e to t h e f a c t t h a t o u r sen ses d e liv e r o n ly sp e c ific , lim ite d a n d d e t e r m i n a t e d a t a w ith in s o m e th in g in d e t e r m i n a t e a n d u n lim ite d , w h ic h p r e c is e ly b e c a u s e o f its in d e te r m in a te n e s s a n d o f its g o in g b e y o n d th e n a r r o w s c o p e o f m e r e i n te lle c tu a l j u d g m e n ts is so e m o tio n a lly m o v in g , So s p ir itu a lly q u ic k e n in g , t h a t a d e e p se n se o f r e v e r e n c e fo r th e s a n c t i t y o f a ll t h a t e x ists is in s tille d in u s. I t is a s f a r a s o u r m e c h a n is tic l a n g u a g e d e v ic e s a llo w to d e p ic t i t a h e ig h te n e d se n se o f r e a lity . A n d t h a t w h ic h le a d s to th is h e ig h te n e d sen se o f r e a li t y , b e c a u s e t h e fa c ts t h a t a r e r i g h t h e r e h a v e b e e n p o in te d o u t to u s to g e th e r w it h th e p o s s ib ilitie s a n d p o te n tia litie s th e y
i. A tthasalini I 76. See also I 1, 2 sqq. and I 36 where the Buddha is said to have revealed the Abhidharm a for the benefit o f his mother.

offer in p r a c tic a l liv in g a n d in th e fo rm a tio n o f c h a ra c te r , is la id d o w n in th e A b h id h a r m a . F o r th is re a so n th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i, w h o goes b y th e n a m e o f B u d d h a g h o sa , in fo rm s us th a t it is c a lle d A b h id h a m m a , b e c a u se it excels in a n d is d istin g u ish e d b y se v e ra l q u a litie s .1 T h e se ex ce lle n t q u a litie s w h ic h m a k e th e A b h id h a r m a r a n k fo rem o st in B u d d h is t lite r a tu r e , a re , a c c o rd in g to A sarig a, fo u r: b e in g face to fa c e w ith th e h ig h e st g o a l a n d th e n a tu r e o f R e a lity (abhimukha ) ; th e te a c h in g o f th e n e c e ssa ry step s to b e ta k e n fo r th e a t t a i n m e n t o f th e g o a l a n d p re s e n tin g th e m fro m v a rio u s v ie w p o in ts ( abkikfna ) ; its s ta n d in g a b o v e th e p e tty c o n tro v e rsies a b o u t th e n a tu r e o f R e a lity a n d its c a p a c ity to c o m e to a d e fin ite a n sw e r (abhibhava); a n d p e n e tr a tio n in to th e d e e p e r im p o rt o f th e B u d d h a s te a c h in g s (abhigati ) . 2 I n d e e d , it is th ro u g h o u r c o n te m p la tio n a n d o u r ta k in g in w ith o n e sin g le g la n c e th e w h o le o f th e n a tu r e o f th in g s, t h a t to g e th e r w ith th is h e ig h te n e d sense o f r e a lity a m o re in te n se e m o tio n a l sa tisfa c tio n a n d s ta b ility is a c h ie v e d . A s th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i in fo rm s u s : T h o s e w h o stu d y th e A b h i d h a m m a lite r a tu r e e x p e rie n c e u n e n d in g jo y a n d se re n ity o f m in d 3. B u t w h ile m o st m e n a r e c o n te n t w ith m e re ly lo o k in g a t th e su rfa c e o f th in g s a n d , in s te a d o f se a rc h in g fo r th e essence o f th in g s a n d th e re b y w id e n in g th e ir h o riz o n , confine th em selv es to th e n a rro w e s t p la n e o f m e a n n e ss a n d p re ju d ic e d
1. Atthasalini I a ; evam eva ayam p i dhammo dhammatireka-ahammavisesatfkena abhidhammo ti vuccati. In I I I 488 the Abhidhamma is said to be the instruction in the ultimate nature of things abhidhammo nama paramatthadesana The ultimate way of explanation (nippariyayadesana) is also mentioned as the outstanding quality o f the Abhidham m a in I 3; I I I 304; 484; 486; 488. It is because o f the idea that the Abhidhamma is o f highest importance that the author in this passage tries to harmonize the meanings o f the pre positions abhi- and ati-. In I 49, however, he makes use o f the preposition abhi- only, and the four qualities he mentions look like a dim recollection of Asangas four qualities in Mahayana-Sutralankara X I 3. The relation o f the Abhidharma to ultimate reality (paramartha) is also expressed in Abhidharmakosavyakhya I p. 10. 2. Mahayana-Sutralankara X I 3: abhimukhato thabhikfnyad abhibhavagatito bhidharmaS ca. Each point has found its detailed explanation in the commentary, the gist o f which has been incorporated in the quotation above. 3 Atthasalini I 27 ; Abhidhammatantipaccaiekkhantanam anantcm p itisomanossam uppajjati. '"*

ness, i t is fo r th o se w h o w a n t to rise a b o v e th e le v el o f th e c o m m o n p la c e a n d a b o v e th e lim ita tio n s se t u p b y m e re reaso n a n d its s ta n d a rd iz e d c o n v e n tio n s, to look in to th e v ery essence o f e x isten ce a n d o f R e a lity . As a m a tte r o f fa c t, it w as b y th o ro u g h ly k n o w in g th e n a tu r e o f th in g s, n o t m e re ly from th e b lin d in g g litte r o f th e o u te r su rfa c e b u t fro m th e ir illu m in a t in g glow fro m w ith in , th a t th e p r in c e o f th e S a k y a c la n b e c a m e T h e B u d d h a , T h e E n lig h te n e d O n e T h e S u p rem e ly E n lig h te n e d O n e w as th e first to k n o w th e A b h id h a m m a . W h ile sittin g u n d e r th e B o d h i-tre e H e p e n e tr a te d th e A b h id h a m m a . H e b e c a m e T h e B u d d h a . . 1. F u rth e rm o re , T h e A b h id h a m m a is th e sp h e re o f th e o m n isc ie n t B u d d h a s, b u t n o t th e sp h e re o f o th e rs .2 I n o th e r w ords, first w e h a v e to a p p re h e n d w ith im m e d ia c y a n d fin d th e a n s w e r to th e p ro b le m s o f life for o u rselv es, a fte rw a rd s w e m a y sp eak a b o u t th a t w h ic h w e h a v e seen a n d w h ich w e h a v e fo u n d , i f i t sh ould still b e necessary to sp eak . T h u s th e A b h id h a rm a , h o w ev e r d r y its p re se n ta tio n in a h ig h ly te c h n ic a l la n g u a g e m a y a p p e a r to us a t first s ig h t, a im s a t n o th in g less th a n to o p e n m a n s eyes to th a t w h ich is n o t s p e c u la tiv e ly a rriv e d a t b y th e lo g ic al m e th o d o f h y p o th esis a n d d e d u c tiv e v e rific a tio n , b u t w h ic h c a n b e im m e d ia te ly a p p r e h e n d e d a n d is a p p lic a b le to o urselves.

1. Atthasalini I 44 : Sammasambuddho va patham aram Abhidhummiko. So h i 11am mahabodh'tpallanke nisiditm p a tu ijjh i ; buddho hutrd.... 2. Atthasalini I 73: Abhidhammo namo esa sabbannubuddhanam yeva visayo na aiinesam visayo. See also V I 2.

MIND AND ITS STATES

(citta-caitta) T H E IM P O R T A N C E O F A H E A L T H Y A T T IT U D E T h is in sisten ce o n im m e d ia te e x p e rie n c e a n d o n im m e d ia te ly g ra s p in g th e fa c ts t h a t a r e r ig h t h e re in fro n t o f u s, n e c e ssa rily stresses a n d e v a lu a te s th e p re s e n t m o m e n t, th o u g h n o t as v a lu a b le fo r its o w n sake, b u t in so fa r as it fu n c tio n s a s a c o n d u it to th a t w h ic h in a ll its in e x h a u stib le a n d o v e rw h e lm in g ric h n e ss w ill o n ly b e a tta in e d , m o st in tim a te ly felt a n d k n o w n , in E n lig h te n m e n t. I t c e rta in ly w ill n o t d o to c a s t o n e s eyes in to th e h e a v e n s fo r it a n d id ly sc a n th e endlessness o f a d u b io u s fu tu re , n o r w ill it d o to b ro o d self-accu sin g ly o v e r th e b e g in n in g less p a s t. T h e o n e is as useless a n d w e m a y say, as m o rb id as th e o th e r. W e h a v e to d e a l w ith th e p ro b le m s o f th e p re s e n t as th e y a rise , a n d in o r d e r to d o so w e m u st b e a le r t a n d efficient. I t is, th e re fo re , n o t to b e w o n d e re d a t th a t th e first b o o k o f th e P a li A b h id h a m m a , th e D h a m m a s a rig a n l, b egins w ith th e sig n ific an t a n d m e a n in g fu l w o rd s, W h e n a h e a lth y conscious a ttitu d e , b e lo n g in g to th e w o rld o f sensuous re la te d n e ss, a c c o m p a n ie d b y a n d p e rm e a te d w ith se re n ity , a n d a sso c ia te d a n d lin k e d u p w ith k n o w led g e, h a s a r i s e n . . . . 5,1 I n this s ta te m e n t a c e r ta in co nscious a ttitu d e h a s b ee n specified w ith re sp e c t to a c e rta in o ccasio n a n d th e o ccasio n , in its tu r n , h a s b e e n specified b y a c e rta in co n scio u s a ttitu d e , fo r a n a ttitu d e is th e e n d p r o d u c t o f a ll fa c to rs w h ic h c a n h a v e a n in flu en ce o n , a n d in this w a y , c a n p ro d u c e c e rta in p sy ch ic o p e ra tio n s ( effects ), w h ile a t th e sam e tim e th e a ttitu d e , th u s g ro u p -p a tte rn e d w ill e ith e r d e te rm in e a n a c tio n in th is o r t h a t d e fin ite d ire c tio n , o r w ill c o m p re h e n d a stim u lu s in th is o r t h a t d e fin ite w a y . A c c o rd in g to th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a sa lin i th e little w o rd w h e n (yasm im samaye ) is full o f m e a n in g .
I. Dhammasangani, ed. P.V . Bapat and R .D . Vadekar, p. 21 :yasmim samaye kamavacaram knsalam cittam uppannam hoti somanassasahagatam nanasampayuttam.

F ir s t o f a ll it p o in ts to th e to ta lity o f c irc u m sta n c es a n d condi' tions fa v o u rin g a n d p ro d u c in g a d e fin ite o p e ra tio n ( effect ' (samavqya), th e n it d e n o te s th e u n iq u e o p p o rtu n ity (o f g ra sp in g th e se c re t o f a ll ex isten ce) (kkana),1 fu rth e rm o re il d e sig n a te s th e m o m e n ta rin e ss o f a n y g iv e n m o m e n t o r situation (ka la ), th e n it h in ts a t th e sim u lta n e o u s c o -o p e ra tio n o f m any o th e r p sy ch ic fu n ctio n s (sam uha), a n d fin ally it show s th e in te r d e p e n d e n c e a n d in te rre la te d n e s s o f e v e ry th in g in v o lv e d (hetu ) .s A ll th e se factors w h ic h a re th u s p re s e n t a n d effective are called dharma. T h e m e a n in g o f dharma is as follow s: T hey b e a r th e ir in trin sic n a tu re , o r th e y a r e su p p o rte d b y conditions, o r th e y a r e su p p o rte d ac c o rd in g to th e ir in trin sic n a tu r e .3 H o w e v e r, a ll these facto rs o r dharmas a re so e n tirely d e p e n d e n t u p o n th e in n u m e ra b le c o n d itio n s th a t in n o w a y can th e y o r w ill th e y r e ta in th e ir in d iv id u a lity a b o v e all co n d itio n s, h e n c e th e y a re c a lle d h a v in g n o in d iv id u a lity o f th e ir o w n ( nissattanijjivata ) .4 T h e sensuousness o f th e im m e d ia te situ a tio n w ith its d isp la y o f all th e e n tic e m e n ts o f th e w o rld a n d th e incessant d issip a tio n o f m in d in, th e p ro d ig a l v a rie ty o f th e w o rld , is clearly p o in te d o u t in th e a b o v e d e fin itio n o f a n a ttitu d e b y the a ttr i b u te b e lo n g in g to th e w o rld o f sen su o u s re la te d n e ss (kdmavacnra). B y this te rm is e n co m p assed th e w hole ra n g e b etw een th e low est h e ll, c a lle d A v ici, a n d th e h ig h e st h e a v e n , th e heaven

1. T he unique opportunity (ksana), which is essentially the human status, has been much insisted upon in Mahayana writings. See for instance Bodhicaryavatara I 4 and the commentary. 2. Atthasalini II I 14 sqq. 3. Atthasalini II 10; attano pana sabhauam dhdrenii ti dhatnmd, dhdriyatit vd paccayehi, dhariyanti vdyathasabhavato ti dhammd. T he first part of this definition is also met with in the Prasannapada, p. 304 : Svalaksartadhdrandrthena. Abhidharmakosa I 4 : In Visuddhhnagga V I I I 2 46 Buddhaghosa treats dharma and svabhdva as synonymous : dhamma ti sabhdvd. 4. Atthasalini II 9. The translation o f these terms by without a soul, found in most European translations, is silly. Whether a thing has a soul or not may have been a problem for Christian Fathers and apologetians. It certainly has never been a Buddhist problem, since Buddhism did not share a duaiistic view. What is colloquially termed body and soul is on the same level o f transitoriness. O nly the ultimate is permanent and even beyond permanence,

o f th e P a ra n irm ita v a s a v a rtin gods. I t m a y so u n d stra n g e to o u r m o d e rn e n lig h te n e d ears th a t th e w o rld o f sensuousness n o t o n ly com prises th e w o rld o f m e n , p la n ts, a n d an im a ls, b u t also th e w o rld o f g hosts a n d g ods. H o w ev er, it should n o t b e fo rg o tte n th a t a n a b s tra c t id e a , su ch a s god o r d em o n , a t least w e n o w ad ay s try to co n ceiv e th e m as a n a b s tra c t id e a is n o t a r b itr a r ily h y p o sta tiz e d a n d tra n s p la n te d in to a w o rld o f th e beyond^ b u t th a t w h ic h is c a lle d h e a v e n o r h e ll is essentially th e te rm for th e p sy ch ic re v e rb e ra tio n o f stro n g ly em o tio n a lly to n e d ex p erien ces w h ic h , w h e n th e y a p p e a r re p ro d u c e d , a r e so sensuous th a t w e a c tu a lly see o r feel th e m . T h e re is ab so lu te ly n o re a so n to d e rid e th e fact th a t w e m a y a t a n y tim e ex p erience fo r ourselves th e to rm e n tin g p a in s o f h ell a n d th e all-surpassing bliss o f h eav en . W e W ould o n ly c o m m it a g ra v e fa u lt i f w e ig n o re d th e sym bolic c h a ra c te r o f such term s as h e a v e n a n d h e ll a n d tra n sfe rre d a m e re lin g u istic d ev ice to th e re a lm o f m e ta physics. H o w ev er, this sensuous realism c o n ta in s a g ra v e d a n g e r, fo r it im p lies th e id e n tity o f th e o b je c t w ith th e em o tio n o f th e m o m e n t w h ic h , o f co u rse, d estroys o r a t least g re a tly c u rta ils th e possib ility o f c o g n itio n . T h is th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i has c le a rly b r o u g h t o u t in e x p la in in g th e te rm w orld o f sensuous re la te d n e ss. H e states th a t sensuous re lated n ess (kam a ) is tw ofold: o b je c t a n d em o tio n . E m o tio n m ean s passio n a te desire, a n d o b je c t m e a n s th e trip le re a lm o f existence (i.e ., th e hells, th e h u m a n w o rld , a n d th e h e a v e n s ). E m o tio n is spoken o f h e re , b ecau se it p a ssio n a tely desires, a n d object is sp o k en o f h e re , b ecau se i t is p a ssio n a te ly d e sire d .1 T h e id e n tity o f th e e m o tio n w ith th e o b je c t, as p o in te d o u t b y th e co m p re h e n siv e te rm sensuous re la te d n e ss {kama), im p lies th a t a n y o b je c t w h a tso e v e r c a n h a v e a n effect o n th e in d iv id u a l to a n y d e g re e a n d th a t a n y so rt o f e m o tio n o n th e p a r t o f th e in d iv id u a l im m e d ia te ly v io lates th e o b jec t. S uch a m e n ta lity w h ich m a y b e called a u to e ro tic , b ecau se th e in d iv id u a l loves h im se lf in a n d th ro u g h th e o b je c t, is a serious h a n d ic a p a n d c e rta in ly c a n n o t b e c alled a h e a lth y a n d d e x te ro u s a ttitu d e ,
I. Atthasalini III 26 : udddnato due kama vatthukSmo ca kilesakamo. tattha kilesakamo atthato chandarago vd, vatthukSmo tebhumahavatfami kilesakamo c'ettha kdmeti ti kamo, itaro kamiyati ti. This latter explanation o f kama is also found with Yasomitra, comment ing on Abhidharmakosa I II 3 : kamah, kdmyate neneti kama iti kjlva.

h e n c e th e in sisten ce o n th e h e a lth in e ss o f a ttitu d e in th e A b h i d h a r m a lite ra tu re . A lth o u g h h e a lth in e ss is th e fu n d a m e n ta l a n d m ost o u t sta n d in g q u a lity , y e t th e te n * h e a lth y (kusala ) com prises still o th e r c o n n o ta tio n s w h ic h evolve o u t o f th e b asic h e a lth in e ss o f a n a ttitu d e . T h e s e q u a litie s a r e faultlessness, 'efficiency, a n d p ro d u c tio n o f h a p p y re s u lts.1 T h e a u th o r o f th e A tth a salin i gives q u ite a lo n g e x p la n a tio n o f th is te rm h e a lth y {kusala), w h ich is n o t w ith o u t in te re st. H e says th a t those fac to rs o p e ra t in g a t a p a r tic u la r m o m e n t a re c a lle d kusala, b ecause th ey m a k e b a se factors tre m b le , shake, b e u p set, a n d fin a lly be a b o lished. O r , th e w o rd kusa m e a n s th o se facto rs w h ic h lie in a n in d iv id u a l in a b a se fo rm a n d th e te rm kusala h a s th e m e a n in g o f c h o p p in g off, c u ttin g o ff th o se b a se fa c to rs w h ich a re called u n h e a lth y {akusala). O r , kusa is a n o th e r w o rd fo r know ledge, b ec a u se i t c u rta ils, re d u c e s, a n d e ra d ic a te s th a t w h ic h is base, a n d kusala is th a t w h ic h sh o u ld b e g ra sp e d a n d a c tiv a te d , since it is to b e taken, h o ld o f b y th is k n o w led g e. O r , ju s t as th e kusa grass cu ts a n y p a r t o f th e h a n d w ith b o th edges o f its b la d e, so also it cu ts th e em o tio n s b o th in th e ir a c tu a l m a n ife sta tio n a n d in th e ir la te n t p o te n tia lity ; a n d th e re fo re kusala is so called , b e c a u se lik e th e k u sa g rass it cu ts o ff th a t w h ic h is b a s e .2
I Atthasalini II 8 : kusalasaddo tava drogydnavajjacckekasukhavipdkesu dissati. Similarly in I I I 29, we are told that kusala has the meaning of heal thiness, faultlessness, and siilfulness apt ca arogyatthena anavajjatthena kosallasambh utallhena ca kusalam. T his latter aspect has become most important in Mahayana philosophy. 2. Atthasalini I I 10: vacanatthopart' etthe kucchite pdpake dhamme salayanti calayanti hippenti viddhamsenti ti kusalam kucchitena vd akdrena sayanti ti kusd,U akusalasankhate kuse lunantichindanti ti kusala. Kucchitanam vd sdnato tanukaranato osanakatanato nanam kusam ndma, tena kusena Idtabia ti kusala gahetabba pavattetabbd ti atinn', yatha vd kusd ubhayabhdgagatam hatthafipaoesam lunanti evam ime p i uppanndnuppannabhavena ubhayabhagagatam sankilesapakkham lunanti, tasma kusa viya lunanti ti kusald. See also III 29 where the first of these explanations has been repeated. A similar and, in one aspect, identical explanation has been given by Yasomitra in his Abhidharmakosavyakhya and Abhidharmakosa I 30 ; The base factors have moved away, have gone, have gone away, therefore one speaks o f kusala. Or, kusa is a term for knowledge, because, it is sharp like kusa grass. It takes, acquires, therefore one speaks of kusala kutsitas chalitd gata apakrantd iti kusalah. prajna vd kusa iva tik^neti kusah; tarn Idnti adadata iti kusalah.

B y p o in tin g to th e em o tio n s o u r a u th o r h as m a d e a v ery im p o r ta n t o b se rv a tio n . B oth th e a c tu a l e m o tio n a l explosion a n d th e la te n t p o te n tia lity o f a n e m o tio n a re n o d o u b t a g re a t h in d r a n c e to oui- d e a lin g s w ith th e p ro b lem s o f life as th e y arise. M o re o v e r, th e fa c t sh o u ld n o t b e o v erlo o k ed th a t a n em otion c o m p le x alw ays a n d e n tire ly d e p e n d s u p o n th e fact th a t a re al co n scio u s a d a p ta tio n to a n im m e d ia te o b je c t situ a tio n has been im p o ssib le, a n d th is fa ilu re o f -a d a p ta tio n resu lts in th e ex p lo sio n o f a n e m o tio n . T h is lia b ility to b eco m e a t a n y tim e o v e r p o w e re d b y a n e m o tio n m ak es m a n w eak , a n d ju s t as a m a n w ho is p h y sic a lly a ilin g is u n a b le to a tte n d to h is w o rk in a p ro p e r w a y , so- m u c h m o re so is a m a n w h o is m e n ta lly u n b a la n c e d u n a b le to d e a l w ith a n y p ro b le m th a t m a y c o n fro n t h im . N o d o u b t, m e n ta l in s ta b ility is a v e ry serious disease. So also, b y w a y o f a sim ile, w e a re to ld th a t J u s t as a m a n is called h e a l th y w h e n h e is n e ith e r ill n o r sick n o r unw ell in b o d y , so also o n e m a y sp eak o f h e a lth in e ss in m e n ta l-s p iritu a l m a tte rs w hen th e r e is a b sen ce o f illness, sickness, a n d disease th ro u g h (a n d in th e form o f) a ffe c ts .1 O n e o th e r p o in t h a s to b e n o te d in th is co n n e c tio n . E ven w h e n th e e m o tio n a l o u tb u rs t h as w o rn o ff a n d m a n h a s regained h is senses, h e w ill, o n ly too o fte n , w ith the sam e lack o f co m p re h e n sio n , p o u r fo rth self-accu satio n s a n d feel u tte rly ill a t ease b e c a u se o f th e sick en in g a n d g lo o m y feeling o f m o ra l g uilt, I t is th e re fo re n o t to b e w o n d e re d , t h a t fau ltlessness o r irr e p ro a c h a b le n e s s h a s b e e n d e sc rib e d as ab sen ce o f em o tio n al o u tb u r s t2 a n d th a t th e d o m e stic a tio n o f m a n s u n ta m e d a n d u n b rid le d e m o tiv e n a tu re p lay s su ch a n im p o r ta n t ro le in th e w h o le o f -B uddhism . B u t th is d o m e stic a tio n , to be sure, is b r o u g h t a b o u t o n ly b y a c h a n g e o f a ttitu d e , n e v e r b y g ra n d talk a b o u t m o ra l, im m o ra l, a n d o th e r m o re o r less selfish interests. E m o tio n a l o u tb u rs ts , i.e. feelings a n d e m o tio n s a tta c h e d to id eas, a re forces th a t w ill in e v ita b ly c a rry th e in d iv id u a l a w a y w ith th e m a n d c o lo r a n y a n d a ll sorts o f h u m a n response. V e r y o fte n th e y te n d to b ec o m e co m p lex es, a n d as o fte n as n o t com p lex es a re a m a tte r o f th e e v e ry d a y e x p e rien c e o f ev ery b o d y a n d n o t necessarily a m a tte r o f a b n o rm a l psychology. I t
1. Atthasalini II I 29. 2. ibid. I l l 29 kilesavajjassa pana kilesadcsassa kiltscdaralhassa ca abhaia andiajjatthena kusalam.

is th is te n d e n c y to r e a c t b y e m o tio n s t h a t is c a lle d th e w o rld , S a m sa r a , as o p p o se d to th e tr a n q u il e q u a n im ity o f N irv a n a -which is a tta in e d b y a r a d ic a l c h a n g e o f a ttitu d e . S th ira m a ti h a s d e a lt w ith th is p ro b le m o f th e p o w e r o f e m o tio n s a n d th e n e c e ssa ry c h a n g e o f a ttitu d e in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e id e a o f a n e x iste n t s u b s tra tu m to th e p h e n o m e n a o f S a m sa ra a n d N irv a n a (alayavijnana). H is w o rd s a re so sig n ific a n t th a t th e y a re given h e re in ex ten so :1 K a r m a n a n d th e e m o tio n s a r c th e re a so n fo r th e w a y o f th e w o rld , a n d a m o n g th e m th e e m o tio n s a r e th e p rin c ip a l c o n d itio n - By w ay o f th e d o m in a tin g in flu e n c e o f th e em o tio n s, K a r m a n is a b le to p ro je c t a n e w ex isten ce (punarbhavak$epasam artha ) ; it c a n n o t b e o th e rw ise . K a r m a n w h ic h h a s b een e n a b le d to p ro je c t a n e w e x iste n c e w ill b ec o m e th is n ew exis ten c e u n d e r th e c o n d itio n s o f th e d o m in a tin g in flu e n c e o f th e e m o tio n s ; it c a n n o t b e o th e rw ise . T h e re fo re , th e em o tio n s a re , in d e e d , th e ro o t o f th e fa c t th a t th e w a y o f th e w o rld (samsara) c o n tin u e s to exist, sin ce it is w e ll-k n o w n th a t th e em o tio n s a re th e p r in c ip a l c o n d itio n . B u t w h e n th e p o w e r o f th e em otions h a s b e e n e x h a u ste d th e n th e w o rld w ill cease to e x ist; it c a n n o t b e o th e rw ise . T h e e x h a u stio n o f th e ir p o w er, h o w ev er, is n o t p ossible unless a s u b s tra tu m {alayavijnana ) is a ssu m ed . B u t w h y is it n o t p o ssib le w ith o u t th is s u b s tra tu m , it m ay b e a r g u e d . T h e p ro b le m is w h e th e r it is su fficient th a t th e em o tio n b e e x h a u ste d in its a c tu a lity (sam m ukhibhuta ) o r in its sta te o f p o te n tia lity (bijavastha). T h a t th e e x h a u s tio n o f th e e m o tio n in its a c tu a lity is sufficien t fo r th e cessatio n o f th e w a y o f th e w o rld , is im possible; b e in g o n th e w ay o f e x h a u s tio n th e p o te n tia lity o f th e e m o tio n h a s n o t y e t b eco m e e x h a u ste d . A t th is m o m e n t, n o th in g else c a n b e assu m ed b u t th e s u b s tra tu m in w h ic h th e la te n t p o te n tia litie s o f th e e m o tio n s (klesabija ) re sid e . O th e rw ise w e w ould h a v e to a ssu m e th a t th e v e ry re m e d y ( pratipaksacitta) is in h e re n t in th e la te n t p o te n tia lity o f th e e m o tio n s (kleiabljanusakta ). B u t th a t w h ic h is in h e re n t in th e la te n t p o te n tia lity o f a n em o tio n c a n b y n o m e a n s b e th e re m e d y a g a in s t its p o w e r. A n d as long as th e la te n t p o te n tia litie s o f e m o tio n a l o u tb u rs ts h a v e n o t b een e lim in a te d th e c essatio n o f th e w o rld w ill n o t com e a b o u t. F o r
i. Trimsikavijnaptibhasva, p. 38.

th is re a so n it is n ecessary to assu m e a s u b s tra tu m ( alayavijnana ) w h ic h is affe c ted ( c h a rg e d , bhavyate) b y th e v a rio u s em o tio n s (,klesopaklesa) w h ic h co -exist w ith sense p e rc e p tio n s w h ic h a re d iffe re n t fro m th e s u b s tra tu m , b e c a u se th is s u b s tra tu m is th e n u tr itiv e soil for th e m a tu r a tio n o f th e em o tio n s ly in g in it in a p o te n tia l s ta te (svabijapustyadhdnaiah ). T h e p o te n tia l s ta te o f th e v a rio u s e m o tio n s w h ic h a p p e a r as a c tu a l e m o tio n a l o u tb u rs ts w h e n th e re sid u a o f fo rm er e m o tio n a l ex p e rie n c es a r e su ita b ly stim u la te d ( vasanavrttilabhe sati) in th e p a r tic u la r co u rse o f a h o m o g e n eo u s series (re p re se n tin g o u r in d iv id u a l e x is te n c e ), b eco m es e lim in a te d by th e re m e d y a g a in s t th e e m o tio n a l d is tu rb a n c e s w h ic h is co -e x iste n t w ith th e s u b s tra tu m . T h e re fo re , w h e n th e p o te n tia l s ta te h as b e e n e lim in a te d , N irv a n a d u rin g o u r lifetim e {sopadhiseso nirvdnadhatu) h a s b e e n a tta in e d , b e c a u se b y th is s p iritu a l a d ju s tm e n t (asraya-dsrayapardvrlti)1 e m o tio n a l d is tra c tio n s c a n no longer c o m e a b o u t. A n d w h e n th e e x isten ce p ro je c te d b y th e fo rm er K a r m a n h a s co m e to a n e n d , u ltim a te N irv a n a ( nirupddhiseso nirvdnadhatu) has b e e n a tta in e d , b e c a u se a n o th e r ex isten ce is n o t p ro d u c e d . T h o u g h th e r e b e still p sy c h ic a c tiv ity {karman) th is p sy c h ic a c tiv ity c a n n o t p r o d u c e a n e w ex istence, b e cau se th e e m o tio n a l o u tb u rsts, h a v in g b ec o m e e x h a u ste d , a re n o lo n g e r a b le to c o -o p e ra te in th e p r o d u c tio n o f a new exis
i. T h a t asraya is used here in the sense of SSrqyapardvrtti is born out by Trimsika, p. 15 and p. 44. T he spiritual adjustment is a radical change o f the former narrow and egocentric attitude, as is pointed out by Sthiramati: asraya designates the alayavijnana endowed with all potentialities. Its radical change consists in the fact that there does not exist any longer the potential state which will manifest itself as the duality of incapacity (to act properly) and o f affective experience (dausthulyavipakadvayavasanabhdvena), but that there is efficiency, the Dharmakaya and non-dual wisdom {karmanyatddharmakayadvayajnanabhavena) . By giving up which factors is this radical change obtained ? T he author ( Vasubandhu) says: By giving up the twofold ineffi ciency. Twofold means inefficiency consisting in the veiling power o f emo tional instability and inefficiency consisting in the veiling power o f the beliefs concerning the knowable [kleiavarana, jneyavarana). Inefficiency means that the psychic substratum cannot function properly....... O n p. 15 Sthiramati declares that Emotional instability is a hindrance for the attainment o f liberation. When it has lost its power, liberation is gained. Beliefs about the knowable are a hindrance for the functioning of true knowledge. When beliefs have been given up, true knowledge functions.

te n c e {sahakarikaranabhavat). I n th is w a y , th e c o n tin u a tio n a s w ell as th e c essatio n o f S a m s a ra c o m e s a b o u t, w h e n th e re is a s u b s tr a tu m ; it c a n n o t b e o th e rw is e . W h e th e r o r n o t i t is n e c e ssa ry to a ssu m e a n e n tity as th e s u b s tr a tu m fo r S a m s a ra a n d N ir v a n a c a n b e le ft u n d e c id e d . I m p o r t a n t a re th e fo llo w in g p o in ts a n d th e ir o b s e rv a tio n gives h ig h c r e d it to S th ir a m a ti. I n d e c la r in g th a t th e e x h a u stio n o f th e w o rk in g p o w e r o f a n e m o tio n is n o t su ffic ien t fo r th e cessa tio n o f f u r th e r u n p le a s a n t a n d d is a g re e a b le e x p e rie n c e s w h ic h m a k e u p th e w o rld w e e n c o u n te r th e p le a s a n t e x p e rie n c es b e c a u s e o f th e ir tr a n s ito r y n a tu r e a lso b e in g b a s ic a lly u n p le a s a n t, S th ir a m a ti o b v io u sly h a s in m in d th e fa c t t h a t v e ry o ften im p u lse s to a c tio n s w h ic h a r e in c o n flic t w ith th e e g o -id e a l a re b lo c k e d a n d to a g r e a te r o r lesser e x te n t a r e re p re sse d . B u t in s p ite o f re p re ssio n th e se im p u lse s d o n o t s u b m it to d e fe a t a n d d ie o u t; o n th e c o n tr a r y , th e y c o n tin u e to b e a c tiv e a n d c o n tr i b u te la rg e ly to th e f a c t t h a t th e w o r ld g r a d u a lly com es to b e p e rc e iv e d in a d is to r te d m a n n e r . O f c o u rse, m a n y o f th o se im p u lse s w ill g r a d u a lly su b sid e a n d e v e n tu a lly d is a p p e a r e n ti re ly , o th e rs , h o w e v e r, w ill lin g e r w ith th e in d iv id u a l in sp ite o f a ll a tte m p ts to fo rg e t th e m , in te n tio n a l fo rg e ttin g b e in g id e n ti c a l w ith re p re ssio n . T h e s e im p u lse s w ill o n ly d ie o u t w h e n th e in d iv id u a l d e v e lo p s s p iritu a lly , a n d th e s p ir itu a l d e v e lo p m e n t is e sse n tia lly a r e s to r a tio n o f th e p s y c h ic e q u ilib riu m th a t h a s b e e n d is tu r b e d b y th e e m o tio n a l o u tb u rs ts a n d re m a in s d istu rb e d d u e to p o ssib le e m o tio n a l o u tb re a k s . T h e d is tu rb a n c e s b y e m o tio n a lity w ill b e r e m o v e d b y c h a n g e s in in te r p r e ta tio n . W ith th e p a ssa g e o f tim e th e in d iv id u a l w ill see th in g s in a d iffe re n t lig h t. O ld e x p e rie n c e s th a t o n ce d is tu r b e d th e in d iv id u a l a n d w h ic h h e trie d to fo rg e t ta k e o n a n e w m e a n in g a n d g r a d u a lly re c e d e b e fo re th e n e w t h a t a p p e a rs o u t o f th e u n k n o w n . T h is r e s to r a tio n o f th e p s y c h ic e q u ilib riu m is m e a n t b y S th ir a m a ti w h e n h e sp eak s o f s p ir itu a l a d ju s tm e n t (asrayaparavrtti-nirvana) w h ic h is e q u a l to seein g th in g s in a d iffe re n t lig h t. T h a t w h ic h fo rm e rly w as th e c a u se o f tro u b le s , is n o w n o lo n g e r re p re sse d b u t h a s lost its p o w e r a n d is v ie w e d fro m a d iffe re n t lev el, th e a tta i n m e n t o f w h ic h is effe cted b y m e d ita tiv e processes. A n d i t is th is in te r c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n e m o tio n a lity a n d in te r p r e ta tio n th a t g iv es rise to th e M a h a y a n ic d e m a n d th a t e m o tio n a lity as w ell as in te r p r e ta tio n h as to

b e c h a n g e d in to a fe e lin g o f bliss a n d c o m p re h en siv e u n d e r s ta n d in g . T h e im p o rta n c e o f a ttitu d e h a s so fa r e sca p e d th e n o tic e o f m a n y sch o lars, a n d y e t it a lo n e p ro v id e s a sa tisfacto ry ex p la n a tio n fo r su ch p e c u lia r a n d c o m p lex p sy ch o lo g ical p h e n o m e n a as th o se in w h ic h c e rta in stim u li exercise a stro n g effect a t o n e tim e , w h ile th e ir effect is r a t h e r w eak o r e v e n a b s e n t a t a n o th e r . H a v in g a c e rta in a ttitu d e m eails to b e re a d y fo r som e th in g , a n d th is re a d in e ss for so m e th in g is d u e to th e p resen ce o f a c e r ta in su b jectiv e g r o u p - p a tte r n , b e in g a d e fin ite c o m b i n a tio n o f m a n y fa c to rs in th e h u m a n p sy ch e. T h is g ro u p p a :tte rn m a y h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t a b o u t b y v a rio u s events. U n c o n sc io u sly i t m a y h a v e b e e n b ro u g h t a b o u t by th e in n a te d is p o s itio n ; in a s u b tle , p a r tly u n c o n scio u s a n d p a rtly co n scio u s, w a y b y th e in flu e n c e o f o u r e n v iro n m e n t; a n d co n scio u sly b y o u r e x p e rie n c es in life, to m e n tio n o n ly som e o f th e n u m e ro u s a n d v a rie d c o n tr ib u tin g e vents. M o re o v e r, a n y s tro n g ly to n e d fa c to r in co nsciousness m a y , e ith e r a lo n e o r in c o n n e c tio n w ith o th e rs , fo rm a c e rta in c o n ste lla tio n w h ich fa v o u rs a c e rta in w a y o f p e rc e p tio n , a n d a p p e rc e p tio n in so fa r a s th o se q u a litie s o r m o tiv e s a r e stressed w h ic h seem to b elo n g to o r fit in to th e s u b je c tiv e c o n te n t, w h ile a t th e sam e tim e e v ery th in g th a t is d issim ila r is in h ib ite d . T h u s a n a ttitu d e is b o th th e re s u lta n t o f m a n y facto rs a n d th e d e te rm in in g e le m e n t in o u r life, in a sm u c h a s it m o u ld s o u r a c tio n s a n d e v e n o u r id e a s d o w n to th e m in u te s t d e ta ils. I t is, th e re fo re , o b v io u s th a t th e re is n o t o n ly o n e a ttitu d e v a lid fo r a ll h u m a n b ein g s b u t th a t th e re a r e a n u m b e r o f a ttitu d e s in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e g r o u p - p a t te r n in g facto rs o r ev en ts. A ll th ese p o in ts j u s t m e n tio n e d a re re fe rre d to b y th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i w h o , fa r fro m b e in g a p h ilo s o p h e r, g iv es a cro ss-sectio n o f th e o p in io n s h e ld a b o u t w h a t w e call a n a ttitu d e . H e sa y s:1 A ttitu d e is so c a lle d , b e c a u se it is c o n c e rn e d w ith ( cinteti) a n o b je c tiv e ; it d is c rim in a te s is th e m e a n in g (o f citta a t t i tu d e ) . O r , sin ce th e te rm citta is th e c o m m o n d e n o m in a to r fo r a ll m e n ta l o p e ra tio n s (i.e ., th e g e n e ric te rm a ttitu d e a d m its o f v a rio u s q u a lific a tio n s a n d d istin c tio n s a c c o rd in g to th e c o n s te lla tin g fa c to rs as w ell as to th e r e s u lta n ts ) , th a t w h ic h is c a lle d
3. Atthasalini H I 33.

a w o rld ly , h e a lth y , u n h e a lth y , a n d u n p r o m p te d a ttitu d e a n d w h ic h b u ild s u p its o w n c o n tin u ity b y w a y o f a p p e rc e p tiv e p ro cesses, is te rm e d cillaS. 'A s a r e s u lta n t it is also c a lle d citta b e ca u se i t is b u ilt u p ( cita ) b y a c tiv ity a n d a ffe c tiv ity 3. M o re o v e r, a ll citta m a y b e u n d e rs to o d in th e sense t h a t it v a rie s a c c o rd in g to c irc u m sta n c e s (a n d c o n s te lla tin g fa c to rs ) a n d th a t it is c a p a b le o f p r o d u c in g a v a rie ty o f o p e ra tio n s o r re s u lta n ts ( effects ) .3 I t is tr u e th a t w ith o u t a n a ttitu d e a p p e r c e p tio n is im p o s sible, fo r in th e a c t o f a p p e r c e p tio n a n e w c o n te n t o r a new c o m b in a tio n o f c o n te n ts is a r tic u la te d to s im ila r c o n te n ts w h ic h a lre a d y ex ist, in su c h a w a y th a t n o t o n ly a r e th o se q u a litie s e m p h a siz e d w h ic h a p p e a r to b e lo n g to th e su b je c tiv e c o n te n t b u t th e n e w c o n te n t, to o , is u n d e rs to o d a n d is c le a r. But it is e rro n e o u s to a ssu m e th a t a n a t t it u d e is ju s t a p p e rc e p tio n . T h is m is ta k e w as c o m m itte d b y th e P a li p h ilo so p h e rs a n d th e usefu ln ess o f a h e a lth y a ttitu d e c a m e to a d e a d e n d .4 A n a ttitu d e , to b e su re , is r.o t a p h e n o m e n o n ex istin g p e r se a n d d e ta c h e d fro m a ll p sy c h ic fa c to rs b u t is in tim a te ly c o n n e c te d w ith all o f th e m a n d o n ly p re c e d e s th e m (a n d also, of co u rse, a c c o m p a n ie s th e m ) . A s w e a r e to ld : A n a ttitu d e does n o t a rise as so m e th in g sin g le. T h e re fo re , ju s t as in th e say in g ,
1. This is the explanation also given in Yasomitras commentary oti Abhidharmakosa II 34 : It builds up, therefore it is called citta. T h e mean ing is that citta builds up what is healthy or unhealthy cinotiti cittam iti; kusalam akuialarh vd cinotity arthah. 2. T his is the view o f the Sautrantikas and Yogacaras as stated by Yasomitra, loc. cit. it is built up by bright and dark elements, therefore it is called citta -citam subhasubhair dhdtubhir iti cittam. Insofar as an attitude is largely preconsciously determined, the Yoga caras emphasizing this aspect define the alayavijnana as citta in the sense of being built up b y the residua o f former experiences: tad vdsandcitdtam upddaya. Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 12. 3. For this interpretation see also L . de la Valine Poussins translation of the Abhidharmakosa, chapter I I , verse 34. 4. See for instance Abhidhammavatara, p. 1 sq. : citta is called so, because it is cognition of objects. T h e meaning o f this is to be understood in the following way : citta is a generic term. It is called so because it reflects or because it builds up its own continuity. tattah cittan ti visayavjhdnam cittam tasma pana ko vacanattho. vuccate. sabbasamgdhakavasena pana cinteti ti cittam, attano samtdnam vd cinotiti p i cittam.

th e k in g has a r r iv e d , it is u n d e rs to o d th a t h e h as n o t a rriv e d a lo n e a n d w ith o u t h is re tin u e , b u t th a t h e h a s co m e to g e th e r w ith his a tte n d a n ts , so also it sh o u ld b e u n d e rsto o d th a t a n a ttitu d e h as com e w ith m o re th a n fifty h e a lth y fa cto rs. A tti tu d e as such h as com e as a fo re ru n n e r .1 , W ith o u t ta k in g in to a c c o u n t th e im p o rta n c e o f a ttitu d e in o u r lives it w o u ld b e im possible to a c c o u n t fo r th e differences in in d iv id u a ls. I n o b e d ie n c e to H is M a je sty th e K in g , i.e ., th e a ttitu d e , n o t o n ly th e r e la tio n b e tw e e n th e v a rio u s fu n ctio n s is m o d ified b u t also th e e m o tio n a l v a lu e as re g a rd s likes a n d d is likes is re g u ja te d . F o r, it m a y b e asked, w h e n h as th e re n o t b e e n so m eth in g w h ic h a t o ne tim e h as b e e n p assio n a tely d esired a n d a t a n o th e r tim e m o st v io le n tly b e e n d e te ste d , a n d w h a t h as n o t a ttr a c te d th e q u e e re st n o tio n s a t o n e tim e o r a n o th e r ? A n d h o w else co u ld i t b e e x p la in e d , i f n o t b y th e fu n d a m e n ta l im p o rta n c e o f a ttitu d e , th a t o ne m a n ju s t lives b lin d ly th a t w h ich h e ex p erien ces, w h ile a n o th e r m a n th in k s a b o u t a n d tries to fa th o m th e m e a n in g o f w h a t h e ex p eriences ? T h e a u th o r of th e A tth a s a lin i c o rre c tly observes th a t A n a ttitu d e in w h ich p a ssio n is p re d o m in a n t is d iffe re n t fro m a n a ttitu d e in w h ich a v e r sio n p re v a ils a n d d iffe re n t fro m a n a ttitu d e in w h ic h b e w ild e r m e n t h o ld s its sw ay. A n d a n a ttitu d e co n c e rn e d w ith th e w orld o f sen su al o b jects (kamdvacaraj is d iffe re n t fro m a n a ttitu d e c o n c e rn e d w ith th e w o rld o f G e s ta lte n (rupavacara).1 I n o u r d a ily life a n d as lo n g as w e stru g g le to find th a t s ta n d p o in t fro m w h ic h w e w ill b e a b le to look a t th e w o rld oi m u ltip lic ity w ith o u t b e c o m in g th e v ic tim o f e m o tio n a l o u tb u rsts a n d fro m w h ic h w e a re a b le to d e a l w ith a n y p ro b le m w h a tso e v e r in a w a y w h ic h w ill n o t v io la te th e o b je c t a n d w h ic h will n o t m a k e us o v er-self-rig h teo u s, a h e a lth y a ttitu d e is m ost im p o r ta n t. B u t it h a s also to b e b o rn e in m in d th a t especially in m a tte rs sp iritu a l, a n a ttitu d e a lo n e w ill n o t d o b u t th a t u n d e rs ta n d in g m u s t com e as th e rip e fru its as it w ere o f a h e a lth y a ttitu d e . U n d e rs ta n d in g h a s in B u d d h ist p h ilo so p h y , as we sh a ll see la te r , a specific m e a n in g w h ich , th o u g h o f in te lle c tu a l q u a lity , is n o t th e o re tic a l in n a tu r e . O f this d istin c tio n b e t
Atthasalini III 43. Atthasalini I I I 34. A t the same place the variety of attitudes as regards the constellating contents has been fully discussed. i.

3.

w e e n a ttitu d e fo r p ra c tic a l p u rp o se s a n d u n d e r s ta n d in g as r e g a rd s s p iritu a l m a tte rs , th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i says th a t In w o rld ly m a tte rs a n a ttitu d e is th e ch ief, a n a ttitu d e is th e le a d e r, a n a ttitu d e is th e f o re ru n n e r; b u t in m a tte r s sp iritu a l a n a ly tic a l a p p re c ia tiv e u n d e r s ta n d in g is th e le a d e r, a n a ly tic a l a p p re c ia tiv e u n d e r s ta n d in g is th e f o r e r u n n e r .1 T h e im p o rta n c e -o f citta a ttitu d e w h e th e r it ten d s to b e c o m e in v o lv e d in S a m s a ra o r w h e th e r it te n d s to find its fu lfilm e n t a n d ex p ressio n in N ir v a n a , is th e key to B u d d h ist p h ilo so p h y a n d p sy ch o lo g y . A lth o u g h th e v a rio u s schools of th o u g h t in B u d d h ism w ra n g le d a b o u t th e lo g ic al n a tu r e o f the su b s ta n tiv e citta, w h e th e r it is e x iste n t o r su b siste n t, n o n e ol th e m e v e r c h a lle n g e d th e p rim a c y o f citta .2 , T h is fa c t m a y be ta k e n as a n in d ic a tio n , th a t citta as s o m e th in g w h ic h c a n a n d m u s t b e e x p e rie n c e d is o f p r im a r y im p o rta n c e , a n d o f seco n d ary im p o r ta n c e w ith re s p e c t to its f o rm u la tio n . Perception and Apperception In tim a te ly c o n n e c te d w ith th e im p o rta n c e o f a ttitu d e is a c tiv e p e rc e p tio n a n d a p p e rc e p tio n . I t is th e re fo re n ecessary to give a d e ta ile d a c c o u n t o f th e se pro cesses as th e y o c c u r a c c o rd in g to th e B u d d h ist c o n c e p tio n , w h ic h d id n o t fa il to see th a t a n y to ta l s ta te o f m in d a p p e a rs as a u n ity o f c e n tr e 3. P e rc e p tio n is d iv id e d in to sen su o u s a n d n on-sensuous. S en su o u s p e rc e p tio n is b a se d o n th e se n sa tio n o f c e rta in in te rr e la te d sen sa, on a se le c tio n o f sen sa, a n d o n u sin g sensed a n d selected sen sa fo r p e rc e iv in g .4 T h is is c le a rly sta te d in th e oldest a v a ila b le tex ts fro m w h ic h th e A b h id h a r m a d e riv e s its m a te ria l. T h e c la ssic a l p a ssa g e ru n s as follo w s: T h e se five senses,
1. Atthasalini III 44. See also I I I 45 and 46 where this difference has been discussed in connection with modes o f questioning a person about worldly or spiritual matters. 2. Passages to this effect are: Samyuttanikaya I 39; Abhidharmakosa II 105; Anguttaranikaya II 177: Siksasamuccaya, p. 121; Dasabhumikasutra, P- 49; LankavatarasutraX 134; Kasyapapari varta <|8; Subhasitasamgraha, p. 19; Jnanasiddhi I X 7 ; 9 ; Paiicakrama I V 16; Tattvasamgrahapanjika, p. *84; etc. etc. 3. 4. I owe this term to G .D . Broad, The M ind and Its Place in G. D . Broad, T he Mind and Its Place in Nature, p. 420. Nature.

se e in g , h e a r in g , sm e llin g , ta s tin g , a n d to u c h in g , h a v e e a c h th e ir o w n field o f fu n c tio n in g a n d c o r re s p o n d in g o b je c ts a n d n o n e o f th e m e n jo y s th e field a n d th e o b je c t o f th e o th e rs . T h e s e five senses, o f w h ic h e a c h h a s its o w n field a n d o b je c t a n d o f w h ic h n o n e e n jo y s th e field a n d o b je c t o f th e o th e rs , la k e re fu g e in th e manas; th e manas e n jo y s th e ir field a n d o b je c ts .1 S im ila rly , b u t m u c h m o re e x h a u s tiv e ly a n d m o re p re c ise ly th e A tth a s a lin i d e sc rib e s th e n a tu r e o f th e manas w h ic h is n e x t to citta, th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t te r m in B u d d h ist p h ilo s o p h y a n d p s y c h o lo g y . I n th is w o rk w e r e a d : B ec au se th e p sy c h ic to ta l s itu a tio n ( phassa, G e s a m ts itu a tio n ) a n d th e o th e r p sy c h ic fa c to rs c o n n c c tc d w ith it h a v e th e ir o rig in h e re (in th e m anas), th e te r m ayatana (in mano ayatana) h a s th e m e a n in g o f b ir th - p la c e ; b e c a u s e th e w ith o u t a sse m b le s h e r e in th e fo rm o f v isib le , a u d i b le , o lf a c to r y , g u s ta to r y , a n d ta c tile o b je c ts, it also h a s th e m e a n in g o f m e e tin g - p la c e ; b e c a u s e it is th e im m e d ia te a n d in d is p e n s a b le a n te c e d e n t in th e sen se o f s im u lta n e ity fo r th e p s y c h ic to ta l s itu a tio n , a n d th e o th e r p s y c h ic fa c to rs c o n n e c te d w ith it a n d th u s is th e c a u s e o f th e m , it a lso h a s th e m e a n in g o f c a u s e .2 I n th e firs t p a s s a g e j u s t m e n tio n e d re fu g e c a n h a r d l y m e a n a n y th in g else b u t t h a t th e sin g le sen se p e r c e p tio n s w ith th e i r p e r c e p ts h a v e g iv e n u p th e ir is o la tio n a n d in d e p e n d e n c e , a n d ' th e e n jo y in g o f th e ir fields a n d o b je c ts b y th e manas, w o u ld sig n ify t h a t th e m a te r ia l p re s e n te d b y th e senses to th e p e rc e iv in g s u b je c t is a r r a n g e d , o rd e re d , a n d in te r p r e te d in a c e r t a i n w a y . F o r th e w o rld o f th in g s a n d p erso n s in w h ic h c o m m o n s e n s e b e lie v e s , is a sy n th e sis o f th e d a t a b r o u g h t to th e k n o w c r b y m e a n s o f th e sen ses a n d o f th e o r d e r in g a n d r e g u la t in g c o n c e p ts b r o u g h t to th e d a t a b y th e k n o w e r. T h is sy n th e sis is, as w c s h a ll sec p r e s e n tly , b r o u g h t a b o u t u n c o n sc io u sly , in o th e r w o rd s , th e id e a o f a n e x te r n a l o b je c t is n o t d e riv e d fro m in fe re n c e . I n th e s e c o n d p a s sa g e , b ir th - p la c e , m e e tin g - p la c e , a n d c a u s e re fe r to th e fa c t t h a t th e s u b je c tiv e f a c to r is r a t h e r a c o m p le x p h e n o m e n o n a n d n o t j u s t a n im a g in a ry b la n k ta b le t c a llc d a m e n ta l s u b s ta n c e . T h e manas a c c o rd in g to th e se p a ssa g e s d e n o te s w h a t w c m ig h t c a ll th e s u b je c tiv e d isp o sitio n 1. M a jjh im a n ik a y a I 295 ; s a n g ra h a I I t a .
2.
S a m y u tta n ik a y a V s i 8; M ahayana-

Atthasalini III 275.

t h a t re c e iv e s th e se n se s tim u li a n d c o m p ris e s th e m , g iv in g th e m th e p e c u lia r s u b je c tiv e a d m ix t u r e t h a t is n e v e r a b se n t in e i t h e r p e r c e p tio n o r c o g n itio n . A s a c o m p re h e n s iv e te rm it is m e n tio n e d la s t in e n u m e r a tio n s b e c a u s e th e field a n d o b je c t o f th e fiv e sen ses is e x p e r ie n c e d b y th e manas it is m e n tio n e d la s t ;1 a n d a s a p o w e r t h a t c a n n o t sim p ly b e ig n o r e d , i t c o n tr o ls a n d s u b o r d in a te s th e c o -e x is te n t p sy c h ic m a te r i a l as a c o n tr o llin g p o w e r th e m anas p u ts th e c o -e x is te n t p s y c h ic f a c to r s u n d e r its d o m i n a n c e .2 W h ile th e manas m a y b e s p o k e n o f a s th e s u b je c tiv e d is p o s itio n in g e n e r a l, i t is p o s s ib le to d e s c r ib e its f u n c tio n in v e ry p re c is e te rm s . I t is w e ll to b e a r in m in d t h a t B u d d h is m a c k n o w le d g e s o n ly a flu x io n a l n a t u r e o f a ll e n titie s , th e flu x io n a l n a tu r e b e in g a p tl y c o m p a r e d w ith th e flo w in g w a te r o f a r iv e r . T h e r e fo re a lso th e manas o r th e s u b je c tiv e d is p o s itio n is n o t a t a ll a p e r m a n e n t o r u n c h a n g in g e n tity , b u t in a s ta te o f c o n tin u o u s flu x . T h i s m e a n s t h a t th e f lu x io n a l c h a r a c t e r o f th e manas is n o th in g d is tin c t fro m th e m anas its e lf a n d th e re fo r'e c a n n o t b e r e g a r d e d a s a n a n t e c e d e n t o r s u b s e q u e n t e v e n t w i t h re s p e c t to its o w n n a tu r e , th o u g h it m a y b e c o n c e iv e d as e ith e r a n a n te c e d e n t o r a s u b s e q u e n t e v e n t w ith r e s p e c t to th e im m e d ia te ly fo llo w in g o r im m e d ia te ly p r e c e d in g p h a s e o f th e p s y c h ic p ro ce ss. I n th is w a y th e m anas is a c h a r a c te r is tic r e la tio n b a c k w a rd s o r fo rw a rd s . T h is is o b v io u s ly w h a t B u d d h a g h o s a , th e a u th o r o f th e V is u d d h im a g g a , m e a n s : T h e m anas, a c c o r d in g to its o r ig in a tio n , m a y b e c o n c e iv e d a s e ith e r a n te c e d e n t o r su b se q u e n t to se n se p e r c e p tio n s s u c h a s v is u a l p e r c e p tio n s a n d th e lik e .3 I n s o f a r as th e m a n a s p r e c e d e s th e sen se p e r c e p tio n s , i.e ., b e fo re th e a c tu a l p ro c e s s o f sen se p e r c e p tio n sets in , i t p e rfo rm s th e f u n c tio n o f a t t e n t i o n . A s B u d d h a g h o s a sa y s T h e manas w h ic h p re c e d e s th e a c tiv ity o f v is u a l p e r c e p tio n a n d o th e r sense p e r c e p tio n s a n d w 'h ic h d is c r im in a te s th e v is u a l o b je c t fro m o th e r o b je c ts , h a s th e f u n c tio n o f a t t e n tio n , its a c tu a l p h a s e is th e b e c o m in g c o n f r o n te d w ith v is u a l a n d o th e r o b je c ts , a n d th e m o m e n t a n d b a s is fro m w h ic h its f u n c tio n s ta r ts a n d o p e r a tes, is th e i n te r r u p t io n o f th e u n c o n s c io u s s tr e a m (b y th e o b je c t
i. a. 3. Visuddhim agga X V 1 1 . Visuddhim agga X V I 10. Visuddhim agga X V 42.

t h a t h a s co m e in to th e ra n g e o f p sy ch ic a c tiv ity ) .1 W h e n B u d d h a g h o s a speaks h e re o f th e d is c rim in a tin g a c tio n o f th e manas h e d o es n o t m e a n so m u c h th e a c tu a l conscious d isc rim in a tio n b u t th e in itia l sta g e o f th e p ro cess o f b e c o m in g conscious, w h ic h is m a rk e d b y u tiliz in g th e se n su m se le c te d a n d d isc rim i n a te d . B eco m in g a tte n tiv e (avajjana ) is a n a b so lu te ly a u to m a tic p h e n o m e n o n a n d , th e re fo re , it is te c h n ic a lly te rm e d kiriyamanodhatu to d istin g u ish it fro m o th e r n o n - a u to m a tic processes. S ta te d m o re p re c ise ly , th e m e a n in g is th a t th e manas w h ich b e c o m e s a tte n tiv e to th e s tim u la tio n o f th e sense a p p a ra tu s does n o t p ro d u c e a n y effect a n d h e n c e passes o ff as a re la tiv e ly su b s id ia ry p h e n o m e n o n w ith in th e w h o le o f th e p sy c h ic process. T h e m e re ly fu n c tio n a l c h a r a c te r is s ta te d in th e A tth a sa lin i in th e fo llo w in g w a y : kiriya sim p ly m e a n s a c tiv ity . I n all a u to m a tic p sy ch ic processes, t h a t w h ic h h a s n o t a tta in e d th e sta g e o f a p p e rc e p tio n is lik e a flo w er in th e w in d , a n d th a t w h ich com es u p to th e sta g e o f a p p e rc e p tio n is fru itless (i.e ., b e a rin g n o re s u lt o r e ffe c t) like th e flo w er o f a tre e th a t h a s been cu t d o w n a t its ro o t. B ecause su c h a process o n ly p erfo rm s its f u n c tio n , it is c a lle d m e re a c tiv ity , a n d as su ch is spoken o f as a n a u to m a tic p h e n o m e n o n .2 N e v e rth e le ss, h o w e v e r u n im p o r ta n t in th e w h o le o f th e p sy c h ic a c tiv ity th is process o f b e c o m in g a tte n tiv e m a y a p p e a r, it is th e o n ly p h a s e w h ic h m a k e s it p ossible fo r th e senses to o p e ra te a c c o rd in g to th e ir n a tu r e a n d w h ic h , in a d d itio n , assists a n d h e lp s th e o p e ra tio n o f th e senses. I n th is w ay , it is, as h a s b e e n p o in te d o u t b y B u d d h a g h o s a , b o th a n te c e d e n t a n d su b se q u e n t (purecaranucara). I n its a s p e c t o f a n te c e d e n t it m akes th e in te r n a l psy ch ic process p o ssib le, w h ile in its a sp e c t o f subse q u e n t, i.e ., fo llo w in g im m e d ia te ly a fte r th e sense p e rc e p tio n h a s set in , it m a rk s th e a c tu a l b e g in n in g o f th e in te r n a l psychic p ro cess, w h ic h , in c o u rse o f tim e , le a d s to a n a c tu a l aw areness o f a n o b je c t. T h is in itia l sta g e is d e sig n a te d as th e rece p tio n o f th e o b je c t (satnpaticchanakicca manodhatu ) .3 T h u s B u d d h a g h o sa sta te s th a t I m m e d ia te ly a fte r th e a c tiv ity o f visual
1. 2. 3. Visuddhimagga X I V 107. See also X I V 115,. Atthasalini III 659. Visuddhimagga XIV 95; 101.

p e r c e p tio n o r o th e r sense p e rc e p tio n s h a s ceased , th e manas w h ic h d is c rim in a te s th e v isu a l o b je c t fro m o th e r o b je c ts b egins lo f u n c lio n ; its fu n c tio n is re c e iv in g th e v isu a l p e r c e p t o r th e o th e r p e rc e p ts ; its' a c tu a l m a n if e s ta tio n is su c h n e ss; a n d th e m o m e n t fro m w h e n c e it s ta rts its a c tio n , is th e m o m e n t o r s itu a tio n w h e n th e a c tiv ity o f v isu a l p e rc e p tio n o r o f th e o th e r sense p e rc e p tio n s has c e a s e d .3 T h is re c e iv in g th e se n su m is th e v e ry a c tiv ity o f th e manas th o u g h n o t th e sense o f a sp e c ia l fa c u lty , since it co m es in to p la y in a ll basic fo rm s o f p sy c h ic a c tiv ity . I t is b e st u n d e r sto o d a s th e in te n s ity o f th e p sy c h ic p rocess w h ic h b eco m es m a n ife s t, ev en if it sh o u ld b e o n ly in a s u b lim in a l w a y , a s a c e r ta in effect. F o r th is re a so n , it is c a lle d vipaka d e v e lo p in g to w a rd a c e rta in e ffe c t.2 B u d d h a g h o s a re m a rk s on th e re c e p tiv e p ro cess o f th e manas-. Im m e d ia te ly a fte r v isu al p e rc e p tio n o r o th e r p e rc e p tio n s th e r e sp rin g s u p th e manas w h ich re c e iv e s th e ir re sp e c tiv e o b je c ts a n d w h ic h is d e v e lo p in g to w a rd a n d in a h e a lth y o p e r a tio n o r effect (kusalavipaka) a f te r (p sy c h ic p ro cesses th a t a r e ) d e v e lo p in g to w a rd a n d in a h e a lth y a tm o s p h e re , a n d w h ic h is d e v e lo p in g to w a rd a n d in a n u n h e a lth y o p e ra tio n a f te r p ro cesses th a t g o o n in a n d to w a rd a n u n h e a lth y a tm o s p h e r e .3 T h e te rm s h e a lth y a n d u n i h e a lth y re fe r to th e g e n e ra l a tt i t u d e u n d e r w h o se d o m in a n c e th e m a n a s fu n c tio n s, as is e v id e n t fro m th e o p e n in g s ta te m e n t o f th e D h a m m a s a n g a n i. T h a t su ch a p ro cess co m es a b o u t is solely d u e to K a r m a n . T h is te rm h a s c r e a te d g r e a t c o n fu sio n d u e to its m isu se by W e s te rn w rite rs w h o d id n o t u n d e r s ta n d th e E a s te r n m in d , as w ell as b y E a s te rn e rs w h o , in th e ir d e s ire to a p p e a r as m o d e rn ists, s im p ly c o p ie d th e m is c o n c e p tio n s . I n B u d d h is t re a so n in g K a r m a n is n o o u ts id e fo rc e , b u t th e i n h e r e n t a c tiv ity o f e v e ry process. S in ce a c tiv ity is lim ite d b y th e a m o u n t o f e n e rg y a v a ila b le th e re is n o sin g le a c tio n w h ic h is n o t e n e rg y - d e te r m in e d K a r m a n re p re s e n ts b o th th e p o te n tia l a n d k in e tic
i . Visuddhim agga X I V 0 7 - See also Atthasalini III 578. a. vipaka denotes both the process and the final product. In the former case its etymology is vipacyata iti vipakah. karmakartari ghnU; in the latter, it is phalam tu l ipaktir eveti vipaka iti bhave ghaH. See Abhidharmakosavyakhya and Abhidh.-kosa I 37. 3. Visuddhimagga X I V 118.

e n e rg y o f a process. M o re o v e r, since e n e rg y c a n n o t b e lost i t is alw ays p re s e n t e ith e r as k in e tic o r p o te n tia l energy. In its p o te n tia l sta g e e n e rg y is h e a p e d u p (upacita ), w h ile in its k in e tic s ta te it d ev elo p s ( vipacyale) to w a rd a c e rta in effect. T h u s , th e fu n c tio n in g o f th e m a n a s is d u e to th e h e a p e d -u p p o te n tia l e n e rg y in v ested in th e p sychic p h e n o m e n o n ca lle d manas. T h e w a y in w h ic h th e mantis o p e ra te s a f te r th e en erg y d is c h a rg e h a s b e e n effected , is d u e to th e fa c t th a t th e manas ow es its o rig in a n d m o d e o f fu n c tio n in g to in n u m e ra b le , sim ila r processes w h ic h h a v e left th e ir fu n c tio n tra ce s (vasana ), a n d th e re fo re th e manas re p re se n ts a c e rta in b asic fo rm o f a c e rta in e v e r-re c u rrin g p sy ch ic process. T h is d o u b le n a tu re , as it w ere, o f o w in g its n a tu r e to s im ila r processes th a t h a v e been g o in g o n since tim e im m e m o ria l a n d o f b e in g a b le to fu n c tio n in a p ro p e r w a y b e c a u se o f its h e a p e d -u p o r p o te n tia l en erg y , h as a lre a d y b e e n in d ic a te d in th e D h a m m a s a n g a n i: ' B ecause th e p ro cess h a s g o n e o n in a h e a lth y m a n n e r (i.e., w ith in a c o m pass o f a h e a lth y a t t it u d e ) , b e lo n g in g to o u r o r d in a ry w o rld o f sensuous re la te d n e ss, a n d b e c a u se e n e rg y h as b e e n h e a p e d u p , th e manas w h ic h re p re se n ts a n e n e rg ic pro cess, h a s o rig in a te d (i.e ., h a s s ta rte d p e rfo rm in g its p ro p e r f u n c tio n ) .1 A lso its d e te rm in a tio n as such n ess2 p o in ts to th e e x p la n a tio n given ab o v e. I n c o n n e c tio n w ith th e manas w h ic h , as th e ab o v e an aly sis h a s show n, d e sig n a te s th e s u b je c tiv e d isp o sitio n a n d its in c i p ie n t a c tiv ity in a p rocess o f p e rc e p tio n a n d a p p e rc e p tio n , w e h a v e to discuss a n o th e r p h e n o m e n o n w hich is te c h n ic a lly te rm e d manovinnanadhatu in th e P a li te x t. T h is te rm a n d th e fu n c tio n i t p erfo rm s m u st b e c a re fu lly d istin g u ish e d fro m a n o th e r manovinnana (Skt. manovijnana) w h ic h w ill b e discussed la te r o n . T h e manovinnana (dhatu ) u n d e r c o n sid e ra tio n is a single e n tity w h ic h re p re se n ts a f u r th e r stag e in th e process o f b e co m in g conscious. As th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i in fo rm s us, it is c a lle d b y such a lo n g n a m e as it is m a d e u p o f th re e ele m e n ts [manas, vijnana, dhatu), a n d b ecau se o f its c h a ra c te r o f
1. Dhammasangani 455 : kamavacarassn kusalassa kammassa kutata, npacitatta vipaka manodhatu uppannd hoti. See also Visuddhimagga X V I I 121: vipiikam k etam, vipakah ca na upacitakammdbhave uppajjati, which may be rendered freely: This is an energic process, but an energic process does not come about without Potential energy . 2. See for instance Visuddhimagga X I V 9 7 } etc. etc.

m e a s u r in g o r ta k in g s to c k o f th e m a te r ia l p re s e n te d to it by th e se n so ry fu n c tio n s, b e c a u se o f its c h a r a c te r o f b e in g a p sy ch o lo g ic a l process le a d in g u p to a w a re n e ss o f th in g s an d id e a s , a n d b e c a u se o f its in trin s ic n a t u r e w h ic h is its flu x io n al n a tu r e a n d n o t a n u n c h a n g in g e n tity b e y o n d o rig in a tio n a n d d e s tr u c tio n .1 B u d d h a g h o s a in h is V is u d d h im a g g a sp eak s o f th e a u to n o m y o f th is f a c to r in th e fo llo w in g w a y : T h e manovinnanadhatu s h o u ld b e c o n s id e re d as a m o n k e y in a fo rest (ju m p in g from o n e b r a n c h to a n o t h e r ) , b e c a u s e i t d o es n o t sto p w ith th e o b je c ts (p re s e n te d to i t ) ; as a re s tiv e h o rse , b e c a u se it is c o n tro lle d o n ly w ith d iffic u lty ; as a s tic k th ro w n in to th e a ir, b e c a u se i t falls d o w n w h e re v e r i t likes (i.e ., o u r m e n ta l life is a b so lu te ly a u to n o m o u s a n d w e a re n e v e r q u ite su re o f w h a t w e w ill e x p e rie n c e n e x t ) ; a n d as a d a n c e r , b e c a u se it is d ressed in th e v a rio u s g a rm e n ts o f p a s s io n a te a c tio n s a n d re a c tio n s su c h as g re e d a n d a v e rs io n .2 T h is la s t q u a lific a tio n g a in s im p o r ta n c e w h e n w e c o n sid er th e fo llo w in g p a ssa g e : The manovinnanadhatu is tw o fo ld : o f a g e n e ra l k in d a n d o f a sp e c ia l k in d . I n its g e n e ra l a sp e c t i t is a sso c ia te d w ith a n in d e te r m in a te fe e lin g to n e , it h a s n o cau sal c h a r a c te r is tic a n d i% s im p ly a u to m a tic ; its fu n c tio n is th e dis c rim in a tio n o f th e six k in d s o f o b je c ts (i.e ., th e five sense objects a n d th e o b je c ts o f in tr o s p e c tio n ) ; its o p e ra tio n as expressed by its m o d e o f a c tio n is th e d e te r m in a tio n o f th e sen sed d a ta co n v e y e d b y th e five senses a n d a tte n tiv e n e s s to th e c o n ti n u o u s ly flo w in g s tre a m o f th e s u b je c tiv e f a c to r; its a c tu a l m a n if e s ta tio n is s u c h n e ss; a n d th e m o m e n t a n d p la c e fro m w h e n c e it s ta rts its a c tio n , is th e m o m e n t o r th e s itu a tio n w h e n e ith e r th e e n e rg ic p ro c e ss o f th e manovinnanadhatu, w 'hich h as n o c a u s a l c h a ra c te ris tic a n d w h ic h is s im p ly a u to m a tic , has ceased its a c tiv ity , o r w h e n th e s tre a m o f th e u n c o n sc io u s has b e e n in te r r u p te d (i.e ., w h e n a tte n tio n h a s set i n ) . I n its sp ecial a sp e c t it is a sso c ia te d w ith c h e e rfu ln ess, h a s n o c a u sa l c h a r a c te ristic a n d is s im p ly a u to m a tic ; its f u n c tio n is th e d isc rim in a tio n
t. Atthasalini III 276: imasmim hi jtade ekam eva cittam mitianalithena memo, oijavanatthena mMdnnm, sabhavatfhena nissalttiifhena id dhatu li thi ndmehi
vultam.

2.

Visuddhimagga X V 43.

o f th e six k in d s o f o b je c ts ; it o p e ra te s in su ch a w ay th a t th e S a in ts (arhant) a r e a b le to ta k e th e m in o r th in g s o f life in a g ay a n d jo y o u s m o o d ; its a c tu a l m a n ife s ta tio n is su ch n ess; a n d it o p e ra te s ex clu siv ely fro m th e h e a r t .1 H e re tw o k in d s o f a manovinndnaclhalu a re d istin g u ish e d : th e o n e is o p e ra tin g in th e c a se o f o rd in a ry h u m a n b ein g s, w h ile th e o th e r o p e ra te s o n lv in th e case o f th e A rlia n ts o r B u d d h ist S a in ts w ho ex cel in a c h e e rfu l te m p e ra m e n t. B u t c e r ta in b asic fu n c tio n s su c h as c o g n itio n a n d in te r p r e ta tio n ol sensed d a ta a re c o m m o n to b o th kin d s. I t is im p o rta n t to n o te th a t th e sa m e d is tin c tio n is fo u n d in th e w orks o f th e Y ogaca ra s. T h a t w h ic h o p e ra te s in th e case o f o r d in a ry beings is c a lle d th e k liffa manas w h ic h lite ra lly tra n s la te d m ean s ta in te d manas ta in te d , b e c a u se th e o rd in a ry h u m a n b e in g is loo m u c h fe tte re d b y h is e g o c e n tric ity a n d h e n c e is u n a b le to see th in g s (a n d a b o v e a ll h im se lf) in a m o re d e ta c h e d w ay o r to let th e n a tu r a l ric h n e ss o f his s p iritu a l side b u rs t fo rth . H is se lf-cen tred n ess a c tu a lly m a k e s i t im p o ssib le fo r h im to a p p re c ia te o r to p a r tic ip a te jo y fu lly in a n y th in g th a t is n o t im m e d ia tly re la te d to for his w h im s. Flic feeling of in d iffe re n c e a p tly illu s tra te s th e n a rro w n e ss o f o u tlo o k a n d p o v e rty o f th in k in g a n d fe e lin g in g e n e ra l. T h e re fo re , to see th in g s w h ile in a jo y o u s a n d g a y m o o d is a n a r t th a t w ill b e m a ste re d o n ly b y a n d a fte r h a r d w o rk b y o v e rc o m in g th e se lf-c e n tre d ness w h ich is so c h a ra c te r is tic o f th e ta in te d manas. I t is p recisely th is ta in te d n e s s th a t d istin g u ish e s a n o rd in a ry h u m a n b e in g fro m th e A r h a n t a n d fro m th o se w ho h a v e re a liz e d th e tra n s c e n d e n ta l, fo r, p sy c h o lo g ic a lly sp eak in g , th e tra n s c e n d e n ta l is th e g o in g b e y o n d th e lim its o f e g o c e n tric ity . V a s u b a n d h u th e re fo re d e c la re s th a t th e ta i n te d manas does n o t o p e ra te in th e A r h a n ts .2 W e h a v e seen a b o v e th a t th e manas o r th e su b je c tiv e d isp o sitio n is d iv id e d in to a n a u to m a tic process (kiriya ) w h ich h as n o effect, a n d a n e n e rg ic p ro cess ( vipaka ), le a d in g u p to a c e rta in effect, w h ic h , a c c o rd in g to th e g e n e ra l a ttitu d e o f th e in d iv id u a l, w ill b e e ith e r h e a lth y , o r u n h e a lth y . T h is sa m e
1. Visuddhimagga X I V 108. 2. Trimsikavijnapti, verse 7 .......arhalo na tat. commentary on this verse. See also Sthiramati s

d istin c tio n is m e t w ith in th e case o f th e manovinndna. A ntiv c ip a tin g ly it m a y b e s ta te d th a t b o th th e manas a n d th e matiovinnana (dhatu) (th is d iffe re n tia tio n is m e t w ith o n ly in th e w orks o f th e P a li tr a d itio n , w h ile th e Y o g a c a ra s u se o n ly o n e te rm , v iz ., manas 1 to d e n o te s u b lim in a l p rocesses le a d in g u p to a n a c tu a l aw aren ess. W h ile th e manas a n d its tw ofold o p e ra tio n as e ith e r a u to m a tic o r en erg ic d e n o te s sim p ly th e in itia l sta g e o f th e in d iv id u a ls p sy ch ic a c tiv ity in p e rc e p tio n , th e manovinnanadhatu d e n o te s th e s u b lim in a l p ro cess w h ic h la te r a p p e a rs as a d efinite conscious c o n te n t. O f th e a u to m a tic p rocess B u d d h a g h o sa states, Im m e d ia te ly a fte r th e u n c o n sc io u s stre a m h a s b ee n d istu rb e d , b e c a u se o n e o r th e o th e r o f th e six k inds o f objects h as co m e in to th e re a lm (o f th e senses a n d th e su b jec tiv e fa c to r), as th e manas th e re b e g in s to o p e ra te th e manovinnanadhatu w hich h as n o c a u s a l c h a ra c te ris tic a n d is sim p ly a u to m a tic , a n d w hich p erfo rm s th e fu n c tio n o f a tte n tiv e n e s s , as if in te rr u p tin g the u n co n scio u s stre a m . I t is a sso c ia te d w ith a feelin g to n e o f in d iffe re n c e .3 T h is a tte n tiv e n e s s releases, as it w ere, th e e n erg ic p ro cess t h a t le a d s u p to c o n s te lla tin g a d e fin ite c o n te n t in consciousness. T h is p ro cess its e lf is a m o st c o m p lic a te d one. I t is a w ell k n o w n fa c t th a t tw o p erso n s, fo r e x a m p le , th o u g h they see th e sam e o b je c t, n e v e r see i t in su c h a w a y as to receive tw o id e n tic a lly sim ilar im p re ssio n s o f it. A p a rt fro m th e diffe rences in o rg a n ic a c u te n e ss th e re a re in it also m a rk e d p sychic v a ria tio n s w h ic h w o u ld b e in e x p lic a b le i f th e su b je c tiv e fa c to r w e re n o t o p e ra tiv e in a n in flu e n tia l m a n n e r . T h e fin a l re su lt, i.e ., th e conscio u s c o n te n t, is th e m o st a c c u ra te synthesis a n d b le n d in g o f a ll th e in n e r a n d o u te r fa c to rs a n d processes. T h is syn th esis a n d b le n d in g , o r, as it h as b e e n te rm e d in th e P a li texts, th e b rid g in g o v e r (o f th e g u lf b e tw e e n th e su b je ctiv e d isp o sitio n a n d re a d in e ss to a c t a n d th e o u te r o b je c t) (santirana ) is a n e n e rg e tic process o f w h ic h th re e a sp e c ts a re d istin g u ish e d a c c o rd in g to th e g e n e ra l a ttitu d e o f th e in d iv id u a l, a n d th e fe e lin g -e m o tio n a l to n e t h a t a c c o m p a n ie s ev e ry a ttitu d e .
i. T h e term manovijnana is ambiguous, because it may be conceived as a tatpuru sa-com pound "(he jxreeption of the mauay . Actually it is meant as a karmadharaya compound perception which is manas". See Vijfiaptiinatratasiddhi. La Siddhi < 1< : Hiuan-tsang, p. uqG. 2. Visuddhimagga X I V 116.

B u d d h a g h o s a says a b o u t th e se th r e e a sp e c ts: T h e manovinnana dhatu w h ic h is a n e n e rg e tic process a n d is w ith o u t c a u sa l c h a ra c te ris tic s (vipakahetukamanovinndnadhatu), a n d w h ich p e r fo rm s th e fu n c tio n o f b rid g in g o v er th e g u lf b e tw e e n th e su b je c tiv e fa c to r, (manas, manodhatu) a n d th e o b je c t th a t h as b e e n re c e iv e d b y th e su b je c tiv e fa c to r o p e ra te s ( i ) as d e v e lo p in g in to a n u n h e a lth y p ro cess im m e d ia te ly a fte r th e su b jec tiv e f a c to r w h ic h its e lf d e v e lo p s in a n d to w a rd s a n im h e a lth y a t m o sp h e re , (h as re c e iv e d th e o b je c t) , (ii) as a c c o m p a n ie d b y a, jo y o u s feelin g w ith re s p e c t to a d e sira b le o b je c t im m e d ia te ly a f te r th e su b je c tiv e fa c to r, w h ic h its e lf d e v e lo p s in a n d to w a rd a h e a lth y a tm o s p h e re , (h as re c e iv e d th e o b je c t) , a n d (iii) as a c c o m p a n ie d b y a n in d iffe re n t fe e lin g to n e w ith re sp e c t to a n o b je c t o f m e d iu m d e s ir a b ility .1 T h is b rid g in g o v er is o n ly th e in itia l stag e, its fin al sta g e b e in g th e a c tu a l a p p e rc e p tio n o f th e o b je c t, v iz ., th e r e la tin g o f th e n ew c o n te n t to o th e r c o n te n ts a lre a d y p re s e n t in conscio u sh ess. I n b e tw e e n these tw o stag es, b rid g in g o v e r a n d a p p e r c e p tio n , th e re also o p e ra te s th e a u to m a tic manovinnanadhatu. Its o p e ra tio n consists ol d e te rm in in g a n d fix in g , as i t w e re , ( vopthapaiia) th e new c o n te n t to b e c o n n e c te d w ith th e o th e r c o n te n ts in consciousness. A n d fu rth e rm o re th e re is also th e o p e r a tio n o f several a p p e rc e p tio n a l p h ases (ja v a n a ), a ll o f w h ic h a r e w h o lly a u to m a tic (k iriy a ).2 I t is r a th e r s u rp risin g th a t th e o b je c t sh o u ld h a v e fee lin g q u a litie s o f v a ry in g d eg rees, w h ile a t th e sa m e tim e also th e su b je c tiv e d isp o sitio n has a c e r ta in feeling to n e . T h e so lu tio n o f th is p ro b le m lies o b v io u sly in th e fact th a t th e d iv isio n b e t w e e n su b je c t a n d o b je c t in B u d d h ist p h ilo so p h y is n o t so rig id as it is fo r a th o ro u g h d u a lis t. B e a rin g in m in d th a t c o g n itio n is esse n tia lly e x p e rie n c in g for th e B u d d h ists, e x p e rie n c in g does n o t im p ly a su b je c t-o b je c t re la tio n as u ltim a te , n o r does it n e c e ssa rily im p ly a n e u tr a l s tu ff o u t o f w h ic h la te r m in d a n d m a tte r a r e c o n stru c te d . A ttr ib u tin g feelin g q u a litie s to o b jec ts is, p e rh a p s , o n ly a n a tte m p t to c o n v e y so m e th in g o f the in te n sity o f a n e x p e rie n c e . T h e in te n s ity o f th e p sy c h ic process o r th e in te n sity o f th e e x p e rie n c e in g e n e ra l a c c o u n ts for th e v a rio u s fu n ctio n s
1. 2. Visuddhimagga X I V 119. Visuddhimagga X I V 120-121.

as d e s c rib e d b y B u d d h a g h o s a w h o d istin g u ish e s tw o m a in q u a lita tiv e ly d iffe re n t manovinndnas. H e says : Its d ifferen ce lies in th e fa c t th a t it is a c c o m p a n ie d e ith e r b y a jo y o u s feeling to n e o r by in d iffe re n c e a n d th a t a c c o rd in g ly it o p e ra te s e ith e r a t tw o o r a t five stag es o f th e p sy c h ic p ro c e ss. T h e fo rm e r o f these tw o, b e c a u s e o f its p ro c e e d in g w ith re s p e c t to a n e x clu si vely d e s ira b le o b je c t, is a c c o m p a n ie d b y a jo y o u s fe elin g to n e, a n d o p e r a tin g as b r id g in g o v e r a n d a p p e r c e p tio n b y th e five senses a n d c o n tin u in g th e a p p e r c e p tio n a l p ro cess, it o p e ra te s on tw o le v e ls (i.e ., b rid g in g o v e r a n d a p p e r c e p tio n ) . T h e la tte r, b ecau se o f its p ro c e e d in g w ith re s p e c t to o b je c ts o f m e d iu m d e sira b ility , is a c c o m p a n ie d b y a fe e lin g o f in d iffe re n c e a n d o p e ra te s o n five levels as (i) b r id g in g o v e r, (ii) a p p e rc e p tio n , (iii) r e b i r t h o r c o n n e c tin g p sy c h ic p ro cess, (iv ) th e un co n scio u s c o n tin u u m , a n d (v ) d e a th o r c e a sin g p sy c h ic p ro c e ss .1 T h e a u th o r o f th e A tth a sa lin i- is m o re e x h a u stiv e a n d d e fin ite ly p o in ts o u t th e in te n s ity o f th e p ro cess. H e says re g a rd in g th e tw o a sp e c ts o f th e mcmovinnana : I n th e first in sta n c e th e te rm j o y (p i t i ) is u se d a d d itio n a lly . T h e feeling to n e is o n e o f jo y o u sn e ss a n d se re n ity (som anassa). T h is jo y a n d s e re n ity is fe lt w h e n th e o b je c t is ex clu siv ely d e s ira b le . In th e s e e b n d in s ta n c e a n o b je c t o f m e d iu m d e s ira b ility is in v o lv e d , th e re fo re th e fe e lin g to n e is ^ind ifference. . . .T h e m o d e o f a c tio n o f th e manovinndnadhdtu is tw o fo ld (a n d it h a s to be b o rn e in m i n d ) th a t i t h a s n o c a u s a l c h a ra c te ris tic a n d is a m e re ly e n e rg e tic pro cess (ahetnkavipdka ) , th a t its c h a ra c te ris tic is th e d is c rim in a tio n o f th e six k in d s o f o b je c ts (th e five sense o b jects a n d th e o b je c ts o f in tr o s p e c tio n ) , th a t its fu n c tio n is b rid g in g o v e r, th a t its e v e r-re c u rrin g m a n ife s ta tio n is suchness, a n d th a t th e basis fro m w h ic h it o p e ra te s is th e h e a r t. T h e first n a m e d p ro cess (a c c o m p a n ie d b y a jo y o u s feelin g to n e ) m an ife sts its e lf o n tw o levels. I t d e v e lo p s (vipaccati) in to th e fu n c tio n o f b rid g in g o v e r th e five senses w h ic h a c t lik e d oors, im m e d ia te ly a fte r th e manodhatu w h ic h its e lf is a,n e n e rg e tic p rocess (vipaka manodhatu ) h a s r e c e iv e d 'th e sense o b je c t, as soon as th e fu n c tio n s o f v isu a l p e rc e p tio n a n d o th e r sense p e rc e p tio n s, o p e ra tin g in a w h o le so m e o r h e a lth y d ire c tio n a n d a tm o sp h e re , h a v e c e a se d to o p e r a te (i.e ., h a v e tra n s m itte d th e sense stim u lu s to th e p e rc e iv in g s u b je c t) . I f th e stim u lu s c o m in g from the
I. Visuddhimagga X I V ;i8.

o b je c t is v ery in te n se in th e senses, th e process m e n tio n e d w ill d e v e lo p in to th e fu n c tio n o f ta k in g a firm h o ld o f th e o b je c t p e rc e iv e d . H o w is this to b e u n d e rsto o d ? J u s t as the w ake follow s a b o a t w h ic h h as fo rc e d its w ay th ro u g h a ra p id c u rre n t, th e re b y d iv id in g th e w a te r o f th e stre a m fo r a w h ile, (before th e w ak e d is a p p e a rs in th e c u r r e n t o n c e m o re ) so also th e p ro cess o f a p p e rc e p tio n h as co m e a b o u t, w h en a d esira b le o b je c t a p p e a rs a t o n e o f th e six senses c re a tin g a very in te n se stim u lu s ; b u t w h ile g e n e ra lly a fte r conscious p e rc e p tio n th e u n c o n sc io u s c o n tin u u m w ill ta k e its tu rn a g a in (i.e., the c o n scious c o n te n t w ill d is a p p e a r in to th e u n co n scio u s c o n tin u u m a n d b e su cceed ed by a n ew c o n te n t p e n e tra tin g in to conscious n e s s ), th is last n a m e d fu n c tio n w ill n o t allo w (th e un co n scio u s c o n tin u u m to la k e its tu rn a t o n c e ) , b u t w ill ta k e a firm h o ld o f th e im a g e w on by conscious p e rc e p tio n for o n e o r tw o m o m e n ts , a n d o n ly a l'fc r th a t w ill it allo w th e u n co n scio u s c o n ti n u u m to tak e its tu r n . (In s te a d o f usin g th e sim ile o f a b o a t) th e b a c k o f a b u ll crossing a r iv e r m ig h t also b e used for a n e x a m p le o f how th e process o f a p p e rc e p tio n com es a b o u t. I n this w a y , th e im ag e th a t has b e e n g ra sp e d in conscious p e rc e p tio n , b e c a u se o f it h a v in g b een ta k e n h o ld o f firm ly , b eco m es th e a p p e rc e p tiv e process (tadarammanarii ndma hutvd vipaccati). T h e second aspect (a c c o m p a n ie d b y a n in d iffe re n t feelin g to n e ) a p p e a rs o n five levels. I t d ev elo p s (i) in to th a t p sy ch ic e v e n t w h ic h form s th e c o n n e c tio n w ith th e ne\y existence (pa(isandhi), if th e b e in g sh o u ld be re b o rn in h u m a n ex istence, b e in g e ith e r b lin d o r d e a f o r stu p id o r in sa n e o r a h e rm a p h ro d ite o r even sexless by n a tu r e , (ii) in to th e u n co n scio u s c o n ti n u u m (bhavanga), as soon as th e m o m e n t o f c o n n e c tio n h as p assed , a n d th is u n c o n sc io u s c o n tin u u m w ill la st as lo n g as th e life tim e o f this s e n tie n t b e in g , (iii) in to th e fu n c tio n o f b rid g in g o v e r (santirai}a ) il th e o b je c t is o f m e d iu m d e sira b ility , (iv ) in to th e fu n c tio n o f ta k in g a firm h o ld o f th e o b je c t (laddramm ana), if th e stim u lu s to th e six se n se s.b y th e ob ject is very in te n se , a n d (v ) in to th a t k in d o f psychic p rocess w h ich at th e m o m e n t o f d e a th d e p a rts from th e p re sen t existen ce (cu li). O n th ese five levels th e p sy ch ic process u n d e r c o n sid e ra tio n m a n ife sts its e lf .*
i. Atthasalini 111 381-583.

A p a r t from th e c o n n e c tio n o f th e manoviiiiianadhdtu w ith r e b ir th , m o s t in te r e s tin g is th e s ta te m e n t th a t a p p e rc e p tio n d e p e n d s u p o n th e in te n s ity o f th e s tim u lu s . U s u a lly w e go th ro u g h life w ith o u t e v e r b e in g c o n sc io u s in th e tru e sense o f th e w o rd . W e m a r k th in g s a n d fo rg e t th e m a lm o s t as soon as w e m a r k th e m . I t a c tu a lly r e q u ir e s m o re , to b e , o r to b e co m e a c t u a l l y c o n sc io u s o f a th in g o r a s itu a tio n th a n just n o tin g th e ite m s o f o u r e v e ry d a y life. S in c e th e p ro c e ss o f b e c o m in g c o n sc io u s is n o t m e re ly a r e a c tio n p ro cess to th e o b je c t s tim u lu s b u t also is a m o st a c tiv e p ro c e ss, o n e in w h ic h th e se n se d m a te r ia l is u sed fo r p e r c e iv in g , o r w h a t a m o u n ts to th e s a m e , w h e re m e a n in g a c c ru e s to fo rm s, th o u g h th is d u a l p r e s e n ta tio n o f sen sed fo rm s a n d g iv e n m e a n in g s is d u e o n ly to th e lim ita tio n o f la n g u a g e w ith its lin e a r successiv e o r d e r o f w o rd s, w h ile a c tu a lly se e in g , h e a rin g a n d so o n a r e th e m se lv e s p ro cesses o f fo r m u la tio n , w e a r e now a b le to a p p r e c ia te th e s ta te m e n t c o n c e r n in g th e s im u lta n e ity o f s e n s a tio n a n d f o r m u la tio n : E a c h o b je c t m ak es its w a y (in to c o n sc io u sn e ss) b y w a y o f tw o d o o rs. T h u s , a v isib le o b je c t s im u lta n e o u s ly w ith s tim u la tin g th e se n sitiv ity o f th e eye a p p e a r s a t th e 'm a n a s ( manodvare ). T h e m e a n in g is th a t th e v is ib le o b je c t is th e irre m is s ib le c o n d itio n fo r th e a c tiv a tio n o f th e u n c o n sc io u s (i.e ., o f th e la te n t im a g e o r d e p o sit o f fo rm e r s im ila r e x p e rie n c e s ). T h e p ro c e ss in re sp e c t to a n a u d ib le , o lfa c to ry , g u s ta to ry , a n d ta c tile o b je c t is e x a c tly th e sam e (as in re s p e c t to a v is ib le o b je c t) . (T h is p ro cess m a y be illu s tr a te d b y a s im ile :) J u s t a s a b ir d fly in g th r o u g h th e a ir a n d a lig h tin g o n th e to p o f a tre e to u c h e s a b ra n c h o f th e tre e a n d its s h a d o w strik e s th e g r o u n d , th e to u c h in g o f th e b r a n c h a n d th e s p re a d in g o f th e s h a d o w o n th e g r o u n d ta k in g p la c e s im u lta n e o u s ly , so also th e s tim u la tio n o f th e se n sitiv ity o f th e e y e b y th e v isib le o b je c t a n d its a p p e a r a n c e a t th e su b je c tiv e f a c to r (m anas) b y v ir tu e o f its a b ility ^ to a c tiv a te th e ( la te n t im a g e o f th e o b je c t in t h e ) u n c o n s c io u s ta k e s p la c e s im u lta n e o u sly . A fte r th a t, th e im a g e h a v in g b e e n se le c te d fro m th e u n c o n s c io u s c o n tin u u m im m e d ia te ly a f te r th e p ro c ess ju s t d e s c rib e d , a n d h a v in g s ta r te d w ith a tte n tio n a n d e n d e d w ith ju d g m e n t a s to th e v isib le o b je c t, a c o n sc io u s p e r c e p tio n w ith re s p e c t to a n y a s p e c t a m o n g th e v isib le o b je c ts as its o b je c tiv e c o m es in to e x is te n c e .51 B e a rin g in m in d th e fu n c tio n o f th e

manas as m e a s u rin g 5 o r ta k in g s to c k , it is o b v io u s th a t the im m e d ia te ly sensed c o lo u rs, .sounds, fra g ra n c e s, flavours, a rt n o t th e m e re effects o f th e a c tio n o f m a te r ia l su b stan ce s u p o n th t o th e rw ise a b so lu te ly b la n k m e n ta l su b stan ces w h ic h b y m ean; o f som e m y ste rio u s fa c u lty th e n p ro je c t o u t o f them selve; w h a t w e c a ll o u r conscious w o rld . Sense p e rc e p tio n is essen tia lly a process o f sy m b o lic fo rm u la tio n .2 N o n -sen su o u s p e r c e p tio n , as th e n a m e im p lies, com e; a b o u t w ith o u t th e c o -o p e ra tio n o f th e senses.3 As th e exam ple: a d d u c e d in th e A tth a s a lin i m a k e c le a r, no n -sen su o u s p e rc e p tio n refers to p e rc e p tu a l m e m o ry situ a tio n s. I t w ill suffice to q u o te o n e e x a m p le : S o m e o n e h as c irc u m a m b u la te d a g r e a t sh rin e , w h ic h is w ell p la s te re d , d e c o ra te d w ith such c o lo u rs as o rp im c n t, re a lg a r, a n d th e like, w h ic h is bedecked w ith v a rio u s k inds o f flags a n d b a n n e rs, in te rla c e d w ith g a r la n d s a n d w re a th s, e n c irc le d b y row s o f la m p s, a n d is shining in g o rg eo u s s p le n d o r, a n d a d o rn e d in every re sp e c t. O n the six te e n p la tfo rm s th e v isito r h a s p a id h o m a g e in p ro stra tin g him self, a n d w ith fo ld ed h a n d s h e h a s stood lo o k in g a t th e s ta tu e o f th e B u d d h a , w ith a d e e p fe e lin g o f jo y . T h u s h a v in g seen th e s h rin e a n d h a v in g d e riv e d a d e e p fee lin g o f jo y from lo o k in g a t th e sta tu e o f th e B u d d h a , w h e re v e r he m a y su b seq u en tly g o o r se a t h im self; be it in a p la c e re serv ed for th e n ig h t o r a p la c e re se rv e d for th e d a y , th e s h rin e .a d o rn e d in e v e ry re sp ec t seem s to a p p e a r b e fo re his eyes o n re flec tio n ju s t as it w as w h en h e a c tu a lly c irc u m a m b u la te d th e s h rin e a n d p a id his h o m ag e. T h u s b y p re v io u s sig h t a v isib le o b je c t is n o n -se m u o u sly p e r c e iv e d .4 T h e g ist o f th e m a tte r is th a t a c c o rd in g to this view th e m e m o ry s itu a tio n d o es c o n ta in as its o b je c tiv e c o n sti tu e n t a v isu al, a u d ito ry , o lfa c to ry , g u s ta to ry , a n d ta c tile im ag e, as th e case m a y b e , a n d th a t su c h a n im a g e is v e ry m u c h like a sen su m p e rc e iv e d in sensuous p e r c e p tio n .5 I t is im p o r ta n t to n o te th a t in n o n -sen su o u s p e rc e p tio n

1. 2. P- 73 . 3. 4. 5.

Atthasalini III 55. See Susanne K . Langer, Philosophy in a New Key. (Mentor Book), _ Atthasalini 111 56; suddhamanodvarc j>afddaghattanakiccam natthi. Atthasalini I I I 56. See C . D. Broad, The M ind and Its Place in Nature, p. 230.

th e in te n s ity o f th e sense im p re ssio n is d ecisiv e for w h eth ei th e re w ill b e a p e r c e p tu a l s itu a tio n o r n o t.1 H o w e v e r, sinct th e manas (manovijnana) is alw a y s p re s e n t in sense p e rc e p tio n ,2 th e v e ry fa c t t h a t so m e tim e s a n o b je c t is n o t reg istered w ith th e manas b e c a u s e o f its low in te n s ity , m ig h t sug g est th a t in th is case w e h a v e s im u lta n e o u s u n d is c rim in a tin g aw aren ess, to use a te rm o f C . D . B ro a d .3 T o g iv e a n e x a m p le . H I look fo r a c e rta in s lip w ith n o te s o n m y w ritin g ta b le , b u t fail to fin d it, th o u g h it w as s ta r in g m e in - th e face a ll th e tim e , I a m a w a re o f th e p a p e rs s c a tte re d o v e r m y w ritin g ta b le w h ich re g is te re d w ith m y eyes a n d m y manas, to use B u d d h is t te rm s, b u t I a m u n a w a re o f th e slip w ith n o te s w h ic h re g iste re d n e ith e r w ith m y ey es n o r w ith m y manas. I s h a ll c o n c lu d e th is se c tio n b y c o n s id e rin g v e ry b rie fly th e manovijnana m e n tio n e d o n a p a r w ith caksurvijnana a n d d iffe re n t fro m th e manas, manovijnana d iscu ssed so fa r, a n d th e n a tu r e o f th e manas. T h e te rm vijnana m e a n s d is c r im in a tio n in th e sense of c u ttin g u p a w h o le in to p a rts a n d se le c tin g th e m .4 T h is fu n c tio n is c o n n e c te d w ith th e senses so th a t, s tric tly sp ea k in g , \ vijnana c o rre sp o n d s to o u r se n sin g 5. I n th is w ay w e h a v e five sense vijnanas (eye, e a r, nose, to n g u e , s k in ), e a c h vijnana n a m e d a fte r th e b asis o n w h ich it o p e ra te s. S im ila rly a manovijnana h as b e e n liste d as h a v in g th e manas fo r its b a sis.6 H o w e v e r, since th e manas (so m etim es c a lle d manovijnana as p o in te d out, a b o v e ) is su fficien t for a c c o u n tin g fo r th e fo rm u la te d c o n te n t in co n scio u sn ess, th e a ss u m p tio n o f a sp ec ial manovijnana in th e sense o f a n o th e r se n so ry vijnana (caksurvijnana, e tc .) is r e d u n d a n t a n d o n ly a p t to c re a te c o n fu sio n .6
1. 2. pp. 244, 3. 4. Abhidhammatthasangaha I V 11. Madhyamika-vrtti, p. 72. Hiuan-tsang s Vijnaptimatratasiddhi, 245, 412, 413. Mahayana-sfitralankara X I 40. lo c. c it ., p. :>f!o. Lankavalarasutra ... 461 : vijnanam cittavisayam vijnanaih saha

chindati.

5. Abhidharmakosa I 17 ed. 6. For this reason Santaraksita thinks it discreet to slur over it, while Kam alasila declares it to be a well-known piece of the Buddhist doctrine. See Satkari Mookerjee, T h e Buddhist Philosophy of Universal Flux, pp. 311 sq.

I t is a fact th a t a t a n y m o m e n t a m a n s to ta l sta te o f m in t m a y b e , a n d g e n e ra lly is, d iffe re n tia te d b o th q u a lita tiv e ly anc o b je c tiv e ly . A t th e sam e tim e a c e rta in series o f successivc to ta l m e n ta l states a re said to b e lo n g to a single m in d . A nc as is c o n clu siv ely p ro v e d b y la n g u a g e , th e u n ity o f a set o f sense w h ic h a re a p p re h e n d e d by a p e rso n is th e u n ity o f ce n tre .' T h is c e n tre is, as th e discussion a b o u t th e manas as th e m eetingp la c e h as in d ic a te d , th e manas. I t is th e n a tu r e o f this mana. th a t h a s fo u n d v a rio u s in te r p r e ta tio n s in B u d d h ist p h ilo so p h y A c c o rd in g to th e Y o g a c a ra s it is a n e x iste n t, th o u g h n o t in tli< sense o f a P u re E go b u t in th e sense o f a n e v en t w h ic h is o f the sa m e n a tu r e as th e ev e n ts w h ic h it unifies. T h e a u th o rs o f tht P a li A b h id h a m m a la k e m o re o r less a p u re ly p h y sio lo g ic a l view fo r th e m th e c e n tre is th e h e a r t. B u t h e re also tw o in te rp r e ta tio n s a re fo u n d . F o r th e a u th o r o f th e V is u d d h im a g g a tin h e a rt is th e p h y sical o rg a n , w h ile for th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i h e a rt m e a n s o n ly in w a rd n e s s ,2 so t h a t he is m ori clo sely re la te d to th e V a ib h iisik a s for w h o m th~ c e n tre is no a n e x is te n t, b u t o n ly a fact a b o u t th e r e la tio n o f term s in a p a r tic u la r w a y , h e n c e its m o d e o f b e in g is su b sisten c e a n d not e x isten ce. Concomitant Function Events in A n A ttitude I W h ile in life a h e a lth y a t titu d e is o f u tm o st im p o rta n c e , it h a s to be b o rn e in m in d th a t a n a ttitu d e is n o t a single e n tity th a t c a n b e d e a lt w ith as su ch , b u t a d e fin ite o rg a n iz a tio n o f m a n y facto rs, w h ic h b y reaso n o f th e B u d d h ist c o n c e p tio n o f m o m e n ta rin e ss 1 sh a ll term fu n c tio n -e v e n ts. T h is is b o rn e o u t b y o n e o f th e e a rlie st A b h id h a r m a w orks, th e D h a m m a s a n g a n i. Y a s o m itra , too, states co n cisely : A n a ttitu d e does n o t a rise w ith o u t p sy ch ic fu n c tio n -e v e n ts, n o r d o these psychic fu n c tio n -e v e n ts o p e ra te w ith o u t an a ttitu d e . H o w e v er, not e v ery a ttitu d e com es in to ex isten ce w ith all psy ch ic fu n ctio n e v en ts, n o r d o all p sy ch ic fu n c tio n -e v e n ts n e c essarily co m e in to ex isten ce w ith ev ery a ttitu d e .3 V a s u b a n d h u a n d S rh ira1. G. D . Broad, T he Mincl and Its Place in Nature, p. 212. 2. Atthasalini III 274. But Visuddhimagga V I I I 111. See also the discussion of the various views by Hiuan-tsang. Vijnaptimatratasiddhi, p. alii. 3. Yasomitra ad Abhidh.-kosa II 23 : na cittam caittair vind utpadyate

m a ii h a v e fu lly e la b o r a te d th e p r o b le m : w h ic h fu n c tio n -e v e n ts a re a lw a y s p re s e n t, a n d w h ic h m a y n o t o r m a y b e p r e s e n t.1 W ith o n ly a m in o r d e v ia tio n th e list o f th e se a u th o r s is id e n tic a l w ith th e o n e g iv e n b y th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i. As alw ay s b e in g p re s e n t in a n a t t it u d e th e fo llo w in g five fu n c tio n -e v e n ts a r e m e n tio n e d : sparsa (P a li p hassa), vedana, saiiijiid (P a li xailna), cetana , a n d c itta ?
napi caittd vina cittenety avadharyate. tin hi sarvam cittarifsarvacaittaniyatasahotpadam, ndpi sarvacaittah, sarvacittaniyatasahotpddd iti. T h e explanation of caitta which I have translated by psychic function-events runs in Yasomitras i Vyakhyii and Abhidh.-kosa I 2 as follows : cittasyeme citte vd bhavds caittd iti state o f or in mind. 1. Trimsika. verses 3' and 10, and commentary. 2. W ith the exception o f the rather ambiguous term citta, which, for this reason, seems to have been replaced by the more exact term manaskdra, the four other function-events are acknowledged as belonging to an attitude in all schools of Buddhist thought. Thus Vasubandhu says in his Trimsika :? cd: sadd sparsamanaskdravitsamjndcetandnviiam Always accompanied b y sparsa, attention, feeling, sensation, and moti vation. In his Paiicaskandhaka he calls these five function-events sarvaqa ever-accompanying*. T h e Vaibhasikas admit of ten function-events as belonging to every attitude, mahdbhiimika, a view which is not shared by Vasubandhu, Sthiramati, and probably also not by the author of the Atthasalini who, though there is a strong evidence that he inclines to the views o f the Sautrfmtikas-Yogacaras, does not make such subtle distinctions with respect to the psychic functionevents as does Vasubandhu. Abhidharmakosa II 24 representing the view o f the Vaibhasikas, runs as follows: vedana cetana samjrid chandah sparsa matih smrtih manaskdra, dltimoksns ca samddhih sarvacetasi Feeling, motivation, sensation, desire, sparsa, discrimination, memory, attention, intention, and concentration are found in every attitudinal opera tion. T h e order of ihese function-events is not fixed. In the Dhatukaya the order is : vedana, samjrid, cetana, sparsa , manaskdra, chandah. adhimukti, smrti, samddhi, and prajHa. prajha corresponds, according to Yasomitra, with maii in the karika of the Abhidharmakosa, and both mati and prajnd as discernment discrimi nation are related to citta in its aspect o f discrimination in Atthasalini. T h at there is no fixed order is also asserted in Atthasalini III 178. It is interesting to note that chandah, adhimoksa, manaskdra are mentioned in Atthasalini III 252, 253, 254 as belonging to those called yevdpanaka whatever

A. T h e first o f th e se te rm s , sparsa, C a n n o t b e tr a n s la te d w ith o u t g iv in g rise to m is u n d e r s ta n d in g 1 a n d it c a n o n ly b e c ir c u m s c r ib e d as th e to ta lity o f a g iv e n s itu a tio n ( Ges&mtsituatio n ) o r th e b e in g in tu n e o f v a r io u s e v e n ts a n d c irc u m s ta n c e s o u t o f w h ic h th e r e r e s u lts a n d is m a in ta i n e d a c e r ta in r e la tio n s h ip ; th is r e la tio n s h ip , h o w e v e r, la s tin g o n ly a s lo n g as th e circu m -sfan ces w h ic h h a v e b r o u g h t a b o u t th e re s p e c tiv e s itu a tio n , a r c th e s a m e . T h is m e a n s t h a t w h a t w e c a ll a g iv e n s itu a tio n is n o t j u s t a d is c o n n e c te d se t o f is o la te d ite m s , b u t a lP th e s e to g e th e r in a h a r m o n io u s p a t t e r n o r s tr u c tu r e . T h e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i e x p la in s th is g e n e r a l c h a r a c te r o f sparsa b y th e s im ile o f th e m a in p i ll a r a n d th e a d jo in in g ra fte r s o f a p a la c e s tr u c tu r e , e a c h o n e h a v in g its re c o g n iz e d d iffe re n c e s a n d y et fo r m in g a h a r m o n io u s ly c o n n e c te d w h o le . H is w o rd s a r e : T h is phassa is lik e a p i l l a r in a p a la c e b e in g th e firm s u p p o rt to th e re s t o f th e s t r u c t u r e ; a n d j u s t as b e a m s, c ro ss-b e a m s, w in g - s u p p o r ts , r o o f-ra fte rs , c ro s s -ra fte rs , a n d n e c k -p ie c e s a re fa s te n e d to th e p illa r , a r e fixed o n th e p illa r , so a lso is phassa a firm s u p p o r t to th e s im u lta n e o u s a n d a s s o c ia te d e v e n ts. I t is lik e th e p illa r , th e re s t o f th e p s y c h ic e v e n ts a r e lik e th e o th e r m a te r ia ls fo r m in g th e s t r u c t u r e .2 A lth o u g h th is d e s c r ip tio n se e m s to a d v o c a te a sta tic c o n c e p tio n o f sparsa, sin c e w e a r e a p t to o v e rlo o k th e s ta te o f m u tu a l te n s io n b e tw e e n th e v a r io u s p a r ts o f th e s tr u c tu r e , it w o u ld b e e rro n e o tis to a ssu m e t h a t sparsa o r th e to ta lity o f a g iv e n s itu a tio n is a s ta tic e n tity . I t is a c tu a lly a n a c tio n w h ich seizes a n d lim its th e o b je c t ju s t a s m u c h as it is seiz ed a n d lim ite d b y th e o b je c t. T h u s , its f u r th e r d e fin itio n r u n s a s fo llo w s:
events there may be . T heir definite presence in a healthy attitude is apparent ly taken over from the Vaibhasikas. T h e term yevdpanaka does not convey definite presence. Anuruddha in his Abhidham m atthasangaha II 2-3 declares that manasikdm is present in every attitude, but that adhimoksa and chandah are restricted to certain attitudes, among others a healthy attitude. This distinction intro duces a hew classification o f the mahabhumikas of the Vaibhasika, but does not have special merits. 1. sparsa is usually translated by contact . However, in psychology contact* is a feeling o f actual accord in spite o f recognised differences bet ween the representatives of the different psychological types, sparsa does not have this sense and therefore the translation b y contact had better be avoided. a. Atthasalini I I I 177.

sparsa is ca lle d so, b e c a u se it to u c h e s (i.e., re la te s )i Its n a tu r e is to u c h in g , its a c c o m p lish m e n t is close c o n ta c t; its a c tu a lity is th e tu n in g -in (o f th e th re e events c o n ce rn ed in its fo r m a tio n ) ; a n d th e basis o n w h ic h it rests is th e o b je c t th a t h as co m e in to th e focus o f consciousness .1- O u r a u th o r is q u ite a w a re o f th e fa c t th a t this d e s c rip tio n is n o t a t all a d e q u a te . T h e fact is th a t th e v e ry m o m e n t th e c h a ra c te r o f th in g n ess d isa p p e a rs, as is th e case w ith such a n a b s tra c tio n as to ta lity o f a s itu a tio n , w ith it goes th e q u a lity o f re p re s e n ta tio n . A t th is p o in t th e co n flict a b o u t th e n a tu r e o f sparfa (or w h a te v e r o th e r a b s tra c tio n th e re m a y b e ) a p p e a rs : w h e th e r it is p u re ly c o n c e p tu a l a n d a b s tra c t, a pie c e o f o u r m e n ta l calcu lu s, so to say , o r w h e th e r it is so m e th in g re a l a n d ta n g ib le . T h e re a lity o f th e p u re ly c o n c e p tu a l w h ic h alw ays creeps in to o u r process o f a b s tra c tio n b e c a u se o f th e p e rse v e ra n ce o f p e rc e p tio n n d b e c a u se o f th e lim ita tio n o f d e -se n su a liz a tio n , is b ro u g h t o u t in th e sta te m e n t th a t th o u g h it'is n o n -sensuous it fu n ctio n s w ith re s p e c t to a n o b je c t in th e m a n n e r o f to u c h in g .2 E lse w h e re th e d y n a m ic a s p e c t o f sparsa is d e sc rib ed as to u ch in g , e sta b lish in g a close c o n ta c t, a n d th e r e s u lta n t o f th e process o f e sta b lish in g a close c o n ta c t .8 T h is la tte r a sp ec t is a g a in p o in te d o u t by th e s ta te m e n t th a t sparta is n o t m e rely th e c o m in g to g e th e r o f th e th re e fa c to rs: sense o rg a n , sense o b ject a n d sense p e rc e p tio n , b u t th a t w h ic h resu lts o u t o f th is com ing to g e th e r, in a d d itio n to th e co m in g to g e th e r.4 T h e m a n n e r by
1. Atthasalini III 179. 2. Atthasalini I I I 179. This fact that it is like touching is explicitly pointed out bv Yasomitra in his Vyakhya ad Abhidh.-kosa II 24 : sprftir ioa spTftih. yadyogdd indriyaBtfayavijmnany anyonyam sMantiva sa sparsah sprtfi because it is like touch. Because of it, it, is as if the sense organ, the sense object, and the perception touch each other. Therefore one speaks otsparia." 3. Atthasalini H I 266. It is here further stated that every factor in our mental and spiritual life is to be understood in this way, viz., general description (vyanjana), its intensity as pointed out by the addition of a pre position (apasagga), and its meaning (attha), being the product of some ele mentary factors. However, though it may appear as something derived and something secondary, it has an autonomous existence as a given possibility of thought-connections. As such it is a determining psychological factor. 4. Thus also Yasomitra in his Vyakhya ad Abhidh.-kosa II 24 states: sparja is the situation born out of the coming together of sense organ, sense object, and sensory perceptiod sparsa indriyavifayavijndnasarmipdtajd sprftir iti. indriyavi}ayavijnananam sannipdtaj ja td spiftih.

w h ic h th e a u t h o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i e x p la in s th is c h a r a c te r is tic o f sparsa is h ig h ly s u g g e stiv e a n d r e m a rk a b le . H e says th a t S in c e it is k n o w n th r o u g h its o w n c a u se w h ic h is th e c o m in g to g e th e r o f th r e e fa c to rs , its a c tu a lity is th e tu n in g - in o f th ese th r e e fa c to rs . T h is is p o in te d o u t a t se v e ra l p la c e s b y th e S u tr a p h r a s e , sparSa is th e c o m in g to g e th e r o f th r e e ; th e m e a n in g o f th is S u t r a p h r a s e is t h a t it is sparia b e c a u se o f th e c o m in g to g e th e r ( a n d s u b s e q u e n t tu n in g - in ) o f th e th r e e , b u t n o t t h a t i t is th e m e r e c o m in g to g e th e r .1 T h a t sparsa is b o th c a u se a n d e ffe c t is also th e v iew o f th e Y o g a c a ra s , a n d S th ir a m a ti s ta te s t h a t T h e sense o r g a n , th e sen se o b je c t, a n d th e sense p e r c e p tio n fo rm a tr in ity . T h e s ta te o f th is tr in ity as b e in g b o t h c a u s e a n d e ffe c t is th e c o m in g to g e th e r a n d tu n in g - in o f th e th r e e fa c to rs o f th is tr i n i t y .2 T h e r e is a m a r k e d c o n tr a s t b e tw e e n th e so lid n e ss as it w e r e , o f sense p e r c e p tio n a n d th e s u b tle n e ss o f n o n -se n su o u s p e r c e p tio n , fo r w h ile w ith re s p e c t to sense p e r c e p tio n th e re is b o t h to u c h in g a n d clo se c o n t a c t , in n o n -se n su o u s p e r c e p tio n th e r e is m e re ly to u c h in g .3 S en se p e r c e p tio n is so s tr o n g a n d so lid a n d c o n c r e te i n h u e a n d te x tu r e th a t it is c o m p a r e d w ith tw o fig h tin g ra m s o r tw o h a n d s b e in g c la p p e d to g e th e r , th e o n e r a m o r th e o n e h a n d r e p r e s e n tin g th e sense o r g a n , fo r in s ta n c e , th e e y e , a n d th e o th e r r a m o r th e o th e r h a n d , th e sense o b je c t, th e c o lo u rs a n d so o n . I t is in th is c o n n e c tio n t h a t th e a u t h o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i m a k e s so m e im p o r ta n t r e m a r k s w h ic h c le a rly sh o w th e lin e o f th o u g h t h e follow s a n d -w hich a r c a ls o m o s t r e le v a n t fo r a ssig n in g to th e P a li A b h i d h a m m a a d e fin ite p la c e in th e h is to ry a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f B u d d h is t th o u g h t, th u s lib e r a tin g it fro m th e b a r r e n iso la tio n i n to w h ic h sc h o la rs n o t k n o w in g S a n s k rit h a v e e x ile d it. O u r a u t h o r says t h a t th o u g h -we a re a c c u s to m e d to sa y , w h a t th e e y e sees, w h e n w e a c tu a lly m e a n , i t is th e m in d w h ic h sees,
1. Atthasalini I I I 182. 2. Trirhiikaj p. 20. 3. Atthasalini II I 180 : Close contact is established only b y the five senses. W ith respect to perception by the five senses there is touching and close contact; with respect to non-sensuous perception there is only touching but not close contact samghattanaraso pana Pancadiariko hoti. pahcadtarikassa hi pkusanalakkhano ti p i samgattanaraso ti p i namam ; manodvdrikassa pkusanalakkhano tv eva namam, 11a samghattanaraso.

by tak in g its sta n d on th e eye as its basis, a n d u tilizin g i t as its m e d iu m fo r seeing. I n su p p o rt o f th is e x p la n a tio n w hich .attem pts to convey th e sp irit o f th e liv in g process in stead o f clinging to th e d ead le tte r o f th e tex t, h e quotes th e A ncients w h o stated th a t T h e eye does n o t see, b ecause it is n o t o f the n a tu re o f m in d , a n d m in d does n o t see, because it is n o t o f the jia tu re o f th e eye. B ut by th e close c o n ta c t o f the object w ith the d o o r (i.e ., th e sense o rg a n ) on e sees b y consciousness -which takes th e sensitivity o f th e sense o rg a n as its b asis. Such a n e x p la n a tio n is, m o reo v er, su p p o rted b y such phrases as, one pierces w ith a bo w (th o u g h a c tu a lly it is th e arro w shot from the b o w th a t pierces its ta rg e t). T h e re fo re th e m ea n in g -of th e p h ra se seeing colours b y th e eye is seeing colours w ith v isu al consciousness.1 T h is in stru m e n ta l th e o ry o f p erc ep tio n is precisely th e view o f th e Y o g acaras, as Y a so m itra inform s us in his A b h id h a rm a k o sa v y a k h y a, c o m m e n tin g on a long c o n tro v e rsy b etw een th e Y o g a c a ra p h ilo so p h e r u p h o ld in g th e v ie .v th a t m in d sees by m ean s o f th e eye, a n d th e V a ib h a sik a w ho clings to th e th e o ry th a t it is th e eye th a t sees a n d n o t m in d .2 M o reo v er, th e Y o g acaras also acknow ledged the sen sitiv ity (pasada) o f th e sense o rg an s th ro u g h w hich m in d does th e a c tu a l seeing, h e a rin g etc. T h a t it is n o t th e physical eye th a t sees, b u t th a t seeing is d u e to th e sensitivity o f the eye is p o in te d o u t in a verse w h ich is ascrib ed to Sari p u tra an d ha.': o ften been re p e a te d in th e A b h id h a rm a lite ra tu re . T h is verse ru n s as follo w s: T h e sensitivity o f th e eye b y w h ich on e sees form s / Is sm all, fine, a n d like th e h e a d o f a louse.3
1. Atthasalini V 131. See also III 181. 2. Abhidharmakosa-vyakhya ad Abhidh.-kosa I 42: cakfub pasyati rupani sabhagam na ladasritam mjnanam djsyate r tipam na kildntaritam yalah The eye sees forms, when it is sabhaga (conform), but not mind that takes its stand on it. For an object is not seen when it is hidden. Such is the opinion of the Vaibhasikas. The Vaibhasika means that since mind is immaterial and can go every where there is no reason wby it should not see what is hidden. He only over looks the condition by which visual perception arises. 3. Atthasalini IV 28; Paramatthavinicchaya 664: Namarupapariccheda: yena cakkhttpasadena r upani-m-anupassati parittam sukhumam etam ukasirasamupamam

B u t th e m o s t d e c isiv e f a c t is t h a t th e d e fin itio n o f sen sitiv ity * g iv e n b y th e A u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i ta llie s e x a c tly w ith t h e o n e g iv e n b y A s a n g a , w h o is th e m o s t p r o m in e n t r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e Y o g a c a r a sc h o o l o f B u d d h is t th o u g h t. S e n s itiv ity ise x p la in e d as th e o rg a n is e d f o u r e le m e n ts .1 T h is provesb e y o n d a s h a d o w o f d o u b t t h a t th e a c k n o w le d g e d in t e r p r e t e r a n d c o m m e n ta to r o f th e P a li A b h id h a m m a te x ts is in lin e w i t h th e Y o g a c a r a w a y o f th o u g h t. T h e c la im o f th e P a li sc h o o l t h a t th e y h a v e p re s e rv e d th e o r i g i n a l B u d d h is m , o n th e e v i d e n c e o f th e m a t e r i a l a v a ila b le is u n f o u n d e d a n d is n o th in g b u t s e c ta ria n is m . I n s o f a r as th e sparSa is a u n iq u e h a r m o n y o f c a u se a n d e ffe c t i t a lso p ro v id e s th e p o s s ib ility fo r th e fu n c tio n in g o f o th e r p s y c h ic f u n c tio n -e v e n ts . O n e o f th e m o s t im p o r t a n t f u n c tio n e v e n ts is vedana, fe e lin g . T h u s , sparsa is s a id T o p r o d u c e fe e lin g , to g iv e rise to i t ,2 th o u g h n o t in th e sen se o f m e c h a n is tic c a u s e a n d effe c t r e la tio n b u t in s o fa r as w ith in th e to ta lity o f a c e r t a i n s itu a tio n a s p o in te d o u t b y sparsa th e w h o le m e n ta ls p ir itu a l p o te n tia l is a b le to w o rk . A s a sim ile th e fo llo w in g isa d d u c e d . J u s t as h e a t in h e a t e d la c w h ic h h a s b e c o m e m a n i fest o n a c c o u n t o f th e o u te r h e a t, p ro d u c e s softness in its m a te r ia l ( i.e ., th e l a c ) , b u t n o t in its c o n d itio n , th e o u te r b u r n in g c o a ls , so a ls o b e c a u s e th e r e a r e s u c h o u t e r c o n d itio n s as b a sis a n d o b je c t, sparsa p ro d u c e s fe e lin g in th e c o n sc io u s a t t i t u d e as i t s m a te r ia l , b u t n o t in th e b asis o r in th e o b je c t w h ic h a re i t s c o n d i t i o n .3 '*
I. Atthasalini I V 28; 29 : catunpam mahdbhutanam upddaya pasado. Abliidh?.rmasamuccaya, p . 3 : catvari mahdbhutany upadaya cakftirvijminairayo rupaprasadah. T h e organized four elements which form the basis for sensory consciousness are sensitivity. a. Atthasalini I I I 183. 3. Atthasalini I I I 183. In the Abhidharm asamuccaya, p . 6 sparsa is said to act as a basis for feeling vedanasannUrayadanakarmaka. T h e same term occurs in Sthiramatis commentary on Vasubandhus Trimsika, p. 20. In the Madhyamakavrtti, p . 118, feeling is said to be sparsasahaja co-existent w ith sparsa, denoting simultaneity fsahotpannatva) and the relation o f cause and effect (Janyajanakabhdva). T h e relation o f feeling to sparsa is expressed in this w ay that feeling has its root in sparsa as its condition O n p. 534 we read: Just as one speaks o f feeling w ith respect to sparsa whose characteristic is the coming together and tuning-in o f the three factors, object, consciousness,

B. F eelin g (vedana) is a basic psychological fu n ctio n w hich im p a rts to every conscious c o n te n t, o f w h a te v e r kind it m a y be, a definite v a lu e in th e sense o f a c c e p tan c e ( lik e ) o r rejection ( dislik e ) -or indifference, for even in d ifferen ce is a c e rta in v a lu a tio n .1 I t e n jo y s'th e c o n te n t e ith e r as a w hole o r only in its m o re d e sira b le p o rtio n .2 T h u s, feeling is a kind o f ju d g in g , a lth o u g h it does n o t estab lish a n in te lle c tu a l connection, b u t m erely sets u p a subjective c rite rio n o f acc e p tan c e, rejectio n , or indifference. O f course, the. n a tu re o f feeling itself c a n n o t b e defin ed , becau se every d e fin itio n has to b e given in term s w hich b e lo n g to th e re a lm o f th e in te lle c t a n d th e in te lle ct is q u ite in c o m m e n su ra b le w ith feeling. M o reo v er, no basic psychologi cal fu n c tio n c a n be expressed b y a n o th e r. T h is autonom ous c h a ra c te r o f feeling is, th e re fo re , in d ic a te d by th e sim ile o f a king w h o b y v irtu e o f his lo rd sh ip , expertness, a n d m astery, tastes a n d enjoys th a t w h ic h o th ers h av e p re p a re d , in a w ay no b o d y else c an a c c o u n t for, since ev ery b o d y else is o n ly p a rtly co n ce rn e d w ith w h a t is th e issue.3 T h is su p rem acy o f feeling cle arly shows th a t in o u r life th e em o tio n a l v a lu e w hich w e a tta c h to any c o n te n t is m o re im p o rta n t a n d decisive th a n th e m erely cognitiv e m e a n in g , for h o w else could it b e possible th a t th e so-called civilized n a tio n s fo r such a b stra c tio n s as G o d , m o th erand sense organ, so also feeling is to bespoken of as being conditioned and having its root in sparsa whose characteristic is the coming together of three factors, viz., sense organ, object, and sensory consciousness . 1. That feeling is an imparting of value is also brought out by the terminology itself, inasmuch as the past participle passive has been used, denoting the resultant out of the process itself. Atthasalini III 184: veiayitalakkhapa. 2. Atthasalini III 184.. This latter aspect has been explained in III 186 as : In the second meaning it is here understood that feeling just enjoys the desirtd portion of an object and therefore its function has been called enjoying the desirable part . The Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 2 defines feeling simply by enjoying (anubhava) and adds that by it one tastes to the end the results of ones pure and impure actions. The Madhyamakavrtti gives both views,, i.e., total enjoyment and par tial enjoyment, as is evident from p. 534: islaniftobhayaviparitavifayanubhiJtir vi$aydnubhavo vmlanam vittir vedaneiy ucyate. 3. Aithasalini III 186. In III 185 we are told that phassa is only touching, sanna is only sensing, cetana is only motivating, vinndna is only discri minating, but vedana because of its lordship, expertness, and mastery relishes the taste of the object .

la n d , e tc ., u n h e sita tin g ly w ag ed w a r ag a in st e a c h o th e r a n d th o u g h t i t v e ry m e rito rio u s to c o m m it w h o lesale m u rd e r. H o w ev er, feelin g c a n also a p p e a r q u ite a p a r t from th e m o m e n ta ry c o n te n t 'in consciousness in th e fo rm o f a m o o d , w h ic h h as b e e n re fe rre d to in th e s ta te m e n t th a t as re g a rd s its p resen ce in th e p u r e fo rm o f m e n ta l-s p iritu a l re lish in g ' ( cetasika-assadato ) it h a s b e e n said th a t its a c tu a lity is m o o d (cetasika-assada) -1 M o o d , too, signifies a v a lu a tio n , th o u g h n o t o f a d e fin ite c o n te n t b u t o f th e w h o le conscious situ a tio n a t th e m o m e n t. T h e fa c t t h a t feelin g in th e form o f m o o d m a y a p p e a r q u ite in d e p e n d e n tly o f th e m o m e n ta ry sensations, a l th o u g h b y som e exiguous re a so n in g it m a y b e c a u sa lly re la te d to som e p rev io u s conscious c o n te n t, is b ro u g h t o u t in th e B ud d h is t te x ts by te rm in g th is k in d o f feeling cetasika vedana w h ic h m a y b e tra n s la te d as a b s tra c t fe e lin g , in a sm u c h as it is raise d a b o v e th e d iffe re n t in d iv id u a l feelin g v alues o f c o n c re te feeling. I t is c le a rly d istin g u ish e d from kayika vedana o r c o n c re te fe elin g w h ic h d e n o tes th a t k in d o f feelin g w h ic h is m ix e d u p w ith a n d jo in s in w ith s e n s a tio n ; b e in g o n ly c o n c e rn e d w ith tra n s m ittin g to th e p e rc e iv in g su b je c t th e d a ta o f th e senses, su ch as co lours, so u n d s, fra g ra n c es, a n d flavours, b u t n o t g iv in g th em a n e m o tio n a l m e a n in g a n d a rra n g in g th e m a c c o rd in g to th e ir feeling v a lu e . T h e in d e p e n d e n c e o f m o o d from th e m o m e n ta ry c o n te n ts o f consciousness a n d from th e m o m e n ta ry sen satio n s, is fu r th e rm o re stressed b y th e s ta te m e n t t h a t it fu n ctio n s o r o p e rate s in a s itu a tio n , o r o u t o f th e c o n ju n c tio n (samphassaja ) w ith th a t fu n c tio n o f th e p sy ch e w h ic h o rd e rs, re g u la te s, a n d gives m e a n in g ( manovinnanadhatu ) to th e c o n te n ts o f consciousness w h ich d u e to th e d ecisiv e fu n c tio n o f a n a ttitu d e h a v e b e e n selected in su c h a w a y as to b e a c c e p ta b le to th e g ro u p -p a tte rn in g fu n c tio n -e v e n ts o f th e a ttitu d e a n d m a y b e in te rp re te d a n d e v a lu a te d a c c o rd in g ly . ( ta jja ) . 2 I n o th e r w o rd s, a n a ttitu d e

i . A tthasalini I I I 187.

a. Dhammasangani 6. In his Atthasalini tbe author gives the follow ing explanation; Created by such objects as colours which serve as a condition for the respective pleasurable feeling (iehi va rvjiadthi arammatiefti imassa ca sukfiassa paccayehi ja ta t i p i tajja). samphassaja born out of a cer tain. situation or born within a certain situation (samphassato jatam, samphasse vd jatam samphassajam). cetasika he defines by cittanissitatta because of its

which is characterized by the feeling o f serenity of m ind will naturally take a bright view o f life and interpret and value whatever comes up in a joyful way and in this m anner the individual is able to pass over the darker sides of life. C. Though closely connected with, yet distinctly dlife rent from, feeling is the basic psychological function of sensation (samjnd, Pali saM a ) transm itting to consciousness the perceived image of an object as a whole or picking out the most salient sensuous attrib u te of the object, such as for instance, the blue colour of a deep lake, the loud peal of thunder, or the sweet smell of a flower. And it is through learning and knowledge (abhinna) th at it also operates effectively in the process o f recognizing.1 Ju st as in the case o f feeling, so as regards sensation, a dis tinction m ust be m ade between concrete or sensuous sensation and abstract sensation. T h e former is always mixed up w ith presentations, feelings, thoughts, etc. It means th at in concrete sensation we have no*- only the perception of a flower itself, but also the perception of its stem, its leaves, its fragrance, its domi cile, etc.; we also attach a certain value in the sense of like or dislike to it, and we m ay even harbour some ideas about its species and usefulness. T his kind of sensation has been defined as having the nature of general inclusion 2. In abstract sensation, however, a certain salient feature is singled out and m ade the sole content or, a t least, the principal content o f con sciousness. This way of sensing is aptly illustrated by the wellknown simile o f the blind m en seeing an elephant. Each blind m an touched a certain p art o f the elephants body and formed his conclusions about the appearance of the elephant after it, so that he who had touched his leg said th at an elephant was like a pillar, while he who had touched the tail declared that the anim al was like a broom -handle. This kind o f sensation isbeing grounded in an attitude , and he adds that by this term the kdyikasukha or that kind of pleasurable feeling which chimes in with sensation is excluded and that the pleasurable aspect of the mood excludes the sad or depressed aspect (idani cetasikam sukftam ti adisu cetasikapadena kdyikasukham patikkhipati, sukhapadena celasikani dukkham). The same distinction between cetasika abstract and kayika concrete is found in Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 4, and in Abhidharmakosa I 14; II 7; 8; 24. 1. Atthasalini III 188; yapan'eUha abhinnanena sarnjanati sa fraccabhiniianaraso nama hott ti. In this way the Indian term is wider than our sensation. 2. Atthasalini III 189: sabbasamgShikavasena hi saiijananalakkhana sanm.

te rm e d in te n tn e ss o n th e im a g e sin g led o u t 1. I t is f u r th e r m o r e sa id th a t se n sa tio n is iik e a flash o f lig h tn in g , in a s m u c h as i t does n o t p e n e tr a te in to th e o b je c t (a n d like fe e lin g re lish it e x h a u stiv e ly ) a n d t h a t i t sta rts fro m w h a te v e r o b je c t th e re m a y b e , re g a rd le ss o f w h a t th e a sso c iatio n s la te r m a y b e w h ic h a re fo rm e d b y th e in d iv id u a l. As a n ex a m p le a y o u n g d e e r seeing a sc a re c ro w a n d fo rm in g th e id e a of a m a n , is given. S e n sa tio n , w h ic h in a c c o rd a n c e w ith its w h o le n a tu r e is c o n c e rn e d w ith th e o b je c t a n d th e o b je c t stim u lu s, u n d e rg o e s c o n sid e ra b le c h a n g e s in o b e d ien c e to th e a ttitu d e o f th e in d iv id u a l. I f th e in d iv id u a ls a ttitu d e is d ire c te d to w a r d a n d e x p e c tin g th e a c tu a l a n d c o n c re te , se n sa tio n w ill a u to m a tic a lly seize o n ly th e m o m e n ta ry a n d m a n ife st existence o f th in g s a n d w ill alw ay s b e on th e lo o k -o u t fo r th e new w h ic h a t o n c e is m a d e to serv e as a g u id e to fresh se n sa tio n s.3 As so o n a s th is ha's b e e n a c c o m p lish e d e v e ry th in g essen tial h as b e e n sa id a n d d o n e . H o w e v e r, sin c e th e re is alw a y s a su b je c t w h ic h senses, it is im p o ssib le to h a v e m e re ly o b je c tiv e sen satio n . T h e su b je c t w ill alw a y s, a n d b e c a u se o f its p re se n c e , m u st c o n tr ib u te its s u b je c tiv e d isp o sitio n to th e se n sa tio n w h ic h th u s b e c o m e s to ta lly d iffe re n t from th e so -called o b je c tiv e sen satio n as so o n as th e s u b je c tiv e fa c to r in th e pro cess o f se n sa tio n becom es p r e d o m in a n t. S u b je c tiv e I u n d e rs ta n d in a v e ry w id e sense as '
1. Atthasalini I I I i8g: yathagakitammitiavasena abhinivesokarazsaJ>accjtpatihdna. Similarly we read in Abhidharmakosa I 14: samjrid nimittodgrahandftnika. According to Yasomitra the meaning o f nimiita is the specific con dition o f the object as for instance its blueness and udgraharta means limita tion, accurate boundary nimittam vastuno vasthavisefcmilatiadi, tasyodgrakanam fiaricchedaft. T he same definition of sanijna as nimittodgrahana is also found in Madhyamakavrtti, p. 343. T h e Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 2 gives as a definition having the nature o f taking up for, singling put) the image o f the various dharmas, by which one expresses ( i.e . represents) things seen, heard, thought, and discerned samjtid n&nadkarmapratibimbodgraharia (svabhdia ) yayd dtf!aUulamatavijndtan arthan vyavahatali. T h e Tibetan translation combines both concrete and abstract sensation. 2. Atthasalini II I i8g. 3. This succession o f sensations and their being concerned with the surface oniy may also be gleaned from the above-mentioned character of "as not penetrating into the object arammcate anogalhavuttitaya. Atthasalini III 189.

a n d n o t as m erely subjective. In this case sensation says m ore th an th e im age o f th e o b ject and it develops in to th e d e p th o f the m ean in g fu l. I t perceives n o t only th e surface b u t also the b ack g ro u n d . T h a t sensation o b tain s a definite shade in ac co rd a n ce w ith the g e n e ra l a ttitu d e o f th e in d iv id u al a n d its co n n ectio n w ith th e subjective facto r, has been clearly stated in various w orks.1 D. T h e fu n ctio n in g o f a n a ttitu d e , o r generally speaking, o f a m e n ta l set to g e th e r w ith all th e o th e r psychic functions involved, b e they basic fu nctions o r subsid iary functions, w ould n o t b e possible i f th ere w ere n o t som ething w hich arouses an d sustain s psychic activ ity . O u r m in d o r w h atev er else we m ay call o u r n on-physical side, is n o t m erely reactiv e, a n in e rt m en tal substan ce to be acted u p o n b y m a te ria l substances in o rd er to b e roused o u t o f its le th a rg y a n d to p ro je c t by some m ysterious faculties a w o rld o f things a n d beings, b u t is som ething creative a n d au to n o m o u s in its ow n rig h t w h ich m oulds the w orld a fte r its ow n fashion. T h a t w hich arouses a n d sustains activity o n th e p a rt o f th e h u m a n psyche is called cetana. Broadly speaking, it is a stim ulus, a n d in a sense, m a y be considered as a m otive a n d also as a d riv e . A d riv e is a stim ulus th a t arouses persisten t m ass activity, a n d a m o tiv e is a stim ulus th a t sustains a c tiv ity u n til the stim ulus is rem oved, as by e a tin g in the case o f h u n g e r, o r u n til th e org an ism has m oved o u t o f ra n g e o f the stim u lu s, as in th e case o f a p in -p rick . Since cetana a n d K a rm a n are synonym ous, as we sh all see la te r o n , this idea o f m otive a n d d riv e a p p lie d to K a rm a n w ould m e a n th a t the in d iv id u a l is b o u n d a n d fettered to S am sara u n til h e has rea ch e d N irv a n a a n d th ereb y m oved o u t o f th e effective ra n g e o f K a rm a n , hence the e q u a tio n o f a tta in m e n t o f N irv a n a a n d cessation o f a ll K a rm a n . P ractically speaking a n d th e B uddhists w a n t th eir teach in g to be u n d ersto o d as h av in g p ra c tic a l im p o rtan ce ' th e a tta in m e n t o f N irv a n a is a sp iritu a l ad ju stm en t. In this respect cetana or K a rm a n as a p ersisten t stim ulus re q u irin g a n a d ju stin g response is a very basi<T m otive.
I. Dhammasangani 4. Especially Atthasalini III 189: But when it is associated with knowledge sensation follows knowledge (i.e., when the atti tude is directed toward knowledge, sensation in obedience to the attitude will act in a way prescribed by this attitude) vfi pan ettha nanasampayuUi hoti sa safinS ftariarn eta anuiottati.

T h is c h a r a c t e r o f cetana as s tim u lu s , m o tiv e o r d riv e c a n b e c le a r ly seen fro m th e d e f in itio n g iv e n in th e A tth a s a lin i1 w h e re w e re a d th a t: cetana m o tiv a te s . T h e m e a n in g is t h a t it a im s a t asso c ia te d fa c to rs as o b je c ts to itself. I t h a s th e n a tu r e o f a stim u lu s, th e m e a n in g o f w h ic h is t h a t it h a s th e n a tu r e o f m o tiv a tio n . I t s f u n c tio n is a r r a n g in g a n d e ffe c tin g . . . . I ts f u n c tio n o f a r r a n g in g a n d e ffe c tin g c o m e s to p a ss in h e a lth y o r u n h e a lth y effects. I n its a r r a n g in g a n d e ffe c tin g p ro c e ss w h ic h p r o d u c e s h e a lth y o r u n h e a lth y a c tio n s th e o th e r f a c to r s o f th e p sy c h e p la y o n ly a r e s tr ic te d p a r t . T h e cetana a lo n e is e x c e e d in g ly f u ll o f e ffo rt, e x c e e d in g ly fu ll o f v ig o r, t h a t is, it m a k e s a d o u b le e ffo rt, a d o u b le e x e r tio n . T h e m e a n in g o f s tim u lu s , m o tiv e o r d r iv e b e c o m e s s till m o r e o b v io u s w h e n w e ta k e in to c o n s id e r a tio n th e sim iles th a t h a v e b e e n u se d in o r d e r to p o in t o u t th e e ffe c tiv e n a tu r e o f cetana. A c c o rd in g to th e A n c ie n ts , t h a t is, th e a u th o r s o f th e o ld A t t h a k a t h a w h ic h h a s b e e n lo s t, i t is s a id th a t T h is cetana h a s th e n a t u r e o f la n d o w n e r , a c u ltiv a to r , w h o h a v in g ta k e n fifty fiv e s tr o n g m e n , w e n t d o w n to th e fields in o r d e r to re a p . H e is e x c e e d in g ly e n e rg e tic , e x c e e d in g ly s tre n u o u s , h e d o u b le s h is e ffo rts , d o u b le s h is e x e rtio n s a n d w ith th e w o rd s , T a k e y o u r sick les a n d th e lik e , h e p o in ts o u t th e p o r tio n to b e h a r v e s t ed . H e k n o w s w h a t th e y n e e d o f d r in k , fo o d , sc e n ts, w re a th s , a n d th e lik e , a n d h e ta k e s a n e q u a l p a r t in th e w o rk . I n th is w a y th e sim ile is to b e u n d e r s t o o d : th e cetana is lik e th e la n d o w n e r ; th e fifty -fiv e fa c to rs w h o se f u n c tio n in g re s u lts i n h e a lth y
i , Atthasalini II I 190.. a. A third factor has been left out here, called anenja, denoting that quali ty w hich is neither healthy nor unhealthy but beyond these two. See V isuddhim agga X V I I 60. Atthasalini I I I 430. It has to be noted that the arranging and effecting (dyukana ) is the essen tial quality o f cetana. A ll schools o f Buddhism are unanimous in this res pect. Sthiramati in his V rtti on Trim sika 4, p. 21 declares: cetana is effect ing an attitude, it is an excitatory centre o f the psyche and it is because o f its presence that the mental set moves, as it were, toward the object cetana cittabhisamska.ro manasal ceftd yasyam satyam alatnbanam prati cetasah praspanda iva hoti. See also Abhidharmasamuccaya, pp. 2, 5. T h e definition of cetana in the Abhidharmakosavyakhya, ad Abhidh.-kosa II 24 tallies w ith Sthiramati s cetana cittabhisamskara iti cittapraspandah. praspanda iva praspanda ity arthah. T h e same explanation is also given in M adhyam akavrtti, p. 3 1 1 : cittabhisamskdramanaskarmalaksand cetana ceti. .

effects a n d w h ic h h a v e a rise n as p a rts o f th e w hole a ttitu d e (cittangavasena) a re like th e fifty-five stro n g m e n ; th e d o u b lin g o f effort, th e d o u b lin g o f e x e rtio n b y this cetana. w h ich , in a rra n g in g a n d effecting, p ro d u ces h e a lth y o r u n h e a lth y effects, is lik e th e tim e o f th e d o u b lin g o f efforts, o f d o u b lin g e x e rtio n by th e la n d o w n e r. T h u s sh o u ld its fu n c tio n o f a rra n g in g a n d effecting b e u n d e rs to o d .1 T h e re is still one o th e r sim ile w h ich is ex trem ely re le v a n t for a s c e rta in in g th e a c tu a l m e a n in g o f cetana. T h e re it hasbeen said th a t: Its a c tu a lity is d ire c tin g p ro p e rly , t h a t is, it arises, d ire c t in g (th e asso ciated p sy ch ic factors to w o rk in a c e rta in d ire c tio n as in d ic a te d b y th e g e n e ra l a ttitu d e ) like th e c h ie f disciple o r a h e a d c a rp e n te r a n d th e like, w h o a c c o m p lish th e ir ow n a n d o th e r s d u ties. As th e c h ie f disciple, seeing th e te a c h e r com ing from a fa r, h im self recites h is lesson a n d m ak es th e o th e r p u p ils re cite e a c h his ow n lesson w h en he begins to rec ite th e rest follows , o r as th e h e a d c a rp e n te r, h im se lf c u ttin g th e w o o d , m akes th e o th e r c a rp e n te rs c u t ea c h his ow n p o rtio n o f th e w ood w h en h e begins to w ork th e re st follow , o r as a g e n era l, h im se lf fig h tin g , m ak es th e o th e r so ldiers tak e p a r t in th e b a ttle w h e n h e beg in s to fig h t th e o th e rs also fight w ith o u t tu rn in g th e ir b ack , so this cetana s ta rtin g its ow n w ork o n its o b je c t m akes th e asso ciated factors d o e a c h its ow n w ork w h e n it beg in s to o p e ra te th e asso ciated facto rs also o p e ra te . H e n c e it h as b een said like th e c h ie f d iscip le, th e h e ad c a rp e n te r a n d so o n , w ho acco m p lish th e ir ow n a n d o th e r s d u tie s .2 I n a ll those in stan ces w e see th a t cetana n o t o n ly arouses m ass a c tiv ity b u t also su stain s it so th a t c e rta in d efin ite results a p p e a r. T h is shows b e y o n d d o u b t th a t th e tra n sla tio n o f cetana. b y v o litio n is a g a in st a ll ev id en ce a n d has p ro b a b ly b een a d o p te d o n ly o n a c c o u n t o f th e fact th a t th e tra n sla to rs o f the A b h id h a rm a texts d id n o t u n d e rs ta n d these texts, a n d also d id n o t know the m e a n in g o f th e E n g lish w o rd v o litio n .3 In
1. Atthasalini III 191. 2. Atthasalini III 192. 3. As Gilbert Ryle, The Concept of Mind, p. 62 sq. points out, voli tion is a term covering a welter of confusion and should be dropped as quickly as possible. Louis de la Vall6e Poussin in his translation of the Abhidharma kosa IV 2 has been the only scholar in Indian philosophy who was not quite satisfied with this translation.

i t s m o s t s h a r p ly d is tin g u is h e d se n se v o litio n d e s ig n a te s m e re ly th e a c t o f m a k in g a c h o ic e o r d e c is io n , b u t it r a r e ly suggests th e d e te r m i n a ti o n to p u t o n e s d e c is io n o r c h o ic e in to effect, V o litio n is th u s th e v e r y re v e rs e o f cetana w h ic h e v e ry w h e re is s a id to p u t s o m e th in g in to e ffe c t. T h e r e is s till o n e o th e r p o in t in th e n a t u r e o f cetana w h ic h m a k e s its tr a n s la tio n b y v o litio n a b s o lu te ly a b s u r d . T h is is t h a t i t is e v id e n t in w o rk in g in s u c h c a se s a s r e c o lle c tin g a n u r g e n t b u sin e ss a n d th e lik e , b e c a u s e i t s tim u la te s th e a s s o c ia te d fa c to rs to b e e ffe c tiv e .1 V o litio n , h o w e v e r, c a n n e v e r a id in r e c o lle c tin g w h a t h a s b e e n fo r g o t te n , o th e rw is e w e w o u ld n o t n e e d to r a c k o u r b ra in s a b o u t s o m e th in g w e h a v e f o r g o tte n , n e ith e r w o u ld a s itu a tio n e v e r a ris e , w h ic h d e s p ite o u r b e s t in te n tio n s w e s im p ly c a n n o t r e c o lle c t a th in g . Cetana, to s ta te it p la in ly , is s o m e th in g t h a t c o r r e s p o n d s to o u r id e a o f s tim u lu s , m o tiv e , o r d r iv e . E s p e c i a l l y th is l a t t e r c o n c e p t o f d r iv e , as a s tim u lu s a r o u s in g p e rsis t e n t m a s s a c tiv ity assists in e x p la in in g th e o r ig in o f a c tiv ity as w e ll a s t h a t w h ic h is e x c ita te d a n d is f o r th w ith a c tiv e . T h a t w h ic h is a ro u s e d to a c tiv ity is th e s u m to ta l o f a ll p o te n tia litie s ,2 i t is th e alayavijnana in th e te r m in o lo g y o f th e Y o g a c a ra s o r V ijn a n a v a d in s ; th e s u b tle m anovijnana o r bhdvahga in th e te r m in o lo g y o f th e S th a v ir a v a d in s a n d sy m b o liz e d b y fifty-five s t r o n g m e n . I t h a s b e e n u n f o r t u n a t e t h a t a n u m b e r sh o u ld h a v e b e e n ta k e n as a b s o lu te , a s i t in i ti a lly m u s t h a v e b e e n o n ly m e a n t as so m e in d e t e r m in a t e n u m b e r , a n d a lth o u g h th e v a rio u s sc h o o ls a d o p te d v a r io u s n u m b e r s , b y in s is tin g o n th e ir a b s o lu te n u m b e r o f f a c to rs th e y s e t th e m s e lv e s a n a rtif ic ia l b a r r i e r w h ic h h a m p e r e d f u r th e r p ro g re ss . T h e r e is a n in t im a t e c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n cetana a n d fe e lin g ( vedana ) a n d t h a t w h ic h I h a v e c a lle d th e m o m e n ta r y to ta l s i tu a t i o n (sparsa). T h is in ti m a te c o n n e c tio n a c c o u n ts fo r th e f a c t t h a t so m e s tim u li a c t m o r e a s m o tiv e t h a n o th e r s . I t w ill b e u s e fu l in th is r e s p e c t to m a k e u se o f th e te r m te n s io n . T e n s io n m e a n s p r im a r ily t h a t s o m e th in g is te n se . J u s t as in th e m o tiv e o f h u n g e r th e s tim u li w h ic h a r o u s e a c tiv ity a r e th e s e n
1. Atthasalini II I 192. Cf. V isuddhim agga X I V 137. 2. In the terminology o f the Yogacaras it is the alayavijnana, which is called endowed with all potentialities (bija'}, because it is endowed with the pow er to produce all phenomena , Trim sikavijnapti, p . 36. See also Vijnaptimatrata-siddhi, p. 4 3 4 .

sory rep o rts o f the sto m ach c o n tra c tio n s c o n stitu tin g a p ersisten t tense state o f c e rta in visceral m uscles, so also, by w ay o f sim ile, we m ig h t say th a t th ere is in th e psyche a tense p a rt, a c tin g as stim ulus. B u t to c o n tin u e th e physiological asp ect, th e inner p h y sio lo g ical state w h ich is a stim ulus aro u sin g activ ity , is a p p a re n t in a ll a p p e titiv e m otives, o f w h ich h u n g e r is ty p ical. T o this k in d o f stim ulus th e term a p p e titiv e tension m ay be ap p lie d . I t is, fu rth e rm o re , a w ell-know n fact th a t a lo u d noise arouses a c tiv ity in a n in fa n t a n d , w h a t is m o st re m a rk a b le, this a c tiv ity w ill b e sustained for some tim e a fte r th e physical sti m ulu s has ceased. T h e e x p la n a tio n o f th e difference betw een th e k n ee-jerk reflex, in w h ich a c tiv ity is aro u se d b u t n o t sustained, a n d th e persistence o f response to a lo u d noise lies in th e concept o f em otion. E m o tio n is p rim a rily a p sychic sta te o f feeling (vedana), a ttrib u tin g a specific valu e to a n existing c o n te n t, a n d th e n also a physio lo g ical state o f in n e rv a tio n ; b o th these states to g e th e r have a c u m u la tiv e effect u p o n each o th e r, th a t is, to a n in ten se feeling th e re attach es a sensation o f m uscles o r organs b ein g in n e rv a te d to c o n tra c t, so th a t even a n ind ifferen t sensation h as a specific e m o tio n al tone, viz., th e tone o f indiffe rence, w h ich itself is a v a lu a tio n . Beside a state o f feeling,, therefore, a lo u d noise sets u p a n in n e r physiological a n d n e u tra l state a n d , for this reaso n , th e em o tio n a l tension persists a fte r the noise stim ulus h as ceased, a n d is itse lf a stim ulus to activ ity . S tim u li w h ich arouse em o tio n a l tensions a re , th e re fore, b ro a d a n d p ersistent in th e ir after-effects a n d consequently a re m otives. T h is co n cep t to em o tio n al ten sio n, w hich la te r on w ill arouse specific associative selections, assists g re a tly in ex p lain in g th e effect o f cetana o r K a rm a n , because cetana p ro je c ts, i.e ., arouses th e vedatiabijas o r p o te n tia litie s to em o tio n a l m a n i festations a n d reactions. F o r w here th e re is 0 cetana th e re also is vedana, b o th o f them lying in th e p ow er field as w hich th e psyche m a y te n ta tiv e ly b e conceived. Vedana, o f course, is a t first ch a ra c teriz e d as in d ifferen ce (upeksd ), n e u tra l (avydkrta), since unconscious processes, as we w ould say, a re involved, w hile th e specific value o f a c c e p tan c e (em otion o f p lea su re ) o r o f rejectio n (em otion o f d isp le a su re ) a p p e a rs only in conscious experien ce, w h en an a c tu a l o b ject aro u sin g th e specific em otion is e n c o u n te re d and ju d g e d . Since, h ow ever, tensions by th eir n a tu re aro u se only g e n e ra l ac tiv ity they a re spoken o f as drives,

a d r iv e b e in g a s tim u lu s w h ic h a ro u s e s p e r s is te n t m a s s a c tiv ity . T h is c o n c e p t fits w e ll i n t o th e d e f in itio n o f cetana w h ic h m a y b e g iv e n g r a p h ic a lly as s tim u lu s > d riv e ^-activity (as e m o tio n a l te n s io n ) . A c tiv ity in th e p s y c h e ta k e s its o rig in , a s w e g a th e r fro m v a r io u s s o u rc e s, w ith re fe re n c e to so m e s itu a tio n ,1 w h ic h m e a n s t h a t th e r e is a lw a y s o n e p a r t , so to sa y , o f th e p sy c h ic o r g a n iz a tio n w h ic h is m o r e e a sily a r o u s e d in to f u n c tio n in g a n d to w a r d w h ic h e x c ita tio n s a r e d r a w n . I n th is w a y cetana m a y v e n b e c o n s id e re d as a p a t t e r n o r a g r a d ie n t le a d in g u p to d o m in a n c e . T h is c o n c e p t o f a n e x c ita tio n g r a d ie n t b e lo n g s, p r o p e r ly sp e a k in g , to p h y s io lo g y w h e r e i t re fe rs to th e f a c t t h a t in th e n e rv o u s sy ste m th e r e is a lw a y s o n e p a r t w h ic h is m o re e a s ily a r o u s e d in to f u n c tio n t h a n a r e o t h e r p a r ts . F o r in s ta n c e , in th e m a in a x is, th e h e a d ta il o r c e p h a lo c a u d a l a x is w h ic h is se e n in th e a d u l t as th e b r a i n a n d th e s p in a l c o r d , th e r e is, in itia lly , so m e p o r tio n w h ic h is p h y s io lo g ic a lly m o r e a c tiv e th a n so m e o th e r p a r t . T h is m o re a c tiv e p o r tio n c o n su m e s o x y g e n a t a g r e a te r r a t e t h a n o th e r p a r ts , is o f h ig h e r e le c tr ic a l p o te n tia l a n d is m o r e s u s c e p tib le to c e r ta in s tim u li. B e tw e e n th is m o re a c tiv e p o in t a n d o t h e r p o in ts th e r e e x ists a d iffe re n c e in r a t e o f d e v e lo p m e n t, th is d iffe re n c e b e in g c a lle d th e p h y s io lo g ic a l g r a d i e n t . B y w a y o f h y p o th e s is w e m ig h t say t h a t th e manas o u t o f w h ic h th e c o n sc io u s e x p e rie n c e d e v e lo p s, sin c e th e s u b je c tiv e f a c to r p re c e d e s th e o b je c tiv e r e - p r e s e n ta tio n , h a s a h ig h e r p o t e n t ia l t h a n th e o th e r fa c to rs . E. A s th e la s t f u n c tio n - e v e n t w h ic h is c o n c o m ita n t -with e v e r y - a ttitu d e , in th e P a li te x ts citta is m e n tio n e d . T h e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i c o n s id e rs th is to b e a m e r e ta u to lo g y . I n h is o p in io n th e te r m citta in th e o p e n in g s e n te n c e o f th e D h a m *
i. T h o u gh the number o f cetanas varies according to context, there are essentially six situations in which cetana is most active. These are vision, audition, smelling, tasting, touching, and m inding. As such the six cetanSs form the samskdraskandha. See Sam yuttanikaya II I 60 : Abhidharmakosavyakhya ad Abhidh.-kosa I 15. Abhidharm asamuccaya, p. 5 adds that by its operation in such situations healthiness o f attitude, aflectivity, or the ter mination o f a certain state is brought about. O f decisive importance is manahsarhcetana, because it projects5 a new existence, because it is by nature Karm an (activity). Abhidharmakosavyakhya, p . 319.

xnasangani, viz., w hen a h e a lth y a ttitu d e (citta), belonging to the realm o f sensuous relatedness, has a rise n , first o f all specifies a c e rta in tim e, a n d it is only n a tu ra l th a t a t this tim e there is also a c e rta in a ttitu d e .1 H ow ever, he m akes an in terestin g re m a rk ab o u t th e n a tu re .of citta, w hich shows th a t h e favours a C en tral T h eo ry o f M in d as is d o n e by the Y ogacaras, a s we have seen above .8 H e says th a t Such things as the su n a n d so o n are only lin g u istic conveniences for grouping such occurrences as colors a n d so on, b u t th ere is no thing a p a rt from a n d above its various states; so w h en th e sun rises there is its h e a t. A nd alth o u g h one speaks o f the sun, it is n o th in g different from its occurrences. B ut w ith citta it is different. W e speak o f th e states o f m in d such as a to tal situ a tion (phassa) a n d so on b u t citta itself is different from these sta te s .3 T h u s, as far as th e m a te ria l w orld is concerned the a u th o r o f th e A tth asalin i is a th o roughgoing nom inalist, the th in g , in a w o rd , is a m etaphysical m istake, d u e to transference to the w o rld -stru ctu re o f a linguistic convenience. But as far as the m en tal w orld is concerned he is o n th e side of the realists w ho assume th a t a m in d is different from its states. U nfor tu n a te ly he does not say a n y th in g a b o u t th e logical n a tu re o f this centre, w h eth er it is existent or subsistent. H ow ever, th e te rm citta h as so m an y m eanings according to the D h am m asan g an i 4 all o f w hich a re ex p lained in the A tth asalin i, th a t the oth er schools o f B uddhist th o u g h t w ho h a d a n A b h id h arm a, singled o u t a certain fu n ctio n o f m ind and so avoid ed the tau to lo g y .5 Since th e various term s for w h at w e call m in d o r specifically a n a ttitu d e a re extrem ely relev an t fo r a p ro p e r u n d erstan d in g o f com plex psychic phenom ena, they m ay be given h ere to g eth er w ith th e ex p lan atio n by th e Atthasalini. I t is called citta, because o f th e varieties o f
1. Atthasalini III 197. 2. p. 12. 3. Atthasalini III 195: yatha hi rupddini updddya pannatta suriydday* na atthato rupadihi arine honti, teneva yasmim samaye suriyo udeti tasmim samaye lassa tejasankhatam rufiam pannayati. evam vuccamane p i na rupadihi anno suriyo ndma althi. na tatka cittam; phassddayo dhamme upadeya panhdpiyati; atthato pan etam tehi annam ei a. 4. Dhammasangani 6. 5. See above p. 13 note 2. 6. Atthasalini III 274-276.

a t t i t u d e s ; m anas, b e c a u s e o f its m e a s u r in g (i.e ., t a k in g sto ck of, i n t e r p r e t i n g ) th e se n s e d o b je c ts ; m dnasa, th o u g h id e n tic a l w ith manas, b e c a u s e th e f u n c tio n a l a s p e c t is s tre sse d , hadaya ( h e a r t ) , b e c a u s e o f in w a r d n e s s ; pandara ( tr a n s p a r e n c y ) , b e c a u s e in e v e r y e x p e r ie n c e t h e r e p a r ta k e s s o m e th in g o f th e in d e te r m i n a t e a n d in e ffa b le lu m in o u s c o n t in u u m , in a n d th r o u g h , a n d o u t o f w h ic h a ll e x p e rie n c e s c o m e to p a ss, a n d w h ic h in its p u r i t y a n d l u c id ity a p a r t fro m th e s e n se d a n d in tr o s p e c te d d if f e r e n tia tio n s , is m o r e e m o tio n a lly m o v in g a n d s p ir itu a lly s a tis fy in g t h a n th e se n se d o r in tr o s p e c te d d a t a , w h ic h o n ly v e il a n d lim it th e b r ig h tn e s s a n d b o u n d le s s n e s s o f m i n d . I t is c a lle d mano m anadyatana in th e se n se o f b i r t h - p l a c e , in a s m u c h as s u c h f a c to r s lik e phassa a n d th e lik e o r ig in a te in i t ; in th e sen se o f a m e e tin g p la c e , in a s m u c h a s th e d a t a o f th e o u t e r o b je c ts , v is ib le , a u d ib le , o lf a c to r y , g u s ta to r y , a n d ta n g ib le , a s s e m b le h e r e as o b je c ts o f t h e m anas (to b e i n t e r p r e t e d b y i t ) ; a n d in th e se n se o f c a u s e in a s m u c h a s i t is th e n e c e s s a ry a n te c e d e n t fo r th e c o -e x is te n c e o f s u c h f u n c tio n a l p a t t e r n s as p hassa a n d th e lik e . I t is c a lle d vinnana, b e c a u s e o f its d is c r im in a tin g n a t u r e , a n d vinnanakkhandha w i t h r e s p e c t to th e c o m p le x ity o f p s y c h ic p ro c e sse s a m o n g w h ic h th e c o n s c io u s a t t i t u d e is a sp e c ific a s p e c t; a n d f in a lly it is te r m e d tajja m anovinnanadhatu in o r d e r to p o in t o u t its readinessto a c t a n d to r e a c t in a d e f in ite w a y ( ta jja ) , to d e n o te its c h a r a c t e r o f g iv in g m e a n in g a n d o r d e r to th e a to m ic d a t a o f t h e sen ses (m anas) a n d its n a t u r e o f d is c r im in a tin g b e tw e e n th e m a n if o ld d a t a o f p e r c e p tio n a n d in tr o s p e c tio n ( viniidna ), a n d a b o v e a ll to p o i n t o u t th e f a c t t h a t th o u g h g e n e r a l p sy c h o lo g ic a l la w s (sabhava) a r e o p e r a t in g in e v e ry in d iv id u a l, y e t th e y c a n n o t b e s a id to h a v e a n in d i v i d u a l n a t u r e o f th e ir o w n (nissatta d h a tu ), b e c a u s e th e r e a r e to o m a n y fa c to rs w h ic h c o n d i ti o n a n d in flu e n c e t h e n a t u r e o f m in d . C oncom itant Function E vents in an A ttitu d e I I . T h e v a rio u s f u n c tio n - e v e n ts w h ic h h a v e b e e n m e n tio n e d so f a r a n d w h ic h m a y b e te r m e d c e r ta in s ta te s o f m in d , a r e a c k n o w le d g e d in a ll sc h o o ls o f B u d d h is t t h o u g h t as o f p r im a r y i m p o r t a n c e , a n d a r e e i t h e r c a lle d b e lo n g in g to a n e x te n siv e le v e l (m a h d b h u m ika ). o r a r e s a id to b e g o in g e v e ry w h e re (sarva tra g a ).1 B u t it is fro m h e r e o n t h a t th e c la s s ific a tio n
i. T h e first term belongs to the Abhidharm akosa I I 23 and V ya k b ya , the second to the Trim sikavijnapti, p. 25.

o f function-events varies in th e d ifferen t schools. I shall b egin w ith a discussion o f th e events m e n tio n e d in the Pali A b h id h a m m a a n d th e n p ro ceed to an analysis o f th e events m en tio n ed in the A b h id h a rm a works o f th e V aibhasikas and Y ogacaras e ach system h a v in g c e rta in m erits a n d ce rta in defects. In th e P ali A b h id h a m m a five fu n ctio n -events a re m e n tioned w h ich a re found a g a in as co n stitu en ts o f m ed itatio n . T h is is im p o rta n t, because in this w ay th e p ra c tic a l side is again em phasized. A h e a lth y a ttitu d e is th e fo u n d atio n for m e d ita tion, for on ly o u t o f m e d ita tio n results know ledge w hich leads to lib e ra tio n . K now ledge is thus d ifferen t from m ere dis cursiveness. T h e five function-events a re : viiarka (Pali vilakka), vicara y p riti (Pali p i ti ) , sukha, a n d cittdikdgratd (P ali cittass ekaggata). T h e first o f these term s c an h a rd ly be tra n slate d a d e q u a te ly. I t is th e in itia l stage o f c o n c e n tra tio n , a process of p o sit ing, im plying ex am in atio n lead in g up to ju d g m e n t a n d decision ( uhana) a n d it m ay also be re g a rd e d as a process m e d ia tin g betw een th e a lre a d y p resen t a n d p re p a re d c o n te n t o f th e p a r ti c u la r or g e n e ra l a ttitu d e o f th e in d iv id u a l a n d th e new c o n te n t, inasm uch as it d ra g s (takkana ), i.e., relates, th e new c o n te n t to be ap p erceiv ed a n d to b e m e d ita te d u p o n in to th e circle of in te re st .1 As such vitakka is likened to a m a n w ho being a, frie n d to o r a relativ e o f th e king, establishes th e connection, betw een th e k in g a n d th e m a n w ho w an ts to m eet the k i n g / O r, it h as also been c o m p a re d w ith the first b e a tin g on a d ru m o r a beli, a n d in this w ay, is if we are allow ed to use a new sim ile in a n c ie n t term s, a k in d o f diagnosis th ro u g h a u sc u ltatio r (dhanana-pariydhananarasa) b y w h ich su b ject a n d o bject a p p ro a c h

1. Atthasalini III ig8 : vitakketi ti vitakka; vitakkanam vd vitakko, uhanam ti vuttam hoti. svaram arammane cittassa abhiniropanalakkharu). so hi drammane cittam aropeti. See also Atthasalini III 278 for the active aspect of vitakka. On uha see Abhidharmakosa (Transl). I, j>. 175 and 2. 2. Atthasalini III 198; Just like someone relying on a relative or a. friend dear to the king ascends the royal palace, so citta relying on vitakka ascends the object. Therefore vitakka is said to have the nature of lifting cittaon the object .

e a c h o th e r a n d b e c o m e a c q u a in te d w ith e a c h o t h e r .1 I t is b y p r o p e r ly p e r f o r m in g its fu n c tio n t h a t vitakka d e v e lo p s in to th e s e c o n d m e m b e r o f th e B u d d h is t E ig h tf o ld P a t h : sammasamkappa (S k t. sam yaksathkalpa ) w h ic h b y a c tin g in its t r u e n a tu r e a n d p r o p e r w a y a n d b y v ir tu e o f it le a d in g m a n o u t o f th e c o n fu se d m a s s o f in d e te r m in a te id e a s , m a k e s m a n g a in c o rr e c t id e a s to h it th e m a r k , as it w e r e .2 I n s o f a r as vitakka p r e c e d e s e v e ry a c t o f th e m o r e s u b tle d is c u r s iv e r e a s o n in g , it is s o m e th in g r o b u s t (o fa rik a ), lik e th e b e a t i n g o f th e b e ll; e n s u in g s u b tle r a c tiv ity is c a lle d vicara a n d d e n o te s th e s te a d ily m o v in g re f le c tio n , th e q u ie t a n d serio u s c o n s id e r a tio n a n d s tu d y o f t h a t w h ic h h a s b e e n b r o u g h t in to th e c ir c le o f in te r e s t b y th e g ro ss vitakka. I t is b y th is a c tiv ity t h a t a ll d e ta ils a r e ta k e n in a n d t h a t a ll th e c o -e x is te n t e v e n ts a n d p ro c e sse s o f th e p s y c h e a r e a c tiv a te d a n d in v o lv e d .3 B e in g s u b tle ( sukhum a ) a n d f o llo w in g e v e ry d e ta il, vicara is lik e n e d to th e r e v e r b e r a tio n s o f th e s o u n d o f a b a l l ; a n d it is h e r e b y r e p e a te d ly g o in g o v e r a n d i n t o th e o b je c t t h a t a close tie b e tw e e n th e o b je c t a n d th e in v e s tig a tin g m in d e x ists in th e m a n n e r o f a n a r r o w fix e d o n th e s tr in g o f a b o w .4 I t is th e v ie w in g o f th e o b je c t e ith e r b y s ta n d in g in f r o n t o f i t o r by g o in g o v e r i t 5. T h e r e la tio n b e tw e e n vitakka a n d vicara , w h ic h s o m e h o w a r e in s e p a r a b le (sante p i ca nesam katthaci aviyoge ) ,s is d e s c r ib e d b y w a y o f v a r io u s sim ile s : b y a b ir d fla p p in g its w in g s in o r d e r to a s c e n d i n to th e a i r a n d its s u b s e q u e n t c a lm m o v in g o f th e w in g s w h ile fly in g in th e a i r ; b y a b e e a lig h tin g in f r o n t o f a lo tu s flo w e r a n d its g y r a ti n g <?ver t h e flo w e r on w h ic h i t h a s a lig h te d . I n th e A t t h a k a t h a , w h ic h th e a u th o r
1. Atthasalini II I ip8. 2. Atthasalini I I I 278: sutthukappanavasena samkappo. . .yathavalaya niyySnikataya ca kusalabhavappatio pasatlho samkappo ti sammSmmkappo. 3. Atthasalini II I 199-200. T h e distinction between the gross vitarka and the subtle vicara is also found in Abhidharm asamuccaya, p. 10; A b h i dharmakosa II 33. 4. Atthasalini II I 279. 5. ibid. 6. In the Bhasya on Abhidharmakosa I I I 33 there is an interesting discussion as to how it is possible that grossness and subtlety are co-existent. V a su b a n d h u s answer is that this co-existence is one o f succession but n o t o f simultaneity and that the five members o f the first meditation stage belong to the meditation sphere and not to one moment.

o f th e A tth a s a lin i h a d b efo re h im vitakka h as b een co m p a re d w ith th e m o v e m e n t o f a b ird in th e sky, ta k in g th e w in d w ith b o th w ings a n d k eep in g th e m ste a d ily in a lin e , since it ad v an ces b e n t on a single d efin ite o b je c t, w h ile vicara is th e fla p p in g of th e w ings in o rd e r to ta k e th e w in d 1. O r, i t has b e e n said th a t vitakka m a y be c o m p a re d w ith th e h a n d th a t takes a firm h o ld o f a d ir ty co p p er bo w l, w h ile vicara w o u ld co rresp o n d to th e o th e r h a n d w h ic h scrubs th e b o w l; o r vitakka is like th e h a n d o f a p o tte r p ressin g dow n clay , w h ile vicara is lik e th e h a n d tu rn in g th e clay to a n d fro ; fin ally , vitakka is c o m p a re d w ith th e p o in t o f a d ra w in g com pass fixed in th e m id d le o f th e p a p e r a n d vicara w ith th e rev o lv in g p o in t .2 A ll th ese exam ples serve to illu s tra te th e differen ce b e tw e e n vitarka as first ta k in g h o ld o f a n o b ject, a n d vicara as its d e ta ile d in v e stig a tio n . W h ile vitakka a n d vicara refer to th e co g n itiv e a sp e ct in th e process o f c o n c e n tra tio n , th e follow ing tw o events, prili a n d sukha p o in t to th e em o tiv e a sp e c t w h ic h is n e v e r a b se n t in a n y o f o u r m e n ta l processes, th o u g h w e a re a p t to overlook a n d to u n d e rra te its im p o rta n c e b e c a u se o f th e m o re in te lle c tu a l o rie n ta tio n o f o u r m e n ta l life. B u t i t is p recisely d u e to o u r h a v in g u n d e rr a te d th e e m o tio n a l facto rs, w h ic h in W estern p sycholo gies w ere n o t g iv en even th e sta tu s o f se c o n d a ry q u a litie s, b u t w e re re le g a te d to te rtia ry q u a litie s p rim a ry q u a litie s b e in g only th o se q u a litie s possessed b y m a te ria l su b sta n c e s; co lo rs, sounds, o d o rs, a n d sensed sp ace a n d tim e b e in g s e c o n d a ry q u a litie s -th a t th e m o d e rn m a n has b eco m e d iv id e d a g a in st h im se lf a n d e v ery w h e re m eets w ith fru s tra tio n . F o r th e in te lle c t tells h im one th in g a n d p u sh es h im on e w ay , a n d his em o tions p u sh h im a n o th e r w ay , a ll o f w h ic h m e a n s th a t th e e n lig h te n e d m o d e rn m a n is a c tu a lly suffering fro m a v e ry 'se rio u s neurosis a n d th a t it w ill n e e d h a r d la b o u r o n th e p a r t o f th e p a tie n t a n d o f th e p h y sic ia n to d ev elo p a h e a lth y a ttitu d e . A b s tra c tly speaking, p riti is a d riv in g a n d even o v er w h elm in g em o tio n im p ly in g a n a g re e a b le sen satio n a n d as su ch is c le a rly d istin g u ish e d fro m feelin g b y q u ite p e rc e p tib le ph y sical in n e rv a tio n s. A c c o rd in g to in te n s ity p riti v aries from
1. Atthasalini III 200. 2. Atjhasalinj III 201. .

a s lig h t th r ill to tr a n s p o r t. I t m a k e s sa tisfied is th e m e a n in g o f p r iti\ its n a tu r e is to m a k e p le a s a n t; its f u n c tio n is to m a k e b o th th e fu n c tio n p a tte r n s ( kd ya ) a n d th e m e n ta l o u tlo o k (feel in g ) satisfied o r q u iv e r in g w ith e x u lta tio n . I ts a c tu a lity is b u o y a n t e x u lta tio n . I t is e ith e r a slig h t th r ill o r a m o m e n ta r y (e le c trify in g ) s tim u la tio n o r a flo o d in g e m o tio n o r a n a llp e r v a d in g ec sta sy o r e v e n tr a n s p o r t. T h e s lig h t th r ill is onlya b le to ra is e th e h a irs o n th e b o d y ; th e m o m e n ta r y e le c trify in g s tim u la tio n is lik e flash es o f lig h tn in g fro m m o m e n t to m o m e n t th e flo o d in g e m o tio n d e sc e n d s o n th e b o d y a n d b re a k s like th e w a v e s o f th e o c e a n o n th e c o a s t; tr a n s p o r t is v e ry p o w e rfu l, it lifts th e b o d y u p to th e e x te n t o f la u n c h in g it in to th e a i r , 1 w h ile b y a ll- p e r v a d in g e cstasy , as its n a m e im p lie s, th e wholeb o d y is fu lly c h a r g e d a n d s a tu r a te d like a fu ll b la d d e r o r a m o u n ta in c a v e sw e p t b y a m ig h ty flo o d o f w a te r .2 T h e e m o tiv e a s p e c t o f th e p ro c e ss o f c o n c e n tr a tio n is r a t h e r a c o m p le x p h e n o m e n o n , in a s m u c h as it is m ix e d u p w ith o t h e r fu n c tio n e le m e n ts , i.e ., in it th e r e is a n a lm o s t in s e p a ra b le b le n d in g o f fe e lin g w ith s e n s a tio n . T h u s , w h e n priti-sukha a r e m e n tio n e d to g e th e r , as is o fte n th e c a se , w e a re e n title d to tr a n s la te th is c o m p o u n d te r m b y f e e lin g -e m o tio n , p r iti re fe rrin g to th e s e n s a tio n e le m e n ts a n d sukha to fe e lin g . I t is th is b le n d in g o f fe e lin g w ith s e n sa tio n th a t h a s b e e n p o in te d o u t in th e a n a ly sis o f p riti. S p e a k in g o f jo y fu ln e ss (p dm ojja ) a n d th e c a u sin g o f d e lig h t a n d j o y (amodana, pamodana) th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin l in fo rm s us a b o u t th e b le n d in g o f th e v a rio u s e le m e n ts in th e e m o tiv e a s p e c t o f c o n c e n tr a tio n in th e fo llo w in g w o rd s: J u s t as th e m ix in g o f m e d ic a l h e rb s , o r o f oils o r o f h o t a n d c o ld w a te r is c a lle d b le n d in g ( m odana) so also th is e m o tiv e a s p e c t is a k in d o f b le n d in g , b e c a u s e it u n ite s (h a rm o n iz e s , m a k e s o n e ) th e v a rio u s e le m e n ts . 3 O th e r m a n ife s ta tio n s o f th e e m o tiv e a s p e c t w h ic h d u e to th e h e a lth y a t titu d e is p o si tiv e ly to n e d , is t h a t o n e c a n la u g h a n d la u g h h e a r tily . T h e f a c t t h a t th e e m o tio n a l v a lu e w h ic h a tta c h e s to th in g s p la y s a m o re d e c isiv e ro le in o u r life t h a n th e m e re ly ^ c o g n itiv e a s p e c t is b r o u g h t o u t in a c h a r m in g sim ile : p r iti is sp o k en o f as
1. Atthasalini II I 202. In 203-205 several anecdotes are related as to the nature of these five kinds of priti. 2. Atthasalini II I 206. 3. Atthasalini III 280.

b ecau se o f its b e in g th e c o n d itio n fo r happiness a n d b ec a u se o f its sim ilarity to w e a lth . F o r j u s t as a rich m a n feels h a p p y becau se o f his riches, so also h a p p in e ss arises in a m a n o f a jo y o u s te m p e ra m e n t b ecau se o f p r iti ; th e re fo re it is spoken o f as w e a lth .1 I t is b ecau se o f th is e m o tio n a l c o m p o n en t th a t w e feel e la te d (odagya ) a n d th a t o u r m in d feels itse lf to be its o w n (attamanata ) : T h e m in d o f a m a n w h o does n o t feel d e lig h te d o r pleased c a n n o t b e said to b e its o w n m in d ; because it is th e basis fo r th e d is tu rb in g p la y o f u n p le a sa n tn e ss; b u t th e m in d o f a m a n w h o feels d e lig h te d o r p leased is its ow n m in d , bec au se it is th e basis for p le a s u re .2 T h e re is h a rd ly an y o th e r passage w h ich so e m p h a tic a lly p o in ts o u t th e positive c h a ra c te r o f B uddhism a n d th is p o sitive c h a ra c te r is b o rn o u t o f d ire c t ex p erien ce. I t is in d ire c t e x p erien ce t h a t w e know th a t th a t w hich in a ju d g m e n t w e te rm u n p leasan tn ess is som ething alie n to us a n d from w hich w e w a n t to keep aw ay , since it throw s us o u t o f o u r course a n d co n stra in s us to actio n s w hose b lin d one-sideness in e v ita b ly en tails self-d estru ctio n , w h ile bliss acco m p an ies a ll th o se m o m en ts w h ic h h a v e th e c h a ra c te r o f flow ing life a n d w h ere it is n o t necessary to look a ro u n d to find a w ay o u t o f a hopelessly e n ta n g le d situ a tio n . T h e re is one o th e r p o in t to b e n o te d h ere. W ith in th e psychic ho u seh o ld th e em o tio n s p la y a m ost im p o rta n t role. U n lik e th e e m o tio n a l o u tb u rsts w h ic h th ro w m a n o u t o f his course, th e em otions, o f w h ic h jo y (priti) is on e m an ifestatio n , n o t only give sp iritu a l su sten an ce a n d w arm n ess o f feeling to th e d ry , a b s tra c t, cold, a n d excessively fo rm al, cognitive com po n e n t, th ey also a c t as resto rativ es to th e d istu rb e d e q u ilib riu m o f th e p sy ch e, so essential fo r life. F o r th e y release th e tension th a t acco m p an ies every one-sideness. I t is precisely this jo y (priti) th a t b rin g s a b o u t th e re la x a tio n o f tension th a t keeps th e m in d keyed u p to th e process o f c le a r a n d p ro lo n g ed th in k in g a n d th e m uscles ta u t a n d fit fo r w ork. So, a t least, w e a-e u sed to say in g d u e to th e fa c t th a t w e h a v e b e e n b ro u g h t u p in a n irre c o n c ilab le dualism o f b o d y a n d m in d , a n d the te m p ta tio n is g re a t to re a d this du alism in to th e B u d d h ist texts, in asm u ch as re la x a tio n is called kayaprairabdhi (P ali kayapassabdhi) a n d
w e a lth ,

cittaprasrabdhi (P ali cittapassaddhi ) w h ic h w e c a n n o t b u t w ro n g ly tr a n s la te b y b o d ily a n d m e n ta l r e la x a tio n . T h u s th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i tells us t h a t T h is fivefold jo y b e c o m in g p r e g n a n t a n d b e a r in g f r u it p ro d u c e s th e d o u b le re la x a tio n th e kayapassaddhi a n d th e cittapassaddhi. T h is r e la x a tio n , in tu r n , b e c o m in g p re g n a n t a n d b e a rin g f r u it p ro d u c e s th e d o u b le k in d o f b liss kdyika bliss a n d cetasika b liss .1 H o w e v e r, th e B u d d h is t te rm kaya a n d th e a d je c tiv e kdyika d o n o t so m u c h d e n o te th e p h y s ic a l b o d y b u t a n in te g r a te d o rg a n iz a tio n a n d fu n c tio n p a tte r n . Kaya co m p rise s th e fu n c tio n p a tte r n s o f feelin g , se n s a tio n , a n d m o tiv a tio n w h ic h in th e o r d in a r y h u m a n b e in g w h o is to rn b y affects, a r e in a tu r m o il r a th e r th a n in a sta te o f b e in g c o n d u c iv e to th e r e a liz a tio n o f blissful p e a c e a n d illu m i n a tin g w isd o m . T h e te x ts a r e q u ite e x p lic it o n th e p o in t th a t kaya d o es n o t m e a n th e p h y s ic a l b o d y as c o n tra s te d w ith so m e m e n ta l o r s p iritu a l s u b s ta n c e . W e a r e in fo rm e d t h a t ' kaya h e r e m e a n s th e th r e e skandhas b e g in n in g w ith fee lin g i.e ., feelin g ( vedana), se n sa tio n (sa n n a ), m o tiv a tio n (sathskara). T a k in g th e re la x a tio n o f kaya a n d th e r e la x a tio n o f citta to g e th e r o n e speaks o f re la x a tio n o f kaya a n d citta w h ic h h a v e th e n a tu r e o f assu ag in g th e tu r m o il o f kaya a n d citta; w h ic h h a v e th e fu n c tio n o f e r a d ic a tin g th e tu r m o il o f kava a n d citta; a n d w h ic h h a v e th e ir b asis i n kaya a n d citta re sp e c tiv e ly . T h e y a r e to b e c o n sid e re d as a re m e d y a g a in s t th e e m o tiv e ite m s su c h as a g ita te d n e s s w h ic h d o es n o t a d m it o f r e s t . 2
i , A tthasalin i I I I 207.

2.. Atthasalini III 248. See also III 295, and Dhammasangani 40, 41. Sthiramati in his commentary on Trimsika 11 : p. 27 is m o r e explicit as to what is meant by firasrabdhi which 1 have tentatively translated b y relaxation of tension . H e says : prasrabdhi is the workability (also implying adapt ableness) o f kaya and citta, the remedy against daujlu lya. T h e daustulya is the non-workability as weil as the latent potentialities of the affective items in our conscious life. When this dausfulya disappears because o f the actualiza tion of prasrabdhi, then there is workability of kaya from which ensues its capa city o f being set to work easily with respect to its proper functioning. T h e workability o f citta is a special mental property in an attentive mind and its characteristic is delight and lightness, on account of which citta acts easily toward its objective; therefore one speaks o f the workability o f citta. T h e kayapraJrabdhi is to be known as some perceptible bodily sensation produced by jo y (i.e., a perceptible innervation), as has been said in a Sutra: The kaya o f him who experiences jo y relaxes. Since by its influence the whole

W e h av e seen above in the e x p la n a tio n o f th e feeling function th a t feeling m ay b e considered u n d e r two aspects, eith e r as concrete feeling, feeling m ixed u p w ith o th er fu n ctio n elem ents such as those o f sensation, o r as a b stra c t feeling w hich, by b eing raised above th e differences o f in d iv id u al feelingvalues, expresses itself in a m o o d or a sta te o f feeling w hich h as a m ore g en e ra l a n d n e u tra l c h a ra c te r ra th e r th a n an in d iv id u al o r personal one. T h u s, w hile priti stresses the p erce p tib le bodily in n e rv a tio n an d thus is a p p ro x im a te d m o re to sensation, sukha is d ifferen tiated from it as a feeling (ju d g m e n t) o f p lea su re w hich im p arts itself to b o th th e function p a tte rn s (kaya) and to th e w hole a ttitu d e o f th e in d iv id u a l (cetasika ). Its definition, ru n s as follow s; T o m a k e h a p p y , is th e m ean in g o f sukha, th a t is, it m akes him feel h a p p y in w hom happ in ess arises. O r, (etym ologically sp eak in g ), sukha m eans to e a t u p pro p erly o r to dig o u t th e afflictions o f function p a tte rn s [kaya) an d o f an a ttitu d e (citta ). I t is a te rm for th e feeling o f serenity. Its ch aracteristics are those o f feeling ( vedana) as described above. H ow ever, a n o th e r m eth o d o f ex p lan atio n is th a t it has th e ch a ra c te r o f b eing ag reeab le, t h a t . i t functions as ex p anding th e associated processes, a n d th a t its a c tu a lity is beneficent effectiveness .1
foundation of our life is changed, it acts as a means eradicating all veiling obstacles in the form of emotional instability . Though substantially the same, the Abhidharmasamuccaya is more concise: What is prababdhi? It is the workableness of kafa and citta, be cause the non-workableness of kaya and citta has subsided. It eradicates all obstacles (p. 6). Here not only the kleiwiara.no., the veil of emotional insta bility, is meant but also the jfteyanarana, the veil of our primitive beliefs about reality. Agitatedness [auddhatya, Pali uddhocca) is explained in Dhammasangani 429, 1 1.= ;9, 1237 as agitatedness (uddhocca). restlessness (avupasama), distractedness (celaso oikkhepa), and delusiveness {bhantattam cittassa). It is an affect because of its delusive character. See Dhammasangani p. 429. Sthiramati in his above-mentioned commentary, p. 31 emphasizes restlessness: ouddhatya is restlessness of mind....It is the root if the restlessness of a mind which remembers former laughters, enjoyments, and funs, all of them favour ing passionateness and it is an enemy of repose . Similarly Abhidharma samuccaya, p. 9. Yasomitra on Abhidharmakosa II 26 emphasizes the erotic nature of agitatedness. _ i. Atthasalini III 208. The latter explanation is favored by the V aibhasikas. See Abhidharmakosa II 7 and Yasomitras commentary on it.

I n w h a te v e r sense fe e lin g m a y b e in te r p r e te d , e ith e r in th e sen se o f e x te n siv e n e ss o r in th e sen se o f in te n s ity , th e o n e spreading a n d s u p p o r tin g a h a r m o n io u s s o c ia b ility , th e o th e r d e v e lo p in g in to th e d e p th o f a re lig io s ity w h ic h h a s n o th in g in c o m m o n w ith s e c ta r ia n sh o w -o ff a n d w h ic h is c a re fu lly sh ie ld ed fro m p ro fa n e ey es, i t is a c re a tiv e fa c to r . W ith o u t fe e lin g th e h a rm o n io u s a tm o s p h e re w h ic h is so e sse n tia l fo r c o n c e n tra tio n (fro m th e s p ir itu a l p o i n t o f v ie w ) a n d fo r a s y m p a th e tic p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a ll w o rld ly a ffa irs (fro m th e p r a c tic a l p o in t o f v ie w ) is u n th in k a b le . T h e re fo re also i t h a s b e e n s ta te d t h a t bliss b e c o m in g p r e g n a n t a n d b e a r in g f r u it p ro d u c e s th e kin d s oi c o n c e n tr a tio n m o m e n ta r y c o n c e n tr a tio n , a p p r o a c h in g c o n c e n t r a t io n , a n d a c c o m p lish e d c o n c e n tr a tio n . E x c e p t in the l a t t e r k in d o f c o n c e n tr a tio n th e tw o o th e r c o n c e n tr a tiv e processes o b ta in h e re (i.e ., in a h e a lth y a t ti t u d e b e lo n g in g to th e realm o f sen su o u s re la te d n e s s ; th e a c c o m p lis h e d c o n c e n tr a tio n being p o s s ib le o n ly b y m e a n s o f r e p e a te d ex ercises a n d m e d ita tio n ) 51.1 F in a lly th e c le a r d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n th e se n sa tio n c o m p o n e n t a n d th e fe e lin g s ta te in th e e m o tio n a l a s p e c t o f m e n ta l p ro c e sse s m u s t b e re fe rre d to . A lth o u g h b o th fa c to rs a r t in tim a te ly r e la te d to e a c h o th e r , e a c h o f th e m h a v in g e c u m u la tiv e effect u p o n th e o th e r a n d th u s le a d in g u p to be a f f e c t, y e t th e y m u s t b e d is c r im in a te d fro m e a c h o th e r. A r a ffe c t is m a rk e d b y q u ite d is tin c t b o d ily in n e rv a tio n s to w hich is j o in e d a re in fo rc e d feelin g , w h ile fe e lin g its e lf fo r th e m osl p a r t is w ith o u t th e se in n e rv a tio n s o r, i f th e y a re p re s e n t they a r e so fe e b le t h a t o n ly b y c e r ta in in s tru m e n ts c a n th e y be d e m o n s tr a te d . T h e re fo re , w h ile a n affec t is a lw a y s a c c o m p a n ie d b y fe e lin g , fe e lin g m u s t n o t n e c e s sa rily b e a c c o m p a n ie d b y s e n s a tio n e le m e n ts. T h e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n p r iti a n d sukha is g iv e n in th e fo llo w in g w o rd s : A lth o u g h p riti (jo y , m a rk e d b y p e r c e p tib le b o d ily in n e r v a tio n s ) a n d sukha (bliss, feelin g j u d g m e n t ) a re so m e h o w in tim a te ly c o n n e c te d , p r iti d e n o te s th e ( a n tic ip a to r y a n d e a g e r ) d e lig h t o n e h a s in o b ta in in g a d e s ire d o b je c t, w h ile sukha d e n o te s th e re lish in g o f th e ta ste o f th e o b je c t o b ta in e d . W h e re th e r e is p riti th e re a lso is sukha , b u t w h e re th e re is sukha th e r e is n o t n e c e ssa rily p riti, p riti b e in g cla ssifie d u n d e r th e sariiskaraskandha (c o m p risin g a ll m o tiv a tin g

a n d d riv in g fo rces), sukha b e in g classified u n d e r vedanaskandha (com prising th e th re e feeling v a lu a tio n s o f likes, dislikes, a n d in d iffe re n c e), priti (m akes itse lf p e rc e p tib le ) w h en a m a n ex h au ste d b y trav ellin g th ro u g h a d esert sees o r hears a b o u t a gro v e o r w a te r, sukha (is e x p e rie n c ed ) w h e n this m a n en ters th e sh ad e o f th e gro v e o r relishes th e w a te r 1. I t is o u t o f th e b le n d in g o f th e co g n itiv e process as expressed by vitarka a n d vicara a n d o f th e em otive process as p o in ted o u t b y priti a n d sukha th a t c o n c e n tra tio n in th e p ro p e r sense o f th e w o rd is possible. C o n c e n tra tio n , thus co m b in in g the cognitive a n d em o tiv e aspects o f o u r m e n ta l processes, is called o neo b je c tn e ss 2 in asm u ch as it does n o t allow o f b ein g d istra c te d a n d to rn a w ay from its o b je c tiv e a n d also jo in s th e o th e r fu n c tions (involved in c o n c e n tra tiv e processes) to itse lf a n d has th e m o p e ra tin g o n a n d to w a rd th e sam e o b ject. C o n c e n tra tio n is d efin ed in th e follow ing w ay : cittass ekaggatd m ean s th a t o n e s w h o le b ein g a n d w h o le m e n ta l o p e ra tio n (citta) is d ire c te d to w a rd one o b ject {ekagga); th u s it is a n o th e r term for a b so rp tio n th ro u g h c o n c e n tra tio n (samddhi). A b o u t its n a tu re w e re a d in th e A tth a k a th a th a t a b so rp tio n th ro u g h c o n c e n tra tio n has th e n a tu r e o f b o th le a d e rsh ip a n d n o n -d is tra c tio n 3. T h is d o u b le n a tu re is th en ex p lain ed b y tw o sim iles. T h e one d eclares th a t J u s t as th e d om e o f a g ab led house is th e le a d e r (of all th e b u ild in g m a te r ia l) , because it b in d s ail th e o th e r b u ild in g m a te ria ls to itself, so also ab so rp tio n is th e le a d e r o f all h e a lth y processes in v o lv ed , because a il these h e a lth y processes h a v e b e e n m a d e to fu n c tio n p ro p e rly by the influence o f a b s o rp tio n .4 a n d th e second sim ile states th a t J u s t as in a b a ttle th e k in g goes w h e re v e r th e a rm y is giving w ay , a n d th e a rm y w h e re v e r h e goes b ecom es rein fo rced a n d follows th e k in g , a fte r th e e n e m y s a rm y h as b een c ru sh ed , so
1. Atthasalini III 209. See also III 2in. This clear distinction has been, obliterated b y the Vaibhasikas who in Abhidharmakosa V II I 9 are said to regard priti as serenity and sukha as relaxation: pritir hi sa umanasyam prafrabdhih sukham adayah, 2. agga Skt. agra means dlambana. See Abhidharmakosavyakhya ad Abhidh.-kosa II 24 : agram alambanam ity eko rthah. yadyogdc cittam prabandhena ekatralambane vartate, sa samadhih. 3. Atthasalini III 211. 4. Atthasalini III 211.

also a b s o r p tio n h a s th e n a t u r e o f n o n - d is tr a c tio n ( n o n - s c a tte r in g ) , b e c a u s e it d o e s n o t a llo w th e c o - e x is te n t p ro cesses to b e d is tr a c te d o r to b e s c a tte r e d .1 T h is e x p la n a tio n o f th e n a t u r e a n d f u n c tio n o f a b s o r p tio n th r o u g h c o n c e n tr a tio n is in a c c o r d w ith th e c o n c e p tio n o f th is s ta te b y th e V a ib h a s ik a s , fo r w h o m samadhi o r cittasyaikagrata w a s a s p e c ia l e n tity b y w h o se e ffo rts a n d e fficie n cy a ll a sso c ia t e d a n d c o -e x is te n t p ro c e sse s b e c a m e u n ite d to w a r d s o n e o b je c tiv e , th e p ro cesses c o n c e n tr a te d o n o n e o b je c tiv e th e m se lv e s n o t b e in g w h a t o n e h a s to u n d e r s ta n d b y c o n c e n tra tio n . T h is is o n e o f th e r a r e in s ta n c e s w h e r e th e a u th o r o f t h e A t t h a s a lin i g iv e s p re f e r e n c e to th e v iew s o f th e A b h id h a r m ik a s a n d n o t to th o s e o f th e Y o g a c a ra s . H o w e v e r , h e g iv es still a n o th e r a n d m o r e d e ta ile d d e f in itio n o f c o n c e n tr a tio n w h ic h to ju d g e fro m th e w h o le m o d e o f e x p re s sio n in c lin e s to w a r d th e o n e g iv e n b y A s a n g a a n d S th ir a m a ti. H e says t h a t T h e r e is a n o t h e r e x p la n a tio n : T h is a b s o r p tio n ( sam adhi ) w h ic h is c a lle d o n e -o b je c tn e s s ( ekaggatd) o f th e m e n ta l set (citta ) h a s th e n a t u r e o f n o t d iss o lv in g a n d o f n o t b e c o m in g s c a tte r e d , h a s th e fu n c tio n o f w e ld in g th e c o - e x is te n t p ro c e sse s, as o n e k n e a d s w a te r a n d b a th - p o w d e r in to a p a s te , a n d h a s its a c tu a lity as b e c o m in g q u ie t a n d as k n o w in g , as h a s b e e n s a id (in th e S u tr a s , D lg h a n ik a y a I 8 3 , A n g u t t a r a n i k a y a V 3, e t c . ) : H e w h o is c o n c e n tr a te d k n o w s a n d sees th in g s a s th e y re a lly a r e . I n p a r t i c u l a r , c o n c e n tr a tio n is b a s e d u p o n th e fe e lin g o f bliss a n d th e s te a d fa s tn e s s o f m in d a n d s h o u ld b e u n d e rs to o d as b e in g lik e th e s te a d in e s s o f th e fla m e o f a la m p in th e a b se n c e o f w in d .3 C o n c e n tr a tio n m a y b e v ie w e d fro m v a rio u s an g les.*
1. Atthasalini II I 21 1 . .
2. Abhidharm akosavyakhya ad Abhidh.-kosa V I I I I : na cittany eva samadhih. yena lu tdny ekdgrdni vartante samdhitani sa dharmah samadhih. 3. Atthasalini I I I 212. A san ga in his Abhidharm asam uccaya is very concise : W hat is concentration ? One-objectness as regards the object to be scrutinized. It gives support to knowledge . Sthiramati, p . 26 is more detailed : Absorption is concentratedness on one o bject to be scrutinized. A n object is to be investigated according to its merits and defects. One-objectness means to have one object. It gives support to knowledge, because a concentrated m ind sees things as they really are. 4. Dham m asangani 11

Its m ost co n sp icu o u s fe a tu re is its stead fastn ess a n d its sta b iliz in g effect (th iti, saihthiti, a v a tth iti). U n s h a k e n a n d u n sh a k a b le it sta n d s o n th e o b je c t th a t h a s b e e n selected . I t also c o n c e n tra te s a ll th e a tte n d a n t fu n c tio n s o n th e v e ry o b ject it h a s ta k e n its s ta n d u p o n , a n d i t ev en p e n e tra te s d e ep ly in to th e su b jec t m a tte r . H o w ev er, it is o n ly in a h e a lth y a ttitu d e th a t c o n c e n tra tio n a n d a b so rp tio n a re possible a n d a c tu a lly c o m e a b o u t w ith -b e n e fic en t resu lts, a t th e sam e tim e in v o lv in g several o th e r processes su ch as h a v in g co n fid en ce (Jraddha) w h ic h is th e in itia l p lu n g e in to th e m a tte r , in sp e c tio n (sm rti ) w h ic h is th e n o n -flo a tin g a n d n o n -d riftin g a w a y fro m th e p ro b le m a t h a n d , a b s o rp tio n (samadhi ) p o in tin g o u t th e firm sta n d o n th e su b jec t sele c te d , so th a t it m a y n o t slip a w a y fro m th e p e n e tr a t in g sc ru tin y o f in sp ectio n , a n d fin ally th e a n a ly tic a l a p p re c ia tive u n d e rs ta n d in g (prajna ), w h ic h m e a n s th e th o ro u g h p e n e tra tio n in to th e p ro b le m a n d th e a b so rb in g o f e v e ry th in g c o n c e rn e d . B u t w h e n th e a ttitu d e is n o t h e a lth y a n d th e re fo re u n a b le to d e a l w ith a n y th in g in a p ro p e r m a n n e r c o n c e n tra tio n does n o t le a d to a th o ro u g h u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e n a tu r e o f o u r p ro b lem s, becau se p a ssio n a te desires ( trfnd ), p reco n ceiv ed id ea s a n d u n fo u n d e d b eliefs ( dr$ti ), a n d ig n o ra n c e o r th e in a b ility to see th in g s in th e ir c o rre c t p e rsp e c tiv e a n d to d e a l w ith th e m a c c o rd in g ly ( avidya, ), ru sh like a d e v a sta tin g flood u p o n m a n s m in d a n d p ro d u c e th e m o rb id sta te o f m e n ta l in fla tio n , as w e w o u ld say to d a y ,-ta k in g th e an alo g y from th e d ire conseq u en ces o f a m o n e ta ry in fla tio n in econom ics. J u s t as by sp rin k lin g a d u sty p la c e w ith w a te r a n d sm o o th in g i t, th e d u st sub sid es o n ly fo r a little w h ile a n d w h e rev er th e w a te r d ries u p th e d u st resum es its o rig in a l c o n d itio n , so also c o n c e n tra tio n in a n u n h e a lth y a ttitu d e is w e a k (an d u n a b le to ro use th e p o sitiv e facto rs, a n d jo in tly w ith th e m strives for a g o a l o f p e rm a n e n t v a lu e ) .1 C o n c e n tra tio n , h o w e v e r, m a y also b e d efined b y th e m e th o d o f n e g a tio n ( avisdhSra , avikkhepa, avisdhatamanasatd). S ince c o n c e n tra tio n is th e v e ry reverse o f a g ita ted n ess a n d u n c e rta in ty it is absence o f d is tra c tio n ( avisahara ), a n d sin c e n e ith e r a g ita te d n e ss n o r u n c e rta in ty c a n s c a tte r a n a ttitu d e in
i. Afthasalinl III 281. Weakness of concentration is also referred to in Abhidharmakosa V II I 1.

w h ic h c o n c e n tr a tio n is d o m in a n t i t is a lso n o n -c o n fu se d n e ss (avikkhepa), a n d sin c e b y w a y o f c o n c e n tr a tio n w e a r e n o t p u s h e d e ith e r th is w a y o r t h a t a n d d iv id e d a g a in s t o u rse lv e s, th e w h o le a t t i t u d e a s th e e x p re s s io n o f o u r n a t u r e g a in s th e q u a l i t y o f n o n -d iv id e d n e s s (avisahafam anasatd).1 T h e r e is o n e o th e r c h a r a c te r is tic o f c o n c e n tr a tio n a n d a b s o r p tio n t h a t h a s b e e n e m p h a s iz e d c o rre c tly . T h is is th e c a lm n e s s a n d p e a c e b y w h ic h a ll t h e re stlessn ess o f a d e lib e r a t in g a n d s c h e m in g m in d a n d a ll th e je r k in e s s o f a n a f fe c t-rid d e n m i n d s u b s id e s . F o r r e a s o n s w e a r e u n a b le to a c c o u n t for, th e r e m a y b e , te c h n ic a lly s p e a k in g , a n in flu x o f e n e r g y w h ic h le a d s c o n c e n tr a tio n u p to d o m in a n c e a n d e v e n g iv e it th e n a t u r e o f an- u n s h a k a b le p o w e r, w h ic h fin a lly w ill re s u lt in r i g h t c o n c e n tr a t i o n ( sammasam.ad.hi, S k t. sam yaksam adhi ) , w h ic h n o t o n ly p la y s a n im p o r t a n t r o le in th e m e d ita tiv e p r o cess b u t a ls o is th e ir r e m is s ib le c o n d itio n fo r th e a tta in m e n t o f th e u l t im a t e g o a l .2 P r o p e r c o n c e n tr a tio n a n d th e s ta te o f a b s o r p tio n b r o u g h t a b o u t b y it, is, as w e h a v e j u s t se e n , n o t a c o m p le te ly iso la te d p ro c e s s b u t is c o n n e c te d w ith s e v e ra l o t h e r fu n c tio n s , a n d th e se f u n c tio n s m a y a lso g a t h e r su c h a n a m o u n t o f e n e rg y t h a t th e y a t t a i n d o m in a n c e o v e r o t h e r p ro c e sse s a n d in th is w a y c o n t r i b u t e to a v a r ie ty o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l m a n ife s ta tio n s w e m e e t i n e v e r y d a y life in e v e ry h u m a n p s y c h e . S in c e th e p sy c h e is n o t m e r e ly r e - a c tiv e b u t is m o s t a c tiv e in its o w n r ig h t, w e c a n n o t d o b e t t e r th a n d e s c rib e th e c h a n g e s t h a t g o o n in it, b y s u c h a b s tr a c t te rm s as e n e rg y i f w e w a n t to b e sc ie n tific a lly c o r r e c t, a lth o u g h w e a r e fu lly a w a r e o f th e fa c t t h a t n o e x p la n a t i o n o f th e p h e n o m e n o n in its p r a c tic a l a p p lic a tio n h a s b e e n g iv e n , n o r w ill s u c h a n a b s t r a c t te rm e v e r c o n v e y th e e m o tio n a lly m o v in g ric h n e s s w h ic h is in s e p a r a b le fro m p sy c h ic p ro c e sse s. T h e c o n c e p t o f e n e r g y o n ly g iv es a d e s c rip tiv e a c c o u n t o f th e fa c t t h a t a t c e r ta in tim e s, a n d u n d e r c e r ta in c ir c u m s ta n c e c e r ta in p ro cesses a r e s tr o n g e r a n d m o r e d e c isiv e t h a n o th e rs . T h o s e f u n c tio n s , p ro c e sse s, o r fa c to rs w h ic h m a y g a i n in s tr e n g th a n d a b ility to w o rk th e i r p r o p e r c o u rs e , th e re b y e x e r tin g d o m in a n c e o v e r o th e r f u n c tio n e v e n ts a r e : ( I ) sraddha,
1. 2. Atthasalini III A tthasalini II I 282. 282.

virya, smrti, samadhi, prajna (som etim es c a lle d d h i), ( I I ) manas, saumanasya, jiv ita . Q u a lify in g these fu n c tio n s b y d o m in a n c e a n d som e o f th e m also b y p o w e r, as w e sh a ll see la te r o n , does n o t m e a n th a t a v alu e, e ith e r m o ra l o r in te lle c tu a l, h as b een im p a rte d to th em . I t sim p ly m e a n s th e d e te rm in in g p o w e r w h ich is m a n ife st in th e specific o p e ra tio n s o f these fu n c tio n s, i.e., th e ir n a tu re a n d effects. T h e d ifferen ce b e tw e e n d o m in a n c e a n d p o w e r is th a t th e fo rm e r is v a ria b le in in te n sity a n d m a y subside as soon as o th e r fu n c tio n s g a in in s tre n g th a n d b e g in to e x e rt th e ir d o m in a n c e , w h ile th e la tte r a sp e c t, once th e specific fu n c tio n h as b e e n esta b lish e d , w ill n o t su b sid e o r give w ay to o th e r fu n c tio n s b y w ay o f a c h a n g e in th e e n e rg e tic v a lu e .1 D o m in a n c e ( indriya ) is defin ed in a d o u b le w a y : (i) a s th e in h e re n t p o w er, c h a ra c te riz in g th e in trin s ic n a tu re o f th e p a rtic u la r fu n c tio n (indattha ), a n d (ii) as so v ereig n ty (adhipatiyatth a ), d e n o tin g th e d o m in a n c e o ver o th e r factors. O n ly th is la tte r a sp e c t is m e t w ith in th e d efin itio n s o f o th e r B u d d h ist schools o f th o u g h t ;2 so th e d e sc rip tio n o f th e fu n ctio n s a n d processes w ith re sp e c t also to th e ir in trin s ic en e rg e tic v a lu e , m a y b e re g a rd e d as a u n iq u e c o n trib u tio n to B u d d h ist th o u g h t b y th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i. I t is a g a in d ifficu lt to g iv e a n a d e q u a te tra n sla tio n o f th e first te rm m e n tio n e d ab o v e . Sraddha (P a li saddha ) co m prises a ll th e co n cep tio n s w e express b y c o n fid e n c e , c e rtitu d e , re v e re n c e , re sp e c t, a n d it is p recisely th e feeling o f resp ect a n d d ev o ted n ess, in a d d itio n to co n fid en ce a n d c e rtitu d e , th a t d istin g u ish es fraddha fro m all o th e r term s d e n o tin g sim ila r q u a lities. I t c e rta in ly is n o t m e re b e lie f o r b lin d faith . I t is d e sc rib e d as th a t b y w h ic h p e o p le h a v e co n fid en ce a n d re sp e c t, o r th a t b y w h ic h w e ourselves h a v e c o n fid en ce a n d resp ect o r sim p ly as co n fid en ce a n d re sp e c t. In a s m u c h as it overcom es th a t w h ich is n o t tru s tw o rth y a n d w h ic h does n o t deserve o u r resp ec t, it is d o m in a n c e in th e sense o f e x e rtin g its so v ereignty ov er its o p p o n e n ts, w h ile it is d o m in a n c e in th e sense o f lo rd li

1. For this difference see also Abhidharmakosa V I 69 and the Bha?ya. 2. See for instance the long discussion as regards the derivation o f indriya from the root idi by Yasomitra on Abhidharmakosa, II. 1.

n ess w ith r e s p e c t to its o w n n a t u r e d e te r m in a tio n a n d c e r titu d e .1 I ts n a t u r e is p u rif y in g t h a t w h ic h is a g ita te d as w e ll as p a v in g th e w a y fo r th e o p e r a tio n o f o th e r f u n c tio n s c o n d u c iv e to th e a t t a i n m e n t o f th e u ltim a te g o a l, o r in s o f a r as a h e a lth y a t t i t u d e i n w o r ld ly m a tte r s o n ly is c o n c e r n e d , fo r liv in g th e life o f a re s p e c ta b le a n d re s p e c tfu l m a n . T h e fo rm e r q u a lity h a s b e e n d e s c r ib e d in th e fo llo w in g w a y : J u s t a s th e w a te r - p u r if y in g g e m o f a u n iv e rs a l m o n a r c h , th r o w n in to w a te r , ca u se s m u d , m o ss, w a te r-w e e d s , a n d filth to s u b s id e a n d m a k e s th e w a te r tr a n s p a r e n t , c le a r a n d u n d is tu r b e d , so also c o n fid e n c e -re s p e c t, w h e n it a rise s, re m o v e s a ll o b s ta c le s , c a u ses e m o tio n a l in s ta b i lity ( k ile sa ) to su b sid e , a n d m a k e s th e w h o le o u tlo o k o f th e in d iv id u a l b r ig h t a n d c le a r . F o r i t is w ith a p u r e m in d th a t a m a n o f n o b le fa m ily m a k e s g if ts ,2 o b se rv e s th e p re c e p ts fo r a d e c e n t a n d r e s p e c ta b le life, p e rfo rm s th e d u tie s o f fast d a y s , a n d b e g in s th e w a y o f s p ir itu a l c u l t u r e .3 T h e
i. Atthasalini I I I 213 : sa ca assaddhiyassa alhibhavanalo abhipatiyaithena indriyam, adhimokhalakkhane va indattham karoti ti indriyam. adhimoksa is defined in I I I 254 as having the nature o f determination, the function o f not dawdling along, the actuality o f decidedness, and the basis on which it functions is the object that has been decided upon. O w in g to its unshakableness in relation to this object it should be regarded as a stone pillar. T his is essentially the view of the Yogacaras. See the remarks of Yasom itra commenting in Abhidharm akosa II 24 : adhimukti is the deter, mination or adherence to an object because o f its merits. According to others it is liking. According to Yogacaras it is adherence to an object that has been decided upon. Similarly Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 6. Sthiramati, p. 25, making use o f the definition o f this work, declares : adhimokfa means adherence in this or that w ay to an object decided upon. T h e term decided upon is used in order to reject everything that is not decided upon. A thing decided upon leaves no room for doubt, be it according to reason or be it according to the instruction b y a c o m p e te n t person. W hen a thing has been decided upon, for instance with respect to its characteristics o f impermanence or unpleasantness, then our mind will view the thing in this specific way, and the adherence to the decision made as to its so being and not otherwise, is determination (adhimokfa). It acts in such a w ay as to make a withdrawal impossible. H e who has gained this certitude cannot be made by his oppo nents to forsake his established view o f a thing. a. gift is not so much the thing that is given, but the whole attitude out o f which something is given. T h e gift, the giver, and the act o f giving must be absolutely pure. Technically this is known as trimapdalapariiuddhi.
3. A tth a sa lin i III 213.

second d efin itio n is e la b o ra te d in th e follow ing m a n n e r: J u s t as a tim id cro w d sta n d in g on b o th banks o f a g re a t riv er full o f a n d infested w ith all sorts o f crocodiles, a llig a to rs, sharks, ogres a n d so on, b ein g asked b y a g r e a t w a rrio r, h e ro o f b a ttle s, w hy th ey w ere sta n d in g th e re , w o u ld an sw er th a t th ey do n o t cross for fe a r o f d a n g e r, a n d th e h ero w o u ld g ra sp his sh a rp sw ord a n d w ith the w ords, follow m e a n d d o n o t fe a r, w ould go do w n in to th e riv er a n d w h e re v e r th e m o n sters w ould com e u p he w o u ld re p e l th em . A n d m a k in g it safe for th e peo p le h e w ould lead th em from th e rig h t b a n k to th e left an d from th e left b a n k to th e rig h t in a ll safety. So also confidence-respect, p reced es a n d is th e fo re ru n n e r o f him w ho m akes gifts, observes th e precep ts o f a d e c e n t a n d resp ectab le life, perform s the d u tie s o f fast days, a n d beg in s th e w ay to sp iritu a l cu ltu re . T h ere fo re it h a s b een said th a t confid en ce-resp ect, has the n a tu re o f p a v in g th e w a y .1 T o b rin g a b o u t c la rity a n d p e rsp ic u ity o f m in d , is a c c o rd in g to all schools o f B u d d h ist th o u g h t, th e essential w ork o f confidence. By its w holesom e influence all p assio n ate waves o f egotism subside a n d leave th e m in d c le a r a n d tra n sp a re n t like a cle a r d e e p silent p o o l o f w a te r2. H o w ev er, confidence a n d resp ect h a v e still o th e r effects as m a y b e seen from a fu rth e r e x p la n a tio n , w h ich in m a n y respects a g a in reveals th e in c lin a tio n o f th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a sa lin I to w a rd th e views o f th e Y o g acaras. H e says th a t Jraddka h as th e n a tu r e o f h a v in g confidence a n d resp ect o r th e n a tu r e o f d ecision as to the s u ita bleness o f th e su b ject fo r fu rth e r progress o n th e w ay. Its fu n c tio n is p u rify in g like th e w a te r-p u rify in g gem o r p a v in g the w ay like ferry in g beings over a d a n g e ro u s flood. Its a c tu a l m a n i festatio n is n o n -tarn ish ed n ess o f m in d by e m o tio n al in sta b ility o r it is d e te rm in a tio n . T h e basis from w h ic h it functions is a tru st-w o rth y su b ject o r th e e n te rin g -in to th e stream to w ard lib e ra tio n ; (sotdpatti).3 I t sh o u ld b e co n sid e re d as a h a n d
1. Atfbasalini 111*2 15 . 2. See for instance Yasomitra on Abhidharmakosa II 25: Sraddha is purity of mind. It is by Sraddha that a mind made turbid by the major and minor egotistic passions, becomes pure ju st like water by bringing it into contact with the water-purifying gem ." This is the view of the V&ibhasikas. T he view of the Yogacaras will be dealt with later on. 3. This means that once we have decided upon a certain course, in

a c c e p tin g t h a t w h ic h is u s e fu l a n d h e lp f u l o r as a v a lu a b le p r o p e r t y o r as a se e d fro m w h ic h a ll h e a lth y th in g s w ill s p r o u t .1 A n d , I t is h a v in g c o n fid e n c e in , a n d r e s p e c t fo r, as w e ll a s a s p ir in g a f te r t h e T h r e e J e w e ls , th e B u d d h a , th e D h a r m a , a n d th e S a n g h a . . . . I t is th e d e c is io n w h ic h o n e h a s m a d e a n d fo llo w s b y b e c o m in g d e e p ly a b s o r b e d in th e th o u g h t o f th e q u a litie s o f th e E n lig h te n e d O n e , b y d w e llin g o n th e s e q u a litie s b e c a u s e o n e h a s , a s i t w e re , b r o k e n t h r o u g h ( t h a t w h ic h o b s tr u c ts t h e i r r e a l i z a t i o n ) . B y Sraddha s e n t i e n t b e in g s h a v e a b u n d a n t c e r t i t u d e a b o u t th e q u a litie s o f th e E n lig h te n e d O n e , o r sraddha its e l f e x p re sse s its e lf b y th is a b u n d a n t c e r t i t u d e .2 W h ile c o n fid e n c e a n d r e s p e c t p a v e th e w a y to w a r d o u r g o a l, i t is o n ly b y e n e r g y ( vlrya , P a l i viriya) t h a t w e a r e a b le to a c h ie v e th e g o a l o r a c t u a l ly se t o u t fo r its a t t a i n m e n t . E n e rg y s th u s th e b e h a v io r o f th e e n e r g e tic m a n as w e ll a s th e a c tiv ity d is p la y e d b y h im . O r , i t d e n o te s t h a t w h ic h is to b e e ffe c te d o r c a r r i e d o u t m e th o d ic a lly a n d b y s u ita b le m e a n s , w h e re s u ita b le is in te n d e d in th e se n se o f b r in g in g a b o u t beneficiaL re s u lts . I t is d o m in a n c e in th e se n se o f s o v e re ig n ty b y o v e r p o w e r in g id le n e s s , a n d it is d o m in a n c e 3 in th e se n se o f lo r d li-

the specific Buddhist sense, on viewing things from the Buddhist point o f view , we shall follow this course w hich will lead us along like a sure current. 1. A tth asalini I I I 216. . 2. Atthasalini I I I 283. T h is is in m any respects that w hich the Yogacaras have to say about Sraddha. See Abhidharm akosa II 25 (V y a k h y a ): Adherence to the Truths, the Jewels, K arm an , and its fruit. This is the opinion o f others. T h e explanation o f Sraddha then is : adherence to the doctrine that there are Four Truths, Three Jewels, Good and Bad K arman, A greeab le and Disagreeable R esults . M ost explicit is Sthiramati^ who in his V rtti, p. 26 enlarges on the definition in Abhidharm asam uccaya. p . 6, and declares : Sraddha is the adherence to the doctrine that actions w ill have their results, to the Noble Truths, and to the Three Jew els: it is pellucidity o f mind, yearning for the N ob le. Sraddha operates in three ways : it is adherence to either a good or a bad thing, it is pellucidity only w ith respect to good and it is yearning for the attainm ent or production o f good and so also pellucidity. Sraddha is opposed to and destructive o f all tarnishes in ones attitude (and mental operations). Since through its influence the defects and stains o f emotional instability in its grosser and subtler forms go away, ones whole outlook becomes clear. Therefore one speaks o f the pellucidity o f m ind. I t is the basis for w ill power {chandas

ness, b y e n e rg e tic a lly ta k in g h o ld o f th e p ro b le m a t h a n d .1 In th is w a y e n e rg y is su p p o rtin g as w ell as s tre n g th e n in g : J u s t as a n old h o u se sta n d s w h e n su p p o rte d b y a d d itio n a l p illa rs, so also th e a s p ira n t {yogavacara), w h e n su p p o rte d by en erg y , does n o t lose th e h e a lth y fa c to rs, b e it som e o f th e m o r all o f th e m , a n d J u s t as in a n e n c o u n te r b e tw e e n a sm a ll a n d a la rg e a rm y , th e sm all a rm y w ill fa ll b ack , a n d th e king in fo rm ed a b o u t th is, w ill send a s tro n g a rm y co rp s, a n d rein fo rced b y th is, his a rm y w ill d e fe a t th e h o stile a rm y . So also en e rg y does n o t allo w th e co -e x iste n t a n d asso c ia te d fu n ctio n s to fall b a c k a n d to re c e d e , b u t stre n g th e n s a n d rein fo rces th e m .2 T h e r e is still on e o th e r e x p la n a tio n o f en e rg y , w h ic h is com m o n to a ll schools o f B u d d h ist th o u g h t a n d w h ic h co rresp o n d s to o u r co n c e p t o f w ill p o w er o r p e rs e v e ra n c e .3 I t is s a id : E n e rg y h a s th e n a tu r e o f p e rse v e ra n c e th e fu n c tio n o f su p p o rtin g th e c o -e x iste n t fu n c tio n s, th e a c tu a lity o f n o t slack en in g , a n d th e basis fro m w h ic h it o p e ra te s is s tim u la tio n a c c o rd in g to a s ta te m e n t in th e S u tr a (A n g u tta ra n ik a y a I I 1 1 5 ), stim u la te d o n e p u ts o n e s s h o u ld e r to th e ta s k , o r its basis is th e in itia l p u ttin g o f e n e rg y in to a n e n te rp rise . F o r o n e m u s t k n o w th a t t h a t w h ic h is rig h tly b e g u n is th e r o o t o f a ll a c h ie v e m e n ts .4 T h is e n e rg y is n o t p h y s ic a l o u tp u t, b u t is th a t w h ich p e r m e a te s th e w h o le a ttitu d e o r m e n ta l o u tlo o k o f a m a n d e a lin g w ith th e p ro b le m s o f a tta in in g s p iritu a l m a tu r ity . I t is itse lf g ra d e d a c c o rd in g to th e in te n s ity o f its m a n ife sta tio n . I t m a y be sim p le cessation fro m idleness o r sim p le reje ctio n o f sensuous a n d sen su al e n jo y m e n ts (nikkam a ), it m a y be view ed
1. A tthasalin i III 217.

2. Afthasalinl III 218. 3. This interpretation of will as perseverance is offered by Gilbert Ryle, The Concept of M ind, pp. 62 sq. 4.. Atthasalini III 219. It is interesting to note that the author o f the Atthasalini mentions the overcoming of idleness first and then points out the character of perseverance. This same order (which cannot be invert ed, of course) is given by Sthiramati, p. 27 : Energy is the opponent of laziness. It is perseverance in that which is healthy but not in that which is detrimental, perseverance in that which is laziness and indolence, because o f its detestableness. Energy gives a firm basis for the fulfilment of that which is healthy and wholesome .

fro m its in c re a s in g in te n s ity o r as th e c u ttin g o ff o f th e ties th a t b in d us to th e w o rld o f r e la tiv ity (p arakkam a ), it m a y b e se e n in its p ro g re s s iv e m o v e m e n t o r its cro ssin g th e flo o d o f d e s ire ( uyyam a ) , it m a y b e th e s tro n g e n d e a v o u r o r th e g o in g to th e o th e r s h o re (vayam a ) , i t m a y b e p e rs e v e ra n c e o r th a t w h ic h p re c e d e s th e so lu tio n o f e v e r y th in g th a t is d iffic u lt ( ussaha ), i t m a y b e p e rs e v e ra n c e c o n tin u a lly g a in in g s tre n g th (:ussolhi ), i t m a y b e firm n e ss o r th e u p r o o tin g o f th e p illa r o f ig n o r a n c e ( tham a ), o r i t m a y m a n ife s t its e lf a s stea d fa stn ess b e c a u s e i t c a rrie s (gives s tr e n g th to ) o n e s a t t i t u d e a n d th e fu n c tio n s o p e r a tin g in a n d a c c o r d in g to it, a n d b e c a u se it c a rr ie s th e c o n tin u o u s s tr e a m o f h e a lth y fa c to rs, a n d th u s p ro d u c e s th e firm n ess a n d re s o lu tio n to go th e w a y o n e h a s d e c id e d to b e th e bfest fo r o n e s s p ir itu a l w e lfa re (d h iti ). I t is th is firm r e s o lu tio n w h ic h w ill u n d e r n o c irc u m s ta n c e s b e c o m e w e a k a n d fe e b le (asithilaparakkam atd) t h a t m a d e th e B u d d h a u t t e r th e p r o u d w o rd s b e fo re h e h a d a tta in e d e n lig h te n m e n t: M a y m y sk in , m y sin ew s, a n d m y b o n e s w ith e r a w a y , n o t u n t i l I h a v e a tta in e d m y g o a l s h a ll I ris e fro m th is s e a t . A n d b e c a u s e th is e n e rg y , th is w ill p o w e r, d o es n o t th ro w o ff th e e a r n e s t d e s ire to d o g o o d a n d sin c e i t d o e s n o t sh irk th e o b lig a tio n s in v o lv e d in it, it is c a lle d , n e g a tiv e ly e x p re sse d , T h e m a n n e r o f a c tin g in w h ic h th e d e s ire fo r th e s u b lim e h a s n o t b e e n d is c a r d e d ('anikkhittachandata ) a n d th e m a n n e r o f a c tin g in w h ic h th e o b lig a tio n s o n e h a s ta k e n u p a r e n o t s h irk e d (anikkhittadhurata), a n d , p o sitiv e ly s ta te d , th e v ig o ro u s ta c k lin g o f o b lig a tio n s (dhurasampaggaha). I t is o u t o f p r o p e r e m p lo y m e n t o f e n e rg y th a t r ig h t e x e rtio n fo r th e a tta in m e n t o f th e u ltim a te g o a l (sammavayama ) r e s u lts .1 J u s t as it is n e c e ssa ry to h a v e c o n fid e n c e in a th in g one w a n ts to a c h ie v e a n d j u s t as it is n e c e s s a ry th a t o n e e x e rts o n e se lf in o r d e r to a c h ie v e th e d e s ire d e n d , w ith o u t u tiliz in g ail e x p e rie n c e s o n e h a s h a d in life a n d w ith o u t d ir e c tin g th e m to w a r d t h a t w h ic h lies b e fo re o n e s eyes a n d a h e a d o f o n eself, a ll s triv in g w ill b e in v a in . T h e re fo re it is n o t e n o u g h to h a v e c o n fid e n c e a n d to b e e n e rg e tic , o n e m u s t a lso h a v e a n d e m p lo y sm rli (P a li s a ti). T h is te rm c o m p rise s tw o d iffe re n t id eas.
1. Atthasalini

111

283.

O n the one h a n d , it is re co llectio n , p o in tin g to th e p ast, w hile o n the o th e r, it is in sp e c tio n . C ertain ly , inspection itse lf is n o t m em o ry , because it does n o t refer to th e p ast b u t m erely describes th e a p p a re n t c h a ra c teristic o f its p resen t objective co n stitu e n t. B u t this objectiv e c o n stitu en t is very often th e objectiv e co n stitu e n t o f a co-existent m e m o ry -situ atio n .1 I t h a s to be observed th a t th e la tte r asp ect o f in spection is em phasized in a ll texts. F o r it is n o t th e fu tile ru n n in g after fleeting m em ories a n d th ereb y losing sig h t o f the presen t, b u t th a t functio n , b y w hich o ne tries to keep th e p e rc e p tu a l situ a tio n as c o n sta n t as possible, in o rd e r to le a rn m o re a b o u t th e o b jectiv e c o n stitu e n t o f th e p a rtic u la r p e rc e p tu a l situation. A g ain it m u st b e em phasized th a t a h e a lth y a ttitu d e is m e a n t fo r m e d ita tio n a n d th a t in sp ectio n therefore is a n im p o rta n t fa c to r w ith in this process. Its d efinition runs as follow s: By it p eo p le recollect, o r it itself recollects, o r it is ju s t recollection. I t is d o m in an ce in th e sense o f sovereignty b ecause it overpow ers confusion, a n d it is d o m in an ce in th e sense o f lordliness because i t has th e n a tu re o f b ein g im m e d ia te ly p re s e n t .* T h is defini tio n m akes it a b u n d a n tly c le a r th a t smrti im plies a n d effects a n o n -flo atin g aw ay o f th e su b ject in. m in d a n d th a t it strongly tak es h o ld o f th e m a te ria l p re se n t b y selecting a n d fu rth e rin g th a t w h ich is useful a n d h e a lth y a n d by in h ib itin g all th a t w hich m ig h t im p ed e th e in d iv id u a ls sp iritu a l progress. T h e form er asp e ct is illu stra te d by th e follow ing sim ile : J u s t as th e tr e a su re r o f a k in g , w ho g u a rd s his tenfold tre a su re , b o th early a n d la te m akes th e king tak e n o te o f a n d re m e m b e r th e royal possessions, so also smrti m akes us take n o te o f a n d rem em b er th a t w h ich is w holesom e ,3 w h ile th e la tte r aspect m en tio n ed ab o v e is d escrib ed as follows : J u s t as th e counsellor o f a u n i v ersal m o n a rc h , w ho know s w h a t is d isad v an tag eo u s a n d w h at is ad v an tag eo u s, rem oves th e d isad v an tag eo u s a n d prom otes th e ad v a n ta g e o u s, so also smrti scrutinizes th e w ays o f th e d isad v an tag eo u s a n d a d v a n ta g e o u s factors a n d by d ecid in g th a t m isco n d u ct in b o d y (speech a n d m in d ) is disad v an tag eo u s it rem oves these d isad v an tag eo u s factors a n d by d eciding th a t
1. G. D. Broad, The Mind and its Place in Nature, p. 299. 2. Atthasalini III 220. 3- Atthasalini III 221

g o o d c o n d u c t in b o d y (sp e e c h a n d m i n d ) a r e a d v a n ta g e o u s fafctors, i t firm ly ta k e s h o ld o f th e s e a d v a n ta g e o u s f a c to r s .1 A n o th e r e x p la n a tio n w h ic h th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i g iv e s, ta llie s w ith th e o n e g iv e n b y th e Y o g a c a ra s . T h is d efi n itio n b rin g s o u t th e c h a r a c te r o f in s p e c tio n p a r tic u la r ly c le a r ly : sm rti h a s th e n a tu r e o f n o t le ttin g th e s u b je c t flo a t a w a y , th e fu n c tio n o f u n e rrin g n e s s , th e a c tu a l i ty o f g u a r d in g t h a t w h ic h h a s b e c o m e th e o b je c t o f in s p e c tio n o r o f fa c in g th e subject* th e b a sis fro m w h ic h it o p e ra te s b e in g c le a r a n d firm p e r c e p tio n o f th e o b je c tiv e c o n s titu e n ts o f th e s itu a tio n (kayddi-satip a (fh a n a ). S in c e sm rti is firm ly s ta n d in g o n th e o b je c t, it s h o u ld b e re g a r d e d a s a d o o r-p o s t, o r s in c e it g u a r d s th e senses fro m g o in g a s tr a y , i t s h o u ld b e r e g a r d e d as a d o o r - k e e p e r .2 T h u s sm rti c o m p rise s th r e e a s p e c ts. I t is re c o lle c tin g a n d r e p e a te d re c o lle c tio n o f p a s t e x p e rie n c e s a n d e v e n ts (sati, anussati, p a tissa ti, saranata ) ; b u t a b o v e a ll it is th e b e a r in g i n m in d o f w h a t o n e h a s le a rn e d ( dhdranata ) , a n d u n lik e p u m p k in s a n d p o ts w h ic h flo a t a lo n g th e c u r r e n t o f a r iv e r b u t d o n o t s in k u n d e r th e w a te r , sm rti d o es n o t le t th e s u b je c t d r if t a w a y b u t ta k e s h o ld o f it in a ll its a sp e c ts (apildpanata) , a n d fin a lly , sin c e o n e le a r n s b y in s p e c tio n m o r e a b o u t th e n a t u r e o f th e s u b je c t i t is n o n -o b liv io u s n e ss ( asam m ussanatd ) w h ic h a d d s to th e c h a r a c t e r o f d o m in a n c e in s h e d d in g lig h t o n th e p re s e n t

1. A tth asalin i II I 222. 2. Atthasalini I I I 223. There is a curious connection between the Pali qpilapanata and the Sanskrit abhilapanatd, the terms used b y Yasomitra in hU commentary on Abhidharmakosa I I 24 and by Sthiramati in his V rtti, p. .25 sq. Is abhilapanatd. a Sanskritization o f the Prakritic apilapanald (y / p lu ) ? Although both termsicharacterize inspection the former is the addressing a known object., the later the not letting the object o f inspection float aw ay. Yasom itra defines smrti as follows : smrti is non-obliviousness o f an object. Through it m ind does not forget an object and, as it were, addresses it . Sthiramati declares: smrti is unerringness as regards a known object, it is a mental address. A known thing is something formerly experi enced. It is unerringness because it does not let go the hold on the object. T h e repeated recollection o f an object formerly grasped, is addressing it. For when an object is addressed there is no distraction to another object or to another aspect, hence smrti acts as not causing distraction. T h e simile o f smrti as door-keeper has bsen made use o f b y SaDtideva in his Bodhicaryavatara V 33

a n d o u t o f w h ic h rig h t in sp e c tio n as th e p re lim in a ry step to know led g e (sammdsati) m a y re su lt1. W h ile th ese d efin itio n s m a k e it q u ite c le a r th a t smrti is ab o v e a ll in sp e c tio n a n d p ro v e th a t th e tra n sla tio n by m e m o ry as fo u n d in m ost w orks is m isle a d in g i f n o t even w rong, la te r a u th o rs h a v e e la b o ra te d th e differen ce b e tw een m em ory a n d insp ectio n p recisely a n d s ta te d th a t in m e d ita tio n m em o ry is n o t su ite d .2 In sp e c tio n 3 is a n ecessary step . By it w e le a rn m o re a b o u t th e o b je c t a n d its n a tu r e a n d th is assists us in b ecom ing a b so rb e d in th e c o n te m p la tio n o f th e o bject. T h ere fo re as th e n e x t fa c to r o p e ra tin g in a h e a lth y a ttitu d e , a b so rp tio n b y c o n c e n tra tio n (samadhi ) is m e n tio n e d . By it m in d is fixed u p o n th e o b ject th a t has been selected in in sp e c tio n a n d it exerts its d o m in a n c e b y w ay o f o v erp o w erin g d is tra c tio n a n d also b y w ay o f ex ercizin g its lo rd lin ess in n o n -d istra cte d n ess .4 I t is th en from c o n tin u e d p ra c tic e th a t a b so rp tio n w hich is n o t u n co m m o n in o rd in a ry life, develops in to p ro p e r ab so rp tio n ( samyaksamadhi, P ali sammasamadhi). As w ill have b een o b serv ed , th e a rra n g e m e n t o f the factors is n o t ra n d o m , a n d it is from this g ra d u a l process, sta rtin g w ith co n fid en ce a n d le a d in g u p to a b so rp tio n , th a t know ledge ( prajna, P a li panna) is a tta in e d . K n o w led g e, m o re p ro p erly sp eak in g , a n a ly tic a l a p p re c ia tiv e u n d e rsta n d in g , has a d o u b le asp ect. T h e o n e is to kn o w a n d th e o th e r is to m ake know n. K n o w led g e is so called b ecau se it know s. A n d w h a t d o es it k n o w ? I t know s th e F o u r N o b le T ru th s , b e g in n in g w ith th e sta te m e n t th a t a ll this to w h ic h w e a re a tta c h e d is tra n sito ry a n d u n a b le to give lastin g h a p p in e ss a n d sp iritu a l c o n te n tm e n t a n d hen ce is m ise ra b le . A c c o rd in g to th e o ld A tth a k a th a , h o w ev er, k n o w led g e is so called b ecau se it m akes know n. A n d w h a t does it m ak e know n ? I t m akes k n o w n th e v erifiable fa c t o f tran si to ri ness, m iserableness, a n d th e a b sen ce o f a p ersist1 . A tth a sa lin i I I I 286. 2. Padma. dkar, p o , Phyag, rgya. chen.poi. man; riag.gibsad. sbyar. fgyal. bai. gan. mdzod, fol.88a. whereinspection is termedyu l. nes.kyi. dran. pa. khyad. par. can special kind of smrti having a determinate object. 3. On this term see G.D. Broad, The Mind and its Place in Nature,
PP.
299

sq.

4.

Atthasalini III 224.

*n p e r s o n a lity o r in d iv id u a lity . K n o w le d g e is d o m in a n c e in th e sense o f so v e re ig n ty , b e c a u s e i t o v e rp o w e rs ig n o ra n c e , a n d i t is d o m in a n c e in th e sen se o f lo rd lin e s s , b e c a u se it is b y n a tu r e b e h o ld in g r e a lity .3 K n o w le d g e is th e lig h t t h a t s p re a d s f a r a n d w id e a n d d isp e ls th e d a rk n e s s o f m in d , th e i n a b ility to see th in g s in th e ir tr u e n a t u r e a n d p r o p e r p e rs p e c tiv e . T h e lig h t th a t k n o w led g e sh ed s o v e i a ll th in g s is u n p a r a lle le d . J u s t as w h e n a la m p b u r n s a t n ig h t in a fo u r-w a lle d h o u s e , th e d a rk n e ss d is a p p e a rs a n d lig h t m a n ife sts itself, so also k n o w le d g e h a s as its n a t u r e th e s h e d d in g o f lig h t. T h e r e is n o lig h t e q u a l to th e lig h t w h ic h is k n o w le d g e . 2 T h is k n o w le d g e is e s se n tia lly a n a ly tic a l, b u t in its a n a ly sis i t is c e r ta in ly n o t d e s tr u c tiv e , b u t a p p r e c ia tiv e o f a ll th a t is w h o le s o m e a n d fu r th e r s s p ir itu a l g r o w th a n d d e v e lo p m e n t. I t is n o t m e r e b o o k - le a r n in g , it m u s t b e a p p lie d to life if i t is o f a n y v a lu e , a n d so it h a s a h e a lin g in flu e n c e : J u s t as a ju d ic io u s p h y s ic ia n k n o w s w h ic h fo o d is s u ita b le fo r his p a tie n ts a n d w h ic h is n o t, so also k n o w le d g e , w h e n i t a ris e s , k now s w h e th e r so m e t h in g is h e a lth y o r u n h e a lth y , s e rv ic e a b le o r u n s e rv ic e a b le , lo w o r e x a lte d , d a r k o r b r ig h t, s im ila r o r d is s im ila r . 3 A c c o rd in g to a n o th e r e x p la n a tio n , k n o w le d g e is p e n e tr a tio n in to th e r e a l o r t r u e n a t u r e o f a th in g . T h is p e n e tr a tio n is u n f a lte r in g lik e th e p e n e tr a tin g e ffe c t o f a n a rr o w s h o t b y a s k ille d a r c h e r . L ik e a la m p , k n o w le d g e sp re a d s its lig h t o v e r th e o b je c t a n d sin c e k n o w le d g e is th e o p p o s ite o f d e lu s io n a n d o p e r a te s w h e re th e re is n o d e lu s io n i t is lik e a r e lia b le g u id e in a d e n s e j u n g l e .4 K n o w le d g e a n a ly z e s a n d in its a n a ly sis p e n e tra te s to t h e tr u e n a tu r e o f th in g s . T h is tr u e n a tu r e is th e ir tr a n s ito r i n ess, w h ic h m e a n s t h a t a ll d e te r m in a te th in g s, w h e th e r th e y b e se n se d o b je c ts o r p o s tu la te d selv es, a re c a u g h t w ith in th e d e a th - d e liv e r in g ra v a g e s o f tim e a n d t h a t i t is d u e to th e fa c t t h a t m a n c h e rish e s th e d e te r m in a te fa c to rs a n d q u a litie s o f th o s e w h o a r e d e a r to h im , o f h im s e lf a n d o f a ll n a t u r a l o b je c ts,
1. Atthasalini H I 2. Atthasalini I I I 3- Atthasalini III
4. A tth a sa lin i 111

225. 226. 227.

228.

th a t h e m u st o f necessity suffer. F a r from g iv in g a pessim istic outlook, know ledge m akes m a n see th a t w h a te v e r is d e te rm in a te is n o t all a n d th a t th e re is so m eth in g in th e n a tu re o f th e d e te r m in a te w h ich is inexpressible a n d y et c a n b e experienced d irectly a n d im m ed iately a n d in its d ire c t experience offers lastin g h ap p in ess. T h e re a liz a tio n a n d u n eq u iv o cal a cce p tan ce o f th e fact th a t every th in g d e te rm in a te is tra n sito ry , w hich \ve c a n verify b y a p p e a lin g to facts d irectly , a n d n o t to h azy ideas a b o u t th em , is th e first step to a n d th e first sign o f eth ic al p ra c tic a l w isdom . K no w led g e does n o t m ake m a n n arro w , i t achieves b ro a d ness o f outlook, because d u e to its su b tlety a n d am p litu d e i t deligh ts in th e re a l m e a n in g o f things (bhule atthe ramati ti bhuri). As lig h tn in g destroys stone p illa rs, so also know ledge a n n ih ilates em o tio n al in sta b ility a n d q u ic k ly grasps a n d h olds fast the re a l m ean in g o f thin g s. I t is th erefo re a g u id e, w h o leads h im w ho trusts know ledge, to w ard th a t w hich is good an d w holesom e an d d irects a ll associated fu n ctio n s in th e p syche to th e p e n e tra tio n o f th e re a l. K n o w led g e alo n e b rin g s a m in d w hich has gone off its tracks b y b eliev in g things to b e p e rm a n e n t, th o u g h th e y a re so u tte rly tra n sito ry , back to th e rig h t course ju s t as a w h ip brin g s horses th a t a re ru n n in g o ff th e ro a d b ack to the p ro p e r ro ad . K n o w led g e is th e lig h t b y w hich w e see a n d w hich sheds its illu m in a tio n on ev ery th in g know able, n o t m erely in th e sense o f in te lle c tu a l know ledge, th o u g h in te lle c tu a l acu m en is a n asset; b u t also in th e sense o f d ire c tly ex p erien cing. I t is th is la tte r aspect th a t m ust nev er b e lost sight o f in B u d d h ist th o u g h t. In the darkness o f ig n o ran ce, know ledge is a n un sh ak ab le pow er, a s h a rp w eap o n to c u t o ff th e passions a n d affects th a t veil o u r view . Its sublim eness c a n only b e in a d e q u a te ly com p a re d w ith th e lofty tu rre t o f a p a la c e . K n o w led g e is a p re cious jew el, because it causes, gives, a n d p roduces d e lig h t, because th ro u g h it w isdom is set u p , because by it th a t w hich is difficult to u n d e rsta n d is rev ealed , because it is in c o m p arab le , a n d because it is enjoyed b y illustrious p e o p le .1 I t is by this know ledge w h ich d ee p ly p e n e tra te s in to th e n a tu re o f th in g s, an d is a b le to d isc rim in a te b etw een th e re a l a n d the seem ingly

re a l, t h a t m a n d o es n o t fa ll a p r e y to ig n o ra n c e a n d b eco m es d e lu d e d to th e r e a l s ta tu s o f th e w o rld , in c lu d in g him self. T h is k n o w le d g e c a n n e v e r b e c o m e d is to r te d , th o u g h i t m a y o p e r a te u n d e r c e r ta in lim ita tio n s a n d h e n c e is u n a b le to shed its lig h t u n r e s tr ic te d ly . T o e n a b le i t to w o rk fre e a n d u n h a m p e r e d , is th e a im o f d e v e lo p in g a h e a lth y a ttitu d e . K n o w le d g e w h ic h is b o th a n a ly tic a l a n d a p p r e c ia tiv e a n d w h ic h is i n ti m a te ly r e la te d t o d ir e c t e x p e rie n c e a n d n o t m e r e ly d isc u rsiv e , is th e irre m is s ib le c o n d itio n fo r r ig h tly v ie w in g th in g s (samyag d r fti, P a li sam m adhitthi) * th e firs t s te p o n th e p a t h to w a rd lib e r a tio n a n d th e r e a liz a tio n o f u ltim a te re a lity . A ll th e se d o m in a n c e s (in d riya ) so f a r m e n tio n e d , in a d d i t i o n to th e ir p r e - e m in e n t a n d lo r d ly c h a r a c te r , o v e rp o w e i t h e i r o p p o n e n ts a n d k e e p th e m s u b d u e d . I n th e c o n sta n t flu x a n d c h a n g e o f e n e rg e tic v a lu e s w h ic h c h a r a c te r iz e every liv in g p ro c e ss th e y m a y a c q u ir e s u c h a n in te n s ity o r a m o u n t o f e n e rg y t h a t th e y b e c o m e u n s h a k a b le p o w ers ( b a la ). T his c h a r g in g th e m w ith e n e rg y , so to sa y , is b r o u g h t a b o u t by a s y ste m a tic te c h n iq u e w h ic h is k n o w n as fo llo w in g th e E ig h t fo ld P a th , e a c h ste p in te n s ify in g a n d in c re a s in g th e p o te n tia l o f th e e s s e n tia l fa c to rs in th e a tt a i n m e n t o f th e g o a l : e n lig h te n m e n t. H o w e v e r, th e r e a r e in th is c o n n e c tio n th r e e o th e r d o m in a n c e s m e n tio n e d . T h e y a r e indriyas d o m in a n c e s o n ly b y v i r tu e o f th e ir lo rd lin e ss. T h e firs t o f th e se d o m in a n c e s in th e sense o f lo rd lin e ss is th e manas. I t s f u n c tio n a n d in tr in s ic n a tu r e w e h a v e a lre a d y d is c u s s e d .2 T h e se c o n d is s e re n ity o f m i n d (saumanasya , P a li somanassa). I t is, a s w e h a v e a lr e a d y se e n , a c e r ta in m o o d w h ic h gives a sp e c ific e v a lu a tio n to th e w h o le o f th e a t t i t u d e w ith o u t, h o w e v e r, in te r f e r in g w ith th e in tr in s ic n a t u r e o f th e p s y c h ic pro cess. S e r e n ity o f m in d , w h ic h is fo u n d in a h e a lth y a t t i t u d e , is b e c a u s e o f its a s s o c ia tio n w ith jo y a n d e n th u s ia s m (p i t i ) a n d th e fe e lin g o f h a p p in e s s a n d ea se ( somanassa ) a n e m b e llis h m e n t to m a n s m e n ta l life .3

1. 2. 3.

Atthasalini II I ago. See pp. 16 sqq. Atthasalini III 230.

T h e th ird d o m in a n c e is life (jiv ita ). I t is conceived b y th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a sa lin i m u c h in th e sam e w ay as b y th e S a u tra n tik a s a n d Y o g acaras, insofar as it is, in m o d ern term s, th e k in etic energy o f a process a n d n o t an e n tity o r a su b sta n c e ( dravya ) existing p e r se .1 Life is th a t by w h ich th e factors associated w ith it live. I t is d o m in a n c e because o f its n a tu re o f g u a rd in g . I t is th e d o m in a n t force in th e c o n ti n u ity o f a process th a t is a lre a d y g o in g on. L ife has th e n a tu re o f g u a rd in g those processes w h ich a re n o t se p ara te d from it, th e fu n c tio n o f h a v in g th e m g o in g on, th e a c tu a lity o f m a in ta in in g th em , a n d th e basis on w h ich it o p erates is th e very process w h ich h as to be k e p t going. A lth o u g h life is specified as having th e n a tu re o f g u a rd in g , life g u a rd s th e processes only for th e tim e o f th e ir existence, ju s t as w a te r does for lotus flow ers; it g u a rd s th em as soon as th e y h a v e com e in to existence a c c o rd in g to th e ir ow n n a tu re u n d e r th e specific co n d itio n s o f th e ir o rig in a tio n , ju s t as a nurse g u a rd s a ch ild w h en it has been b o rn . By v irtu e o f its c o n n ectio n w ith w h a t h as b e e n set going it causes this to c o n tin u e going, ju s t like a c a p ta in o f a ship, b u t it does n o t cause it to c o n tin u e g oing b ey o n d th e sto p p a g e o f th e p r o cess, b ecau se it itse lf a n d th a t w h ich is to be k e p t going do n o t exist any m o re ; n o r does life leav e itself b e h in d in the m o m en t o f sto p p ag e, becau se it itse lf b reak s u p , ju s t as th e vanishing oil in a wick does n o t h a v e th e flam e o f th e la m p re m a in .2 T o in c lu d e these th re e d o m in a n c e s ( indriya ) here, has c e rta in ly b een p ro m p te d b y la n g u a g e w h ich so often induces us to a ttr ib u te to a m eta p h y sic a l realm w h a t re a lly belongs to the logical p ro je c tio n to use a term o f S u san n e K . L a n g e r in w h ich w e conceive it. H o w ev er, th e fact sh o u ld n o t be ig n o r ed th a t in m e d ita tiv e processes w h ich a re th e cornerstone o f B uddhism , th ere is a h e ig h te n in g o f th e in te n sity o f certain processes a n d th e re we are n o t m erely c o n c e rn e d w ith p e r cep tio n b u t also a n d m u c h m o re so w ith co n cep tio n . C o n cep tio n is fo rm u la tio n , a n d fo rm u la tio n is th e fu n ctio n o f the manas.
1. Abhidharmakosa II 45 and Yasomitras Vyakhya : na dravyaniaram. 2. Atthasalini III 231. See also III 291 and the etymology of dyu, synonymous with jivita, from the root to go. According to Abhidharmakosa II 4.j and the Bhasya and to Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 11, life is a certain power in an event due to Karman.

T o g e th e r w ith th e d o m in a n c e o f f o r m u la tio n , o f Gestaltung, th e re is a h e ig h te n e d fe e lin g o f ea se a n d h a p p in e s s a n d o f fre e flo w in g life. I n th is re s p e c t th e in c lu s io n o f fa c to rs o r e v e n ts w h ic h a r e l o r d l y a n d n o t o v e r p o w e r in g e v in c e s a d e e p in s ig h t in to th e o p e r a tio n s o f c e r ta in fu n c tio n s w i t h in th e b o u n d a r ie s o f a h e a lth y a t t i t u d e , b u t to e n u m e r a te th e s e fa c to rs a s s e p a r a te ite m s is a fa lla c io u s tr ic k o f la n g u a g e . I t is w ith th e in te n s if ic a tio n o f a n a ly tic a l a p p r e c ia tiv e u n d e r s ta n d in g (p r a jn a ) t h a t th e c o r r e c t v ie w o f th e w o rld a n d o f o u rs e lv e s is p o s sib le . I t h a s to b e e m p h a s iz e d o v e r a n d a g a in t h a t r i g h t v ie w (sam yakdrsti P a li sa m m a d itth i) is n o t th e a c c e p ta n c e o f a d o c tr in e b a s e d o n h y p o th e s e s , b u t a v ie w g a in e d t h r o u g h c o n tin u o u s c o n te m p la tio n a n d d ir e c t e x p e rie n c e . I t is o u t o f c o r r e c tly v ie w in g th in g s t h a t w e a r e a b le to fo rm a c o r r e c t c o n c e p tio n (sam yaksam kalpa , P a l i sammasarhkappa) w h ic h , as w e h a v e se e n a b o v e , is i n tim a te ly r e l a te d to th e first o c c u rre n c e in m e d ita tiv e c o n c e n tr a tio n (vitarka, w h e r e w e c o n c e iv e o f a n o b je c t a n d th e n in v e s tig a te i t to th e d e p t h o f its m e a n in g . T h e n b y e x e r tin g o u rse lv e s in a p r o p e r w a y (samyagvyayama , P a li sam m avayam a ) a n d b y r i g h t in s p e c tio n (sam yaksm rti, P a li samm asat}) w e a r r iv e a t r i g h t a b s o r p tio n (sam yaksam ddhi , Pali sam m dsam ddhi), o u t o f w h ic h k n o w le d g e is b o r n . A t th e sam e tim e th is p a t h w h ic h w e tr a v e r s e , h e lp s to s tr e n g th e n a ll t h a t is lo r d ly a n d s o v e re ig n so t h a t it b e c o m e s a n u n s h a k a b le p o w e r ( b a la ) 1. B u t th e p o w e r o f k n o w le d g e , o f d is c r im in a tio n a n d a p p r e c ia tio n (p ra jn a b a la ), is n o t g iv e n us fo r a r g u m e n ta tio n , fo r p ro v in g o r d is p r o v in g so m e m e ta p h y s ic a l th e o r y w h ic h is u s u a lly a p s e u d o - a n s w e r to a p s e u d o - q u e s tio n ; i t is in u s t h a t w e m a y a c t in a m a n n e r w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d s to th e n a tu r e o f o u r e n v ir o n m e n t a n d o f o u rse lv e s. H e r e w e to u c h u p o n th e p r o b le m o f m o r a l b e h a v io r . T w o p o w e rs a r e o f d e c isiv e im p o r ta n c e h e r e . T h e y a r e s e lf-re s p e c t (hri, P a li h ir i) a n d d e c o ru m ( apatrdp ya, P a li o tta p a ). E a c h o f th e se p o w e rs is a n a ly z e d a c c o rd in g to f o u r a s p e c ts : b asis (sa m u tth a n a ), d e c is iv e s ig n ific a n c e ( adhipati ), in tr in s ic n a t u r e ( sabhava ) , a n d g e n e r a l c h a r a c te r is tic (la kkh a n a ).

i.

Atthasalini I I I 232: 233.

A c c o rd in g to th is sch em a, self-resp ect is g ro u n d e d in o n e s s e lf w h ic h also in c lu d e s th e im m e d ia te m ilie u (j a t i ), ag e ( vaya ) , reso lu ten ess (siirabhava ), a n d le a rn e d n e ss (bahusacca). H e r e o n e s se lf h a s b e e n m a d e so v e re ig n o v e r o n e s a ctio n s a n d is c o n sid e re d to b e o f d ecisiv e sig n ifican ce. I ts in trin sic n a tu r e is th e feelin g o f sh a m e a n d d isg u st, ju s t as o n e is lo a th to to u c h a n iro n b a ll b e sm e a re d a ll o v e r w ith e x c re m e n t .1 Its g e n e ra l c h a ra c te ris tic is th e c a re fu l e v a lu a tio n o r e s tim a tio n o f th e w o rth o f o n e s m ilie u , tra in in g , h e r ita g e a n d c o n d u c t in re la tio n to o n e s fello w -b ein g s. T h u s i t im p lie s a show o f d eferen ce, th e m e a su re o f re c o g n itio n w h ic h is d u e to o n e se lf a n d to o th ers. D e c o ru m is g ro u n d e d in th e o p in io n o f th e w o rld ; a n d w h a t th e w o rld a t la rg e says a n d th in k s a b o u t a th in g o r a n a c tio n is o f d ecisiv e sig n ifican ce. Its in trin s ic n a tu r e is fe ar fe a r o f d e v ia tin g fro m th e a c c e p te d s ta n d a r d ( apaya ), a n d its g e n e ra l c h a ra c te ris tic is to see th e evil a n d fo rm id a b le im m e d ia te ly .2 ^ T h is a n a ly sis o f m o ra l c o n d u c t as d e p e n d in g o n e ith e r a n o b je c tiv e o r a su b je c tiv e s ta n d a r d d eserv es sp ecial a tte n tio n , b e c a u se it is lia b le to c re a te c o n sid e ra b le co n fu sio n i f it is ta k e n o u tsid e its c o n n e c tio n w ith th e g e n e ra l a ttitu d e o f th e in d iv id u a l. C e rta in ly , th e b e h a v io r o f h im w h o tak es th e o p in io n o f th e w o rld as th e d ecisiv e fa c to r, c o in cid es w ith th e claim s o f so ciety .
1. Atthasalini III 239. 2. Atthasalini III 224 240. Similar but more concise is Abhi dharmasamuccaya, p. 6 : What is self-respect ? T o be ashamed of evil because o f ones person. It affords the basis for restraint from evil actions. W hat is decorum ? T o be ashamed o f evil because o f others. It has the same function fas self-respect, i.e ., restraint from doing evil) . Sthiramati in his Vrtti, pp. 26 s<j. elaborates this statement much in the same way as the author o f the Atthasalini. H e says : Self-respect means the feeling o f being ashamed of evil, because one has made oneself or the Dharma the decisive factor. Evil means the wrong and bad, because it has been blamed by virtuous people or because it yields undesired results. The humi liation one feels, because of evil done or not done, is the feeling of shame, and this is the meaning of self-respect, It affords the basis for restraint from evil actions. Decorum is the feeling o f being ashamed of evil, because one has made the judgment of the world the decisive factor. Such action has been blamed in the world; if the world would know me to act in such a way they would blame me out of fear of reproach one feels ashamed of evil. This, too, affords the basis for restraint from evil deeds.

H is m o r a l it y is in a c c o rd w ith th e m o r a l v ie w p o in t v a lid a t th a t p a r t i c u l a r tim e h e liv e in . W h a t h e trie s to d o a n d to b e , is e x a c tly w h a t h is e n v ir o n m e n t n e e d s a n d w h a t i t e x p e c ts fro m h im . H o w e v e r, it is b y n o m e a n s g r a n te d t h a t th e s ta n d p o in t o f o b je c tiv e ly g iv e n fa c ts re m a in s th e sa m e fo r a ll tim e s a n d u n d e r a ll c irc u m s ta n c e s . O b je c tiv e c o n d itio n s a n d o b je c tiv e v a lu e s v a r y a n d o n ly to o o fte n d e te r io r a te a n d b e c o m e th e v ery re v e rs e , so m e tim e s e v e n a c q u ir in g a d e fin ite ly m o r b id c h a r a c te r . A n in d iv id u a l w h o is o r ie n ta te d b y th e o u te r s ta n d a r d , b e c a u se it is fro m th e r e t h a t h e e x p e c ts th e d e c isiv e v a lu e to c o m e , m u st in e v ita b ly p a r tic ip a te in th e d o w n fa ll as so o n as th e o u te r s t a n d a r d d e te rio ra te s . A s a m a t t e r o f fa c t, th e in c o n te s ta b ly m o r a l th in k in g , fe e lin g a n d a c tio n o f a m a n w h o is o rie n ta te d b y o u te r s ta n d a r d s , in n o w a y h i n d e r th e ev il a n d d e s tru c tiv e fro m c r e e p in g in . O n th e c o n tr a r y , th e y f a c ilita te i t , b e c a u se d u e to h is s e lf-a ssu ra n c e , h is u n q u e s tio n a b le r ig h t- d o in g h e o v e rlo o k s w h a t is n e w a n d v a lu a b le a n d fo rg e ts c o n s ta n tly t h a t w h a t o n c e w as g o o d d o es n o t r e m a in so e te rn a lly . A lth o u g h d e c o r u m is m e a n t to e n a b le m a n fro m do,ing e v il, i f n o t b a la n c e d b y se lf-re s p e c t, it is h a r d ly a b le to a c h ie v e its o w n e n d . B u d d h a g h o s a c o m p a re s d e c o r u m a p tly w ith a p r o s titu te . B y h a v in g m a d e a n o th e r o n e s ( s ta n d a r d ) o n e s o w n n o rm o n e g iv es u p e v il b y d e c o r u m , j u s t lik e a h a r l o t .1 I n d e e d , a m a n w h o a lw a y s c o n fo rm s to th e ju d g m e n t o f o th e r s a n d a lw a y s is a n x io u s to liv e u p to e x p e c ta tio n s , a c ts lik e a p r o s titu te w h o a lso m u s t a lw a y s b e u p to w h a t h e r c u s to m e rs e x p e c t. A n y re s e r v a tio n o n h e r p a r t w ill e n ta il loss o f b u s in e s s , w h ic h is d e fin ite ly e v il. O n th e o th e r h a n d , th o se w h o re ly u p o n t h a t w h ic h is g r o u p - p a tte r n e d w ith in th e m in th e i r a d a p ta tio n to life , v e ry o f te n c r e a te th e im p re s sio n o f a r e s e r v a tio n o f th e e g o . B u t j u s t as th e o b je c tiv e c o n d itio n s d o n o t r e m a in u n a lte r e d , so also th e s u b je c tiv e fa c to r is lia b le to c h a n g e . T h e s u b je c tiv e fa c to r, h o w e v e r, is n o t m e re ly th e eg o , w h ic h in B u d d h is t c o n c e p tio n is b u t a lin g u is tic d e v ic e fo r b u n d lin g c e r ta in o c c u rre n c e s to g e th e r , it is th e w h o le o f th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l b a c k g r o u n d , th e in d is p e n s a b le c o n d itio n o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l a d a p ta tio n . T h is
i. Visuddhim agga X I V 14.2.

b a c k g ro u n d , c o n ta in in g all the- re sid u a o f ex p eriences m a n h a s m a d e th ro u g h o u t th e m ille n ia a n d th ro u g h w h ic h he is a b le to m ake experien ces, is ever p re se n t. T h is p resen ce m ay lead to an exag g eratio n o f th e su b jectiv e facto r in a c tu a l life, w hich because o f th e inflexibility o f th e subjectiv e ju d g m e n t creates th e im pression o f stro n g eg o -centredness. T h is re p ro a c h o f ego-centredness, how ever, is w ro n g ly a p p lie d ; it only shows lac k o f u n d e rsta n d in g on th e p a r t o f him w h o d erives his co n d u c t a n d m o ra lity from som e o u te r sta n d a rd . F o r h e sim ply c a n n o t u n d e rs ta n d th a t m o ra lity m a y consist also in n o t bein g a t ev ery b o d y s call. A p ro p e r e v a lu a tio n o f th e subjective fa cto r g re a tly c o n trib u te s to th e d ig n ity o f h u m a n n a tu re , a n d by u p h o ld in g th e d ig n ity o f o u r ow n w e a re a b le to respect th e d ig n ity o f o th ers. B u d d h ag h o sa, th erefo re, a p tly com pares self-respect w ith a resp e c ta b le w ife : H a v in g m a d e o n es self o n e s n o rm on e gives u p evil by self-respect, like a resp ectab le w ife .1 S elf-respect a n d d e co ru m a re c e rta in ly n o t im m o rta l laws, th ey a re m a n ifestatio n s a n d expressions o f a h e a lth y a tti tu d e. I t is by losing sight o f th e ir co n n ectio n w ith a n d d e p e n d ence u p o n a n a ttitu d e , b y allo w in g ourselves to be ru le d b y ig n o ran ce a n d its u n escap ab le c o m p an io n ir rita tio n , unnecessa rily in c re a sin g th e a lre a d y ex istin g a m o u n t o f u n p leasantness one experiences in every d ay life, th a t self-respect a n d d ecorum a re tu rn e d in to the very op p o site. Ahrikya a n d anapatrapya a re n o t m ere ab sence o f hri a n d apatrapya, b u t th e c o u n te r agents o f a ll th a t self-respect a n d d eco ru m s ta n d fo r ,2 because in stea d o f k eep in g m en m o re a t p eace w ith e a ch o th er th ey send th em off on w ild, im pulsive, ill-considered a n d ill-g ro u n d ed aggressive acts o f e ith e r a p e rso n a l, n a tio n a lis tic , or religious c h a ra c te r. A lth o u g h these forces w h ic h ru le m o ra l b eh a v io r a re n o t im posed from som ew here in a w ay w h ich w e a re supposedly n o t fitted to u n d e rsta n d a n d w h ich m akes it im possible for m a n to h a v e a say in a m a tte r th a t co ncerns h im v ita lly , this is n o t
1. Visuddhimagga X I V 142. 2. Abhidharmakosavyakhya ad Abhidh.-kosa II 32. See also Abhidharmasamuccaya, p . 9. Sthiramatis Vrtti, p. 31. Atthasalini III 543. Visuddhimagga X I V 160.

to s a y t h a t w e s h o u ld a d v o c a te m o r a l r e la tiv is m a n d so p h is try . T h e in s ig h t in to th e n a t u r e o f o u rs e lv e s a n d o f th in g s a n d th e a w a re n e s s o f th e f a lla c y o f th e a s s u m p tio n t h a t o n e sid e o r th e o t h e r m u s t g e t th e v e r d ic t, as i f o n e -s id e n e ss c o u ld e v e r h o ld fo r b o t h sid es, m a k e s fo r o p e n - m in d e d n e s s a n d a n u n d e r s ta n d in g o f h u m a n n a t u r e w h ic h c a n h a r d l y b e s u rp a s s e d . B u d d h is t m o r a lity d e riv e s fro m k n o w le d g e a n d n o t fro m b lin d b elief. K n o w le d g e is in d is p e n s a b le fo r u n d e r s ta n d in g , a n d u n d e r s ta n d in g e x p resses its e l f in s y m p a th y a n d b e n e v o le n c e fo r a ll p e rs o n s a n d th in g s . H e n c e B u d d h is t e th ic s is fre e fro m th e s ta in o f th in k in g t h a t i t is o n e s m o r a l a n d r e lig io u s d u ty to fo rc e th e p r e ju d ic e s a n d c o n v e n tio n s o f sp ec ific n a tio n a l, re lig io u s, a n d s o c ia l g ro u p s o n o th e r s a n d to p u n is h a n d liq u id a te th o se w h o a r e n o t w illin g to a c c e p t th e s e b e lie fs .1 E th ic s b e lo n g to p r a c tic e a n d n o t w ith t h e o r y , a n d , th e r e f o r e , b e in g e x p re ssiv e r a t h e r t h a n d is c u rs iv e , se lf-re sp e c t a n d d e c o r u m a r e a lso c a lle d th e g u a r d ia n s o f th e w o r ld (lokapala )2 a s t h e B u d d h a h a s s a id : T h e s e tw o b r ig h t f a c to r s g u a r d th e w o r ld : se lf-re s p e c t a n d d e c o r u m . I f th e s e tw o fa c to rs d id n o t g u a r d th e w o r ld th e r e w o u ld b e n o re c o g n itio n o f o n e s m o t h e r , o f o n e s m o t h e r s siste r, o f o n e s m o t h e r s b r o t h e r s w ife , o f a t e a c h e r s w ife , o r o f th e w ife o f o n e s s p ir itu a l p r e c e p to rs . T h e w o r ld w o u ld fa ll in to p r o m is c u ity a n d a c t lik e g o a ts a n d s h e e p , fo w l a n d s w in e , c a t tl e a n d w ild b e a s ts . B u t sin c e th e s e tw o b r i g h t fa c to rs g u a r d th e w o r ld , th e r e is re c o g n itio n o f o n e s m o th e r , o f o n e s m o t h e r s s is te r, o f o n e s m o t h e r s b r o t h e r s w ife , o f a t e a c h e r s w ife, a n d o f th e w iv e s o f s p ir itu a l p r e c e p to r s .3 T h u s f a r d if f e r e n tia tio n s o f a m a n s m in d h a v e b e e n d is c u s s e d fro m th e v ie w p o in t o f f u n c tio n a n d th e v a r y in g in te n s ity o f th e v a r io u s f u n c tio n s . A n d a ls o so fa r th is a n a ly s is m a y b e c a lle d sc ie n tific , th o u g h n o t in t h e se n se o f e m p h a s iz in g th e m o s t g e n e r a l re s u lts o f sc ie n c e b u t in th e sen se o f a p p ly in g th e s c ie n tific m e th o d o f a n a ly s is to its p a r t i c u l a r p ro v in c e . T h e r e
1. Ethical metaphysics as an attempt to legislate our own wishes, has been clearly pointed out b y Bertrand Russel, Mysticism and Logic (Pelican B o o k), p. 104. 2. Atthasalini III 247. 3. Anguttaranikaya I 51. Atthasalini I I I 247.

fo re, to in tro d u c e e th ic a l id e a s in to a scien tific s tu d y o f m in d a n d its fu n c tio n s seem s to b e a serious a n d , in th e m o d e rn c o n c e p tio n o f p h ilo so p h y , a d e p lo ra b le d e v ia tio n . H o w ev er, as th e ab o v e a n a ly sis o f self-resp ect a n d d e c o ru m h a s show n, th e in c lu sio n o f e th ic a l facto rs does n o t m e a n th a t e th ic s is a to p ic o f th e o re tiz in g d iscu rsiv en ess in w h ic h assertio n s a re m a d e a b o u t w h a t is g o o d a n d w h a t is ev il o n th e su p e rstitio u s, th o u g h ra re ly a d m itte d , a ssu m p tio n t h a t o n e a lre a d y know s th e c o n clu sio n s to b e re a c h e d . E th ic s is a fu n c tio n , a fo rce in o u r m e n ta l life, o u r aw aren ess a n d u n d e rs ta n d in g , j u s t as a re cogni-/tio n a n d feelin g , a n d w ith o u t th is fu n c tio n m a n w o u ld cease to b e m a n .1 I n th is re sp e c t it b eco m es n ec e ssary to in tro d u c e a d istin c tio n b e tw e e n t h a t w h ic h len d s its e lf to a n d assists a r tic u la tio n a n d th a t w h ic h is th e a r tic u la te d ex p ression. T h a t w h ic h len d s its e lf to a n d assists a r tic u la tio n is k n o w n as h e a lth y ro o ts [kusalamula ) , b e c a u se a n y fu n c tio n o r a n y e v e n t w h ic h is assisted b y it, is s tro n g a n d h e a lth y , ju s t as trees w h ic h h a v e firm ro o ts a re s tro n g a n d w ell g r o u n d e d .2 T h e se ro o ts w h ic h s u p p o rt a n d n o u ris h a m a n s a ttitu d e a re n o n c u p id ity , n o n - a n tip a th y , a n d n o n -d e lu sio n . T h is n e g a tiv e ex p ressio n does n o t m e a n m e re a b se n c e o f c u p id ity , a n tip a th y , a n d d elu sio n , b u t a tte m p ts to co n v ey th e m e a n in g o f so m e th in g a b so lu te ly po sitiv e, w h ic h in th e fin al a n aly sis is b e y o n d a ffirm a tio n a n d n e g a tio n . N o n -c u p id ity ( alobha ) h a s th e c h a r a c te r o f n o t b e in g d e siro u s for a n o b je c t a n d n o t b e in g a tta c h e d to it, to th e sam e e x te n t th a t w a te r w ill n o t c lin g to th e leav es o f a lo tu s flow er. I ts fu n c tio n is n o t c a rin g for possessions, to th e sam e ex te n t th a t a m a n w h o h a s re n o u n c e d w o rld lin ess does n o t c a re fo r th e a c q u is itio n o f possession. Its basis is th e fa c t th a t it does n o t re m a in stu c k , ju s t as a m a n w h o h a s fa lle n in to a d irty p it does n o t w allow in th e d irt. I t is th e effective re m e d y a g a in st a v a ric e a n d h e n c e is th e fo u n d a tio n a n d h e lp o f lib e r a lity .3 T h r o u g h n o n -c u p id ity w e re m a in m o d e st a n d do n o t ta k e m o re th a n is n ecessary , a n d n o n -c u p id ity also m akes us
1. This does not mean that man is important in the scheme of things, it only means that ethics is expressive behavior and belongs to mans nature just as does his need to eat and drink. 2. Visuddhimagga X V I I 70. Atthasalini III 293. 3. Atthasalini III 241.

see d e fe c ts w h e r e th e r e is a d e f e c t, w h ile c u p id ity is a lw a y s e a g e r to c o v e r a n d c o n c e a ls d e fe c ts , so t h a t g re e d in e s s m a y n o t b e d e n ie d . N o n - c u p id ity is e s s e n tia lly d e t a c h m e n t a n d th e re fo re i t d o e s n o t d e liv e r u s u p to t h a t f e e lin g o f m is e ry w h ic h e v e ry p a r t i n g fr o m th o s e w h o a r e d e a r to u s e n ta ils , b e c a u s e k n o w le d g e in f o r m s u s t h a t e v e r y th in g w h ic h is d e te r m in a te a n d c o m p o s ite is t r a n s i to r y a n d t h a t o u r a t t a c h m e n t to w h a t is t r a n s ito r y a n d o u r u n d u e a t t e n t i o n to i t m a k e s u s s u ffe r. N o r d o e s n o n c u p id ity e n ta n g le us in th e m is e ry o f r e b i r t h , b e c a u s e it is c r a v in g t h a t e ffe c ts r e b i r t h , a n d th is c r a v i n g is c u t o f f a t its v e ry r o o t b y n o n - c u p i d i t y .1 N o n - c u p i d i t y e n a b le s a n o r d i n a r y p e r s o n to liv e h a p p ily a n d s h o u ld h e b e s till s u b je c t to t h e la w o f r e b i r t h h e w ill n o t b e r e b o r n in th e w o r ld o f s p irits , .fo r i t is th r o u g h c r a v in g , th e e x c e ssiv e d e s ir e to a c c u m u l a t e w h ic h n o a m o u n t o f a c c u m u la te d w e a l th w ill e v e r s to p , t h a t w e a r e m a d e m is e r a b le a n d th u s f e e l 'th e p a n g o f n e v e r b e in g a b le to b e c o m e s a tis f ie d .2 T h u s n o n - c u p id i t y g iv e s rise to th e i d e a o f r e n u n c ia tio n ( nek.kh.amm a sa n n a ) a n d th e id e a o f im p u r i t y (asubhasaiind) .3 Of c o u rs e , i m p u r i t y is n o t a n u lt i m a t e e v a lu a tio n b u t a m e a n s to s e v e r th e tie s o f a t t a c h m e n t , i t c e r t a i n ly d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t th e r e e x ists s o m e th in g to d is p le a s e u s . I t w o u ld b e d iffic u lt to r e c o n c ile s u c h p e s s im is m w ith t h e jo y f u l a n d c a lm a c c e p ta n c e w h ic h c h a r a c te r iz e s t h e B u d d h is t o u tlo o k . N o n - c u p id ity m a k e s u s a v o id a life a d d ic te d to se n su a l e x p e r ie n c e s as th e sole a im o f o u r e x is te n c e a n d c u ts a l l fe tte rs o f c o v e to u s n e s s, th u s b e c o m in g a c o n d itio n f o r h e a lth . I t a lso is a c o n d itio n fo r th e a c q u is itio n o f w e a l t h ; fo r w e a lth c o m e s to us w h e n w e d o n o t h a n k e r a f t e r i t , w h e n b y r e n u n c i a t i o n '(ca g a ) w e h a v e b e c o m e fre e a n d so c a n e n jo y w h a te v e r c o m e s o u r w a y . W e a l t h n e v e r c o n s is ts i n its a m o u n t b u t in w h a t w e m a k e o u t o f i t ( bhoga ) . I t is a c o n d itio n o f c o n t e n t .4

1. Atthasalini I I I 342. 2. Atthasalini I I I 243. T h e realistic schools of Buddhism believed in the concrete existence o f spirits and hells3 while the idealistic schools under stood spirits and hells as sym bolic representations o f mind. A tthasalini I I I 243. 4. Atthasalini III 244.

F in ally , b ecau se o f th e re b e in g n o th in g to w h ich we m ig h t becom e a tta c h e d th ro u g h n o n -c u p id ity o u r eyes a re opened to th e fact o f tran sito rin ess (aniccadassana). O n ly a g reed y p erso n in his fu tile hopes fo r la stin g en jo y m en ts fails to see th e u tte r fu tility o f a b e lie f in p e rm a n e n c y a n d so necessarily m u st suffer. I n this w ay n o n -c u p id ity aw akens th e re a liz a tio n o f th e tra n sito rin e ss o fa ll th a t w e e n c o u n te r in o u r sense experiences, a n d this re a liz a tio n , in tu rn , fa cilitates th e o p e ra tio n o f n o n c u p id ity ; w ho w o u ld becom e a tta c h e d to th a t w h ich he know s to be tra n sito ry I 1 N o n -a n tip a th y (advesa, P a li adosa) h as as its c h a ra c teristic n on -ch u rlish n ess a n d n o n -o b stru ctiv en ess a n d is like a helpful frie n d . Its fu n c tio n is to rem o v e ill-w ill a n d w orries a n d hence is so o th in g like sa n d a l p aste. Its basis is gentlen ess a n d p le a s a n t ness, a n d th erefo re is likened to th e sp len d o r o f th e full m o o n . I t is a p o te n t re m e d y a g a in st b a d m a n n e rs a n d u n e th ic a l b e h a v io r a n d a solid fo u n d a tio n o f ethics a n d m a n n e rs2. By n o n -a n tip a th y m o d e sty is p reserv ed in th e sense th a t w e do n o t tak e too little a n d th e re b y offend h im w ho offers us so m eth in g . N o n -a n tip a th y m akes u s ack now ledge m erits w h ere th e re a re m erits, w h ile a p erso n ru le d b y a n tip a th y w ill sm ear v irtu es a n d b e little m erits. I t also e n ab les us n o t to feel m iserab le w h en w e m e e t those w ho a re n o t d e a r to us. N o r does n o n -a n tip a lh y e n ta n g le us in th e m isery o f old age, w h ile a person w ho is ru le d by stro n g dislikes a n d aversions ages q u ic k ly ,3 b ecau se h e is u n a b le to b e a r a n a tu r a l course a n d in his stru g g le to m a in ta in y o u th w ears h im self out. N o n -a n tip a th y enables everyone to live h a p p ily and. p ro te c ts a m a n from b e in g re b o rn in hell. F o r it is a n tip a th y th a t because o f its fierceness p ro d u ces h ell a c c o rd in g to its inten sity . As th e rem ed y a g a in st a n d opposite to a n tip a th y a n d o f all th a t a n tip a th y en tails, it instils in us th e id ea o f n o n m alic e (abyapadasnnna ) a n d th e id e a o f th e boundlessness (.appamdnasaniid) o f love, co m passion, jo y w hich p a rtic ip a te s in a ll th a t is good, a n d b en ig n e q u a n im ity .4
1. 2. 3. 4. Atthasalini Atthasalini Atthasalini Atthasalini III 245. III 241. III 242. III 243.

N o n - a n tip a th y m a k e s us a v o id s e lf-m o rtific a tio n , th e o b sessio n o f a sense o f sin , w h ic h is b u t th e a g g ra n d is e m e n t o f s e lf-im p o rta n c e b y in v e rte d m e a n s . I t cu ts a ll th e fe tters t h a t b in d us to m a le v o le n c e . I t g ives y o u th , for a p e rs o n w ho is n o t g o v e rn e d b y a n t i p a t h y a n d th e re fo re is n o t c o n su m e d b y th e fire o f a n tip a th y a n d h a tr e d w h ic h c a u se s w rin k le s a n d m a k e s th e h a i r g o g re y , re m a in s y o u n g fo r a lo n g tim e . N o n - a n ti p a th y is th e c o n d itio n fo r w in n in g frie n d s, b e c a u s e frie n d s (m itta) a r e w o n b y love ( m etta ) a n d a r e n o t lo st th ro u g h lo v e .1 J u s t as n o n -c u p id ity does n o t m a k e us e n a m o u re d o f o u r selves, so n o n - a n tip a th y e n a b le s us to fo rsa k e e n m ity to w a rd s th o se w h o sh o w us e n m ity . I t m a k e s us re a liz e th e m is e ra b le ness o f a ll t h a t is tr a n s ito r y (dukkhadassana). A n d ju s t as n o n a n t ip a th y m a k e s us see th is m is e ra b le n e ss, th is re a liz a tio n re in fo rc e s n o n - a n tip a th y , fo r w h o w o u ld like to a g g ra v a te th e e x is tin g m ise ra b le n e ss h e k n o w s, b y o th e r v io le n t o u tb u rs ts o f a n g e r .2 N o n -d e lu s io n n o n -b e w ild e rm e n t ( amoha) is e ssen tially id e n tic a l w ith a n a ly tic a l a p p r e c ia tiv e u n d e rs ta n d in g , as e x p la in ed' in th e s e c tio n o n k n o w le d g e as a d o m in a n t fa c to r. I t is a s u s ta in in g p o w e r fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a ll t h a t is h e a lth y a n d th e re fo re in d is p e n s a b le fo r th e a c tu a l p r a c tic e o f a ll th a t le a d s to th e g o a l o f lib e r a tio n .3 J u s t as n o n - c u p id ity p r e v e n ts us fro m ta k in g to o m u c h a n d n o n - a n tip a th y fro m ta k in g to o little , w h e th e r th is b e a c tu a l o r fig u ra tiv e , n o n -d e lu sio n p re v e n ts us fro m ta k in g th e w ro n g th in g , a n d in a d d itio n m akes us re a liz e w h a t is p o ssib le a n d w h a t is n o t, so th a t w e d o n o t feel m is e ra b le i f w e d o n o t g e t th a t w h ic h o u r d e sire w o u ld like to m a k e u s g e t, b e c a u se th r o u g h k n o w le d g e w e a r e re s tra in e d fro m fu tile h o p e s. S o also th e re is n o m ise ry o f d e a th 'f o r him w h o do es n o t su ifer fro m d e lu s io n ,4 b e c a u se i t is a sign o f d e lu s io n to a ssu m e o p tim is tic a lly t h a t w h a te v e r w e e x p e rie n c e w ill n o t b e s u b je c t to th e ra v a g e s o f tim e a n d d e a th . N o n -d e lu s io n o p e ra te s e sp e c ia lly a m o n g th o se w h o h a v e r e n o u n c e d a life o f w o rld lin e ss, a n d allo w s th e m to liv e h a p p ily . I t p re v e n ts b e in g s fro m b e in g r e b o r n as a n im a ls, a s ta te w hich
1.
2. 3. 4.

Atthasalini III 244.

A tth a sa lin i I I I 245.

Atthasalini III 241. Atthasalini I I I 242.

I l l ' 225-228.

is m a rk e d b y th e a b se n c e o f ju d g m e n ts o f v a rio u s d eg ree s oJ d e te rm in a te n e s s . I t in stils in us th e id e a o f n o n -v io len c e (.avikim sasannd ) a n d th e id e a o f th e im p e rs o n a lity o f a ll events {dhatusaniia ) .1 N o n -d e lu s io n o r k n o w le d g e is th e e sse n tia l m e a n s to m ak e us re a c h th e M id d le P a th w h ic h a v o id s th e e x tre m e s o f existence a n d n o n -e x is te n c e , o f e te rn a lis m a n d n ih ilis m , to m e n tio n only a few o f th e m o s t fo rm id a b le s u p e rs titio n s t h a t b e se t th e h u m a n m in d a n d h a v e a d e a d e n in g effect o n m e n ta l life. T h e re fo re n o n -d e lu s io n m a k e s m a n liv e lo n g . I t is also a c o n d itio n for se lf-im p ro v e m e n t, b e c a u s e a p e rs o n w h o is n o t d e lu d e d b y o p in io n s a b o u t h im se lf, b u t sees h im s e lf a s h e a c tu a lly is, a cts in su c h a w a y a s is h e lp fu l a n d g o o d fo r h im in a tta in in g th e g o a l a n d s o .im p ro v e s h im se lf.2 T h is m a y s o u n d s u rp ris in g to so m eo n e w h o h as b e e n b r o u g h t u p in th e b e lie f th a t B u d d h ism d e n ie s a self. F ir s t o f a ll i t h a s to b e n o te d th a t B u d d h ism n e ith e r d e n ie s n o r affirm s a self, b e c a u se o n to lo g ic a l q u e stio n s h a r d ly p la y a n y ro le in B u d d h is m . T h e q u e s tio n a b o u t a s e lf re fe rs to th e lo g ic a l n a tu r e o f w h a t is c o n v e n tio n a lly te rm e d a s e lf a n d h e r e B u d d h ism d e c la re s i t to su b sist a n d n o t to ex ist. M o re o v e r, w ith o u t a c o n c e p t w h ic h a n in d iv id u a l h a s o f h im s e lf n o d o c tr in e c a n o p e r a te , b e c a u s e o n th is c o n c e p t (M e D o u g a lls s e lf-re g a rd in g s e n tim e n t) d e p e n d s th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f c h a r a c te r , th e re a liz a tio n o f g o a ls, a n d th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f in te g r a tio n . W h a t a p e rs o n th in k s a b o u t h im s e lf n e v e r fails to a ffe c t h is le v e l o f a s p ir a tio n a t e v e ry tu r n . T h e im p o r ta n t q u e s tio n is w h e th e r th is c o n c e p t o f se lf is b a s e d o n m e re b e lie f o r o n k n o w le d g e ; B u d d h ism r e je c ts a n y p o s tu la tio n a l b e lie f a n d fav o rs k n o w le d g e . T h e r e f o r e also th e s ta te m e n t th a t n o n d e lu sio n le a d s to s e lf-im p ro v e m e n t is in n o w a y c o n tra ry to th e o th e r s ta te m e n t t h a t k n o w le d g e o p e n s o u r eyes to th e fa c t t h a t th e re is n o p e r m a n e n t se lf a p a r t fro m th e sta te s o f a self ( anatla dassana ) .3 W h ile th e se th r e e ro o ts le n d th e m se lv e s to a n d assist a r tic u la tio n , th e a r tic u la te d e x p re ssio n , th e o v e rt b e h a v io r, is n o n -c o v e to u sn e ss ( anabhijjha ), n o n -m a le v o le n c e ( abyapada ).
1. 2. 3. Atthasalini I I I Atthasalini II I Atthasalini I I I 245. 244. 245.

a n d se e in g th in g s in th e ir p r o p e r p e rs p e c tiv e as th e y a r e ( samma d itth i) .1 A n d in tim a te ly c o n n e c te d w ith th is o v e rt b e h a v io r is th e n a t u r e o f so c ie ty w h ic h is g o v e rn e d in d iv id u a lly b y self re s p e c t a n d d e c o r u m ( b u t o n ly w h e r e a h e a lth y a ttitu d e and. o u tlo o k o f life p r e v a i l ) .2 A p a r tic u la r f e a tu r e o f a h e a lth y a ttitu d e is fu n c tio n a l ease. T h is th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i discusses fro m v a rio u s p o in ts o f v ie w . T h is e a se is fo u n d in w h a t is te r m e d kaya a n d citta. T h e te rm kaya a d m its o f v a rio u s in te r p r e ta tio n s a n d a c c o rd in g ly h a s b e e n in te r p r e te d in v a rio u s w ay s b y th o se sc h o o ls w h o a c k n o w le d g e th e A b h id h a r m a . T h e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i su b su m e s u n d e r th is te r m th e fu n c tio n com plexeso f fe e lin g , s e n sa tio n , a n d m o tiv a tio n ,3 w h ile V a s u b a n d h u a n d S th ir a m a ti u n d e r s ta n d b y it so m e p a r t i c u la r ta c tile e le m e n t.4 T h e te r m citta refers to p e r c e p tio n a n d a p p e r c e p tio n .5 T h is ease is first o f a ll a r e la x a tio n o f te n sio n , th e a b se n c e o f s tr a in ( passaddhi , S k t. prasrabdhi), it o v e rc o m e s d istre ss a n d th e te n d e n c y to m a k e lig h t o f e v e r y th in g ( uddhacca , S k t. auddhatya, ) w h ic h a r e d a n g e ro u s fo r m e d ita tio n , w h ic h is, as h a s b e e n p o in te d o u t b e fo re , th e p r e r e q u is ite fo r a h e a lth y a ttitu d e . T h is a b s e n c e o f s tr a in , is v ie w e d fro m a n o th e r a sp e c t, f u n c tio n a l lig h tn e s s ( lahuta)6 w h ic h serves to o v e rc o m e la s s itu d e a n d , in p a r tic u la r , d ro w sin ess a n d slu g g ish n e ss ( thinam iddha ) w h ic h a r e a lso d a n g e rs fo r m e d ita tio n . B o th th ese d a n g e r s , re st lessness a n d d ro w sin ess, b e in g o v e rc o m e , th e r e is a n a d a p t a b le n e ss (m uduta) o f a l l fu n c tio n s w h ic h serves to o v e rc o m e th e te n d e n c y to b e c o m e fix ed to a c e r ta in c o u rse ( thaddha ). I t is a w e ll k n o w n fa c t t h a t in th e c o u rs e o f life o f a n in d iv id u a l, in c lin a tio n s , te n d e n c ie s a n d in te re s ts g ro w s tro n g e r 'a n d in s p ite o f b e t t e r ju d g m e n t c a n n o t b e s h a k e n . V e ry o fte n th is is a n e n d e a v o r to k e e p u p th e p s y c h o lo g y o f a d o le sc e n c e e v e n in m a tu r ity . E v e ry b o d y k n o w s s u c h p e rs o n s, w h o a r e a n u isa n c e to th e m se lv e s a n d to o th e rs a n d w h o a r e c a lle d q u ite p ro p e rly ,
1. Atthasalini III 246. 2. Atthasalini I I I 247. See also above3 p . 77. 3. Atthasalini II I 248, Z95. 4. Abhidharmakosa I I 25 and Bhasya, V r tti on Trimsika 11, p. 27 5. Atthasalini III 295. 6. According to Sthiramati, loc. cit p. 27, out of the p ra h a b d h i there results the lightness with which one goes about ones work.

th o u g h n o t v ery flatterin g ly , o p in io n a te d asses. I t is this fu n c tio n a l a d ap tab len ess th a t overcom es o p inionatedness a n d th e conceit resu ltin g o u t o f it (ditihimdna) -1 A bsence o f strain , lightness, a n d a d a p ta b ility are th e readin ess to o p e ra te (kammannata), b y w hich o n e applies o n e se lf to o n es w ork a n d persists tra n q u illy in it, ju s t as the p u rity o f gold rem ain s th e sam e regardless o f th e form s it ad o p ts w h e n m o u ld ed in to o rn am en ts. Seen from a n o th e r angle, this readiness to w ork is vigor (pdgunnata) w h ic h overcom es an y w eakness a n d th e d an g ers th a t lu rk in w eakness, the m ost d a n g e ro u s b ein g lack o f confidence (assaddhiya). In its vigor this fu n ctio n al readiness to w o rk follows its ow n law o f stra ig h t ness ( ujukatd ). I t overcom es all kinds o f crookedness and in p a rtic u la r is th e o p p o n e n t o f d eceit an d frau d (mdydsdtheyya) ? Since a h e a lth y a ttitu d e is th e irrem issible condition for m e d ita tiv e processes an d since th e w hole system atic exposition o f th e functions th a t o p e ra te w ith in a h e a lth y a ttitu d e serves to facilita te th e a p p ro a c h to a n d p ra c tic e o f m e d ita tio n , certain factors a re m e n tio n e d ag ain acc o rd in g to th e m a n n e r o f th e ir helpfulness a n d th e ir co m b in ed activity. P a rtic u la rly helpful a re in spection (rati, Skt. sm rti ) a n d a n aw areness (sampajanhd, S kt. samprajanya) w h ich is view ed from its aspects o f usefulness, expediency, scope, a n d non-delusiveness,3 b u t essentially it is a form o f an a ly tic a l a p p re c ia tiv e u n d e rsta n d in g . So also tra n q u illity (samatha) an d in sight ( vipassana ) a re n o t differen t from th e p eace th a t settles over us w hen in m e d ita tio n all restlessness a n d distress is overcom e a n d o u r eyes are o p ened to th e fact th a t ev ery th in g we experience th ro u g h o u r senses is tra n sito ry an d h ence no basis for lastin g happiness, b u t they a re m en tio n ed h ere b ecause it is a p e c u lia r featu re th a t tra n q u illity a n d insight com e as p airs (yuganaddha).* U n fo rtu n a te ly o u r a u th o r does n o t ex p lain th e m e a n in g o f pairness, w h ich A sahga5 u n d erstan d s in th e sense th a t th e one leads to the oth er, unless b oth are p re se n t a t once. I t is in the T a n tra a sp e c t o f B uddhism , w hich is based entirely on m ed itatio n , th a t
1. 2. 3.
4.'

Atthasalini III 248. Atthasalini III 249. Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 8. Atthasalini III 250.
ib id .

5.

Abhidharmasamuccaya,

p.

75.

p a ir n e s s w a s in t e r p r e t e d , n o t a s c o -e x is te n c e b u t as th e in e ff a b le e x p e r ie n c e o f t h a t in w h ic h t r a n q u i l lity a n d in s ig h t w e re s in g u la r ly b le n d e d .1 A lso in tim a te ly c o n n e c te d a r e e n e r g y a n d a b s o r p tio n , th e o n e ta k in g a firm h o ld o f a ll c o - n a s c e n t e v e n ts (p a ggdha), th e o th e r p r e v e n tin g d is s ip a tio n a n d d is tr a c te d n e s s (a v ik k h jp a ).2 I t is, o f c o u rse , im p o s s ib le to m a k e a c o m p le te list o f a ll m e n ta l s ta te s o r e v e n ts ; m o r e o v e r , s u c h a n a t t e m p t as m a d e in th e A b h id h a r m a , w h ic h lis te d c e r t a i n o c c u r re n c e s in th e ir in te n s ity a s s e p a r a te ite m s , h a s p r o v e d to b e d is a s tro u s , in a s m u c h a s i t c e n tr e d a t t e n t i o n to th e n u m e r ic a l d e fin itio n a n d b e c a m e o b liv io u s to th e s p ir it w h ic h la id d o w n th is a n a ly sis o f m in d a n d its f u n c tio n s as a g u id e w ith in th e la r g e r sc o p e of a n a t t i t u d e c o n d u c iv e to e n lig h te n m e n t. E v e n th e a d d itio n of w h a te v e r o th e r e v e n ts th e r e m a y b e t h a t a ris e in in te r d e p e n d e n c e c o u ld n o t m i t ig a t e th is d e f e c t, b e c a u s e th e y w e re lim ite d to n in e o c c u r r e n c e s , v iz ., w ill ( chando ), d e c is io n ( adhi m o kkh a ), a tt e n t i o n (m a n a sikd ra ), m id d l e c o u rse ( ta tra m a jjh a tta ta ), c o m p a s s io n (karuna), j o y p a r t i c i p a t i n g in th e g o o d w h a t e v e r a n d w h e r e v e r i t m a y b e ( m u d ita ) , a b s ta in in g f ro m m is d e m e a n o u r in b o d ily a c ts ( kaya-duccaritavirati ) , a b s ta in in g fro m m is d e m e a n o r in s p e e c h (ydciduccaritavirati), a n d a b s ta in in g fro m a w r o n g m o d e o f life (m iccha jiva vira ti) ,4 O f th e s e th e fo u r firs t o c c u r r e n c e s a r e p r e s e n t in a s in g le in s ta n t, th e m id d le c o u rs e im p ly in g th e b a la n c e d n e s s o f th e s e o c c u rre n c e s , a ll o t h e r o c c u r r e n c e s m a y h a p p e n a t d if f e r e n t tim e s o f t h e p sy c h ic s tr e a m a n d o n d if f e r e n t levels. H o w e v e r , it w o u ld b e a m is ta k e to o v e rlo o k in th e p re s e n c e o f th e s e o b v io u s d e fe c ts , th e m e r its t h a t th is a n a ly s is offers. I ts o u ts t a n d i n g m e r it is t h a t a m a n s m in d is o b s e r v e d fro m a d y n a m ic , r a t h e r th a n a s ta tic a n g le . I t e m p h a s iz e s th e fu n c tio n s r a t h e r t h a n th e m e r e fa c ts o f m e n ta l p h e n o m e n a a n d i n t e r p r e ts m e n ta l p h e n o m e n a w ith r e f e r e n c e to th e p a r t th e y p la y
1. See for instance R n al. hbyor. bzhii. bsad. pa. don. dam . mdzub.

tshugs, fol. sa, and Pancakrama, chapter V I . 2. Atthasalini I I I 250. 3. Dham masangani S 1; Atthasalini I I I 251. 4. Atthasalini I I I 252; Visuddhim agga X V I 150-155. 5. Atthasalini I I I 253.

in th e life o f th e in d iv id u a l. I n this w ay th e analysis starts from th e liv in g in d iv id u a l, fro m facts w h ich c a n b e observed by an y b o d y w ith o u t h a v in g re c o u rse to a n y th e o ry proposed c priori a n d verified o n ly in d ire c tly a n d a posteriori, a n d so liberates m in d from a n y k in d o f ab so lu tism . T h o u g h it Seems th a t a teleolo g ical e x p la n a tio n o f th e fu n ctio n s fo u n d b y analysis is p a ra m o u n t, this analysis m akes it, b y its v e ry w o rding, q u ite c le a r th a t th e co n cep tio n o f p u rp o se is a p p lic a b le w ith in rea lity , n o t to re a lity as a w hole. T h e sam e holds v a lid for a n y m e c h a n istic e x p la n a tio n . T h is re a liz a tio n , it is tru e , is im p licit in th e A b h id h a rm a lite ra tu re . I t has been m a d e exp licit by th e M a d h y a m ik a s w ho d id n o t acknow ledge th e A b h id h a rm a canon. I t is only n a tu r a l th a t in such a co m p lex p h en o m en o n as th e h u m a n m in d , w ith v a ry in g in ten sity , th e v ario u s functions assum e specific m o d ificatio n s1 w h ich it is perm issible to tre a t as p a r tic u la r p h e n o m e n a , th o u g h it is n o t perm issible to co n clu d e th a t su ch p a rtic u la rs re p re se n t a b so lu te entities a n d evolve o u t o f it a m e ta p h y sic a l system . Y e t in no w ay a re w e ju stifie d in b la m in g th e B u d d h ists fo r th is, since th e sam e has h a p p e n e d in W estern philo so p h ies a n d co n tin u es to lie a t th e b o tto m o f m a n y m o d e rn ph ilo so p h ies. In co n clu sio n it m a y b e p o in te d o u t th a t th e classi ficatio n o f h e a lth y a ttitu d e s th e re a re e ig h t in a ll is m a d e from th re e d ifferen t p o in ts o f view . R a n k in g forem ost is th e m o o d o f a n a ttitu d e , w h e th e r it is p e rm e a te d by joyfulness ( somanassa.saha.gata) o r by in d ifferen ce (upekkhasahagata), because no a ttitu d e is ever w ith o u t a c e rta in feeling to n e, a n d joyfulness as w ell as in d ifferen ce, w h ich is n o t carelessness, a re signs o f a h e a lth y o u tlo o k o f life. T h e second a sp e c t is w h eth er a n a ttitu d e co n tain s a co g n itio n (nana,. S kt. jn dna) o r n o t2 T h e th ird is w h e th e r a h e a lth y a ttitu d e has co m e a b o u t by its ow n v ery h e a lth y n a tu re w ith o u t a n y efforts o n th e p a rt o f h im w h o h as a h e a lth y a ttitu d e ( asankharena ) o r w h e th e r a h e a lth y
1. Atthasalini I I I 256-264. 2. Atthasalini III 310. prajna is explained by paricchindana. This reminds us of Dharmottaras statement in Nyayabindutika 69 seg., that when something is cognized fparicchidyate) it is contrasted (vyavacchidyate) with its counterpart. While prajna is a function, discriminating and selecting, jnana is the ineffable, positivistic mystic knowledge by experience.

a t t i t u d e h a s b e e n se t u p b y a n e f f o r t o f th e i n d iv id u a l, b e th is of h is o w n a c c o u n t o r b y b e i n g a d m o n i t i o n e d b y o th e r s ( sasai.kh arena)1 T h is l a t t e r a s p e c t c o n ta in s a n e le m e n t w h ic h h a s b e e n o f p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e i n M a h a y a n a B u d d h is m , v iz ., t h e f o r m a t io n o f a n a t t i t u d e w h ic h is n o t m e r e ly h e a l t h y b u t is d i r e c t e d to w a r d e n l i g h te n m e n t ( bodhicittotpada ). A s A s a n g a in fo rm s u s, s u c h a f o r m a t i o n is d u e to v a r io u s re a s o n s . I t m a y b e d u e to t h e i n h e r e n t h e a lth in e s s , to a ll t h a t is g o o d a n d w holesom e, w h ic h w o u ld c o r r e s p o n d to th e e ffo rtle s s a t t i t u d e (,asankharena) m e n tio n e d i n t h e P a li A b h i d h a m m a ; b u t i t m a y a ls o b e d u e to th e a d m o n i t i o n o f f r ie n d s , wrh ic h w o u ld c o r re s pond to th e p r o m p t e d a t t i t u d e (sasankharena) . 2 T h is sh o w s t h a t M a h a y a n a B u d d h is m c o n t in u e d th e p r a c t i c a l sid e o f th e B u d d h is t te a c h in g , w h e r e a h e a l t h y a t t i t u d e is o f u tm o s t im p o r ta n c e * U nhealthy A ttitu d e s .

T h e u t t e r r e a lis m a n d p o s itiv is m w h ic h is a t th e b a sis of B u d d h is t p h ilo s o p h y a n d p s y c h o lo g y , b e c o m e s a g a ;n e v id e n t i n t h e r e c o g n itio n o f t h e f a c t t h a t th e r e a r e n o t o n ly h e a lth y a t t i t u d e s b u t a ls o a v a r i e t y o f u n h e a l t h y ( a ku sa la ) a t titu d e s . U n lik e h e a l t h y a t ti t u d e s w h ic h a r e r o o te d in d e ta c h e d lo v e a n d k n o w le d g e , u n h e a l t h y a t t i t u d e s a r e in c o m p a tib le w ith s p ir itu a l d e v e lo p m en t, b e c a u s e t h e i r s t r u c t u r a l p a t t e r n is in f e c te d b y v a r io u s e ffe c tiv e in s ta b ilitie s su c h as c u p id ity ( lobha ) , a n t i p a t h y ( dve$a P a li d osa), a n d d e lu s io n - b e w ild e r m e n t (m oha ). D u e to th is d is e a s e d n e s s , a s w e m i g h t s a y , u n h e a l t h y a t t i t u d e s a r e tie d to t h e w o r ld o f s e n s u o u s r e la te d n e s s (kam avacara ) w h e re lik e s a n d d is lik e s a n d u n w a r r a n t e d a s s u m p tio n s o c c u p y th e a r e n a m o s t o f th e tim e , a n d th e r e f o r e a ls o th e y d o n o t a d m it o f a n y s p ir itu a l le v e ls (b h u m i) w h ic h c a n b e r e a liz e d b y d e t a c h m e n t a n d n o t b y a t t a c h m e n t , b y lo v e a n d n o t b y c u p i d i t y , b y k n o w le d g e a n d n o t b y i g n o r a n c e .3 . A f u r t h e r c h a r a c te r is tic o f u n h e a l t h y a t t it u d e s is t h e i r a s s o c ia tio n w ith o p in io n a te d n e s s ( d itth ig a ta ) o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d w i t h c o n c e ite d n e s s (m a n a )
1. is found 2. 3. A tth asalin i I I I 309. T h e same division, but w ith different terms, in Abhidharm aras, II 79. M ahayana-sutralankara I V 7 and com m entary. A tth asalin i I I I 540.

o n th e other. F inally, w hile h e a lth y a ttitu d e s have eith er a h a p p y o r in d ifferen t m ood, u n h e a lth y attitu d es have a sullen m o o d in ad d itio n . O p in io n ated n ess, as w ell as conceitedness, exclude any co g n itio n (iiaqa) in th e sense th a t things, w h e th e r they be natural objects or personal selves, a re n o t seen in th e ir tru e nature, W h atev er a person cognizes o r knows he does so in the fram e w o rk o f p re-established ideas {iitth ig a ta ). T h e explanatior o f th e second term gala in this technical term iitthigata i< r a th e r illu m in atin g , because it shows th e lim itations o f all preco n ceiv ed ideas an d th e d o gm atism th ey en tail. T h e first e x p la n a tio n is a literal one, nam ely , th a t w h ich has turnec in to (so m e th in g ) . In m o d e rn term inology this m eans thai th e im m ed iate in aw areness is used m erely as the springboard fo r a rriv in g a t p o stu latio n ally p rescribed beliefs a b o u t three d im en sio n al ex te rn a l objects o r a b o u t in te rn a l principles called variously a soul o r a self. In o th e r w ords, all factu al inform ation is fitted in to theories an d assum ptions an d e v alu ated from this sta n d p o in t ra th e r th a n its ow n. I t follows th a t, from th e B u d d h ist p o in t o f view , a com m on-sense m a n , a scientist, a philo so p h ical o r a religious m a n o f the m o d e rn w orld would h a v e to be considered as suffering from a n u n h e a lth y attitu d e b ecause h e does n o t use th e im m ed iate in his awareness a n d experience as som ething good in itself, b u t only as a m eans to ag g rav ate a n alread y u n h e a lth y in clin atio n w hich cuts ofl life from its riches a n d leads to em otional a n d sp iritu al starv a tion. Since such a pro ced u re is doom ed to failure and fru stra tio n an d a t th e very b eg in n in g com es to a d e ad end th e second in te rp re ta tio n o f gata follows d irectly from it, viz., th at it is u n w a lk a b le in th e sense o f n o t b ein g conducive to enlig h ten m e n t an d to th e a p p re c ia tio n o f v irtues a n d m erits.1 O p in io n atedness, th e insistence on com m on-sense b e lie f a n d confessional cred u lity , is a dan g ero u s ju n g le , a b a rre n d esert killing the la st vestige o f life, a m isrep resen tatio n an d falsification o f facts, I t is full o f inconsistencies a n d oscillates m ain ly betw een such ab su rd ities as etern alism an d n ihilism . It is a fetter which 11w hinds m en b u t to w hich m en clin g m ost stubbornly.

I n s h o r t, o p in io n a te d n e s s is th e o n ly a n d tr u e p e r v e r s io n .1 D u e to t h e f a c t t h a t th in g s a r e n o t se e n in th e i r p r o p e r p e r s p e c tiv e a n d th e ir r e a l n a t u r e , u n h e a lth y a ttitu d e s a r e c o n s p ic u o u s b y th e a b s e n c e o f s e lf-re s p e c t a n d d e c o r u m .2 T h is a b s e n c e m u s t n o t b e u n d e r s to o d a s a m e r e v a c u u m b u t as fo rces w h ic h h a v e d is a s tro u s e ffe c ts. F o r a b s e n c e o f s e lf-re s p e c t le a d s to s e lf - d e g r a d a tio n w h ic h d o e s n o t k n o w o f a n y lim its a n d th e a b s e n c e o f d e c o r u m is th e ru th le s s d is r e g a r d o f o th e r s . T h u s in s te a d o f p r e s e r v in g th e w o r ld a n d s o c ie ty th e se fo rc e s o f self d e g r a d a t i o n a n d d is r e g a r d d e s tr o y i t (lo k a n a sa ka ),3 b e c a u s e m o r a l i t y b a s e d o n th e s e fo rc e s a n d u lt i m a te ly o n ig n o r a n c e , o n ly se rv e s a s a c lo a k fo r a lm o s t e v e r y th in g : r e lig io u s s u p e r s ti tio n s a n d th e i r c o n c o m ita n t i n t o l e r a n c e , n a t i o n a l c u s to m s , p s y c h o lo g ic a l in h ib itio n s , le g a l sy ste m s, p e r s o n a l d is lik e s , a n d p o litic a l m a c h in a tio n s . W h e t h e r a n a t t i t u d e b e g r o u n d e d i n c u p id ity o r a n t i p a t h y o r d e lu s io n c u p id ity a n d a n t i p a t h y a r e m u tu a lly e x c lu d in g , b u t g o to g e th e r w ith d e lu s io n it h a s c e r ta in c h a r a c te r is tic tr a its . C u p id ity ( lobha ) m a k e s th e in d iv id u a l c h a s e a f te r th e s e n s u o u s a n d s e n s u a l o b je c ts w h ic h h e b e lie v e s w ill sa tisfy h is c r a v in g , b u t to th e s a m e e x t e n t t h a t h e o b ta in s th e d e s ir e d o b je c ts , h is c r a v in g a lso in c re a s e s so t h a t h e is d r iv e n r e le n tle s s ly fro m o n e o b je c t to th e o t h e r , to l e t i t g o a lm o s t th e s a m e m o m e n t h e h a s g r a s p e d it. H is a t t a c h m e n t to th e o b je c ts o f w o rld lin e s s a r e c o m p a r e d w ith fre s h m e a t p u t in to a h e a te d v e sse l, a s e p a 1. Atthasalini I I I 552. parametria w hich is explained as to set aside the true nature o f things (dhammasabhdva) and to conceive o f them as being eternal and so on in a w ay contrary to their nature (parato am asati)' consists o f drstipardmarsa and silaurataparamarsa. T h e form er is according to th t Abhidbarm asam uccaya, p. 7, the view w hich considers the five psycho somatic constituents {pancopadanaskandha) as having a most excellent nature (param atas), the latter is the view w hich considers the same five constituents as being purity and liberation (suddhitas, muktitas) on account o f religo-superstitious observances. A cco rd in g to Abhidharm akosa II 29 and Bhasya an unhealthy atti tude is connected w ith wrong views {miihyddrsti, the denial o f the relation between cause and effect), or w ith the two kinds o f perversion, drftipardmarsa and tilavrataparamarsa. But an attitude w hich considers the five constituent as a Self (satkdyadrfti ) or considers them from the view point o f eternalism 01 nihilism is antagrahadxsti) is not unhealthy, though it is not very healthy. 2. Atthasalini I I I 543. Abhidharm akosa I I 26 cd. 3. Atth asalini I I I 550

ra tio n o f th e tw o n o t b ein g possible, o r since th e re is no check o n his crav in g , n o sense o f re n u n c ia tio n , a tta c h m e n t spreads like a n o il-o in tm e n t, a ll o ver th e bo d y . C ra v in g , like a stream th a t increases co n tin u o u sly w ith its progress a n d tu rb u le n tly rushes d o w n to th e o cean, carries th e in d iv id u a l alo n g w ith it in to th e abyss o f low existences ( apaya) -1 I n its o v e rt form such a n a ttitu d e is m a rk e d by covetous ness a n d possessiveness (abhijjha ), th e obsession to acq u ire th a t w h ic h o th ers h av e a n d to in v e n t a ll kinds o f strateg em s to p u t this m a n ia in to p ra c tic e .2 W h e re c u p id ity is a t th e basis o f a n a ttitu d e , two aspects beco m e m o st p ro m in e n t. T h e first as w e h a v e seen, is the asso ciatio n w ith o p in io n ated n ess in all its v a rie d form s a n d w h ere a p erso n has c e rta in stro n g view s a b o u t c e rta in things a n d feels e ith e r h a p p y in d isp la y in g th em o r gives v en t to h is o p in io n s w ith cool in d ifferen ce. T h e o th e r is th e association w ith conceitedness (mdna ), w h ere a perso n is d ru n k w ith his ow n im p o rta n c e a n d in his e x u lta tio n ju st shows o f f (ketukamyata).3 As th e case m a y be, such u n h e a lth y a ttitu d e s m ay b e a g g ra v a te d b y in d o le n c e , th e h a b itu a l love o f ease a n d a settled dislike o f a c tiv ity , a n d by sluggishness {th.inamid.dha), b o th of w h ich a re re la te d to in a tte n d a n c e .4
1. Atthasalini H i 544. 2. ibid. I l l 54.5. 3. ibid. I l l 558. The author of the Atthasalini derives the word mdna from the root mad to get intoxicated, and gives as its characteristic unnati arrogance . The Abhidharmakosa II 33b derives it from the root m i to measure ones superiority over others bv ones actual qualities or b> those one imagines to have, and distinguishes mdna from mada intoxication, See also Vyakhya ad Abhidh.-kosa II 33. The same distinction is found ir Abhidharmasamuccaya, pp. 7, 9. Sthiramatis Vrtti, pp. 28 sg., discussing the differences between mdna, atimana, asmimana, abhimdna, unamana, mithyamdna p. 31. mada. Seven types o f mana are also mentioned in Abhidharmasa muccaya, p . 45, Abhidharmakosa V , 10 and Bhasya. 4. Atthasalini III 557. thina, Skt. stycina, is according to the Attha salini the inability to make efforts, the expulsion of energy, a collapse, middha is the inability to operate, drowsiness. According to the Abhidharmasamuccaya, p . 9 styana is the inabilitv to operate. The same definition in Sthiramatis V.rtti, p. 31. Both these sources declare stydna to belong to delusion (mohamsika). The explanation o f this term in Abhidharmakosa II 26 and the Bhasya on it, is similar to the one given by Asariga and Sthiramati.

W h e n u n h e a lth y a tt i t u d e s a r e g r o u n d e d i n a n t i p a t h y ( dosa ) , th e g e n e r a l m o o d is o n e o f su lle n n e ss ( dom anassa ) a n d o n e is e a s ily s h o c k e d a t e v e r y th in g , b e c a u s e o n e sees e v e ry w h e re s o m e th in g o ffe n siv e , d is ta s te f u l, a n d c o n tr a r y to o n e s p r in c ip le s (w h ic h a f te r a ll a r e n o t m u c h w o rth .) (p a tig h a ) ; th e r e f o r e o n e c o n s ta n tly se le c ts th e u n p le a s a n t s id e o f life1. I n t h e i r o v e rt fo r m s s u c h a ttitu d e s a r e m a r k e d b y h a t r e d a n d m a le v o le n c e . A p e r s o n w h o s e a t t i t u d e is g r o u n d e d in a n t i p a t h y p o is o n s th e w h o le a tm o s p h e r e w ith h is m a lic io u s n e s s a n d a t th e s a m e tim e u n d e r m in e s h is o w n p o s itio n . W h e r e v e r a n d w h e n e v e r h e fin d s a c h a n c e h e ro u s e s e n m ity .2 T h is m a le v o le n c e a lso fin d s its e x p re s s io n in th e v e n o m o u s r e m a rk s h e is a p t to m a k e a t a n y m o m e n t. H is w o rd s la c k c o u r te s y a n d s m o o th n e s s , a n d h is s p e e c h is a b r u p t , fo r a t th e m o m e n t o f a n g e r t h e r e is n o c o h e r e n t s p e e c h .3 W o r s t o f a ll s u c h a p e r s o n is u n a b le to fin d c o n te n te d n e s s .4 J u s t lik e u n h e a lt h y a tt it u d e s r o o te d in c u p id ity , u n h e a lth y a ttitu d e s g r o u n d e d in a n t i p a t h y m a y b e a c c o m p a n ie d b y in d o le n c e a n d slu g g is h n e s s , a n d in a d d itio n m a y b e q u a lif ie d b y e n v y (irsyd, P a li issa ) , n ig g a r d lin e s s ( m atsarya , P a li macchar iy a ) , a n d b v r e g r e t (kauk.rt.ya, P a li kukkucca). E n v y m e a n s to r e g a r d a n o t h e r w ith v a r y in g d e g re e s o f je a lo u s y a n d h a tr e d , b e c a u s e t h e o th e r possesses s o m e th in g w e c o v e t o r feel s h o u ld h a v e c o m e to o u rse lv e s. I t is a f e tte r w h ic h b in d s a m a n to a n o t h e r p e r s o n s p o ssessio n s in a w a y t h a t h e h a s to t u r n h is fa c e a w a y fr o m it ivimu.khabh.ava),5 N ig g a r d lin e s s m e a n s to c o n c e a l t h a t w h ic h o n e h a s g o t o r is to g e t. I t is t h e in a b ility
middha is according to Abhidharm asam uccaya, p. 10 and Sthiram atis V r tti, p . 32, a self-confinement o f mind on a narrow point. Sthiramati then adds that middha induces a person to let go the chance o f doing something. It also belongs to delusion. See also Abhidharm akosa I I 30; V 4 7 ; V I I n . 1. Atthasalini II I 562. Abhidharm asam uccaya, p. 7. Sthiram atis V r tti, p . 28 very clearly brings out the idea o f only selecting the unpleasant side o f life {asparsavihdra) . 2. A ttliasalinI I I I 562. * 3 . ib id .' I l l 564. T h e author brings a pun on asuropila unpolished, incoherent in the spelling assuropa causing others to w eep , 4. ibid. 5 . ibid. I l l 563. According to Abhidharm asam uccaya, p. 8, and Sthiram atis V rtti, p. 30, en vy is part o f an tipathy (dvefa ) and produces sullenness and the peculiar feature o f selecting the unpleasant.

to b e a r the th o u g h t o f sh a rin g w ith others, a n d it m eans to b e so closefisted th a t one gives o n ly g ru d g in g ly th e sm allest a m o u n t possible. I t is a disfigurem ent o f o n e s w hole m e n ta l b u ild -u p .1 R e g re t is th e futile ru m in a tin g o v er p ast deeds, o ver som ething d o n e o r left u n d o n e. I t is a sta te o f slav ery ,2 because it does n o t m ak e m a n stro n g to a c t in a w ay he sh o u ld act. U n h e a lth y a ttitu d e s w h ic h are ro o ted in a n tip a th y , like those g ro u n d e d in cu p id ity , a re e ith e r so m eth in g n a tu ra l in th e sense th a t they o p e ra te w ith o u t h a v in g b een p ro m p te d , o r th ey h av e b een p ro m p te d b y ta k in g a p erso n hav in g a n u n h e a lth y a ttitu d e as a n ex am p le for o n e s ex am ple o r by b e in g in stig a te d to a d o p t such u n h e a lth y a ttitu d e s .3 A th ird g ro u p o f u n h e a lth y a ttitu d e s a re those ro o ted in d elu sio n -b ew ild erm en t (moha). T h e y a re m ark ed e ith e r b y scepticism (vicikitsd P ali vicikiccha ) o r by frivolity (auddhq.tya, P a li uddhacca),4 S cepticism , in th e B u d d h ist sense, is n ot so m u c h th e a ttitu d e o f a d o u b te r w ho suspends ju d g m e n t b ec au se h e insists on th e lim itatio n s o f h u m a n reaso n , b u t o f a person w ho w earies h im self o u t (kilam ati) b y ru m in a tin g a n d c o g ita tin g a b o u t th e n a tu re o f thin g s w ith o u t ever p e n e tra tin g it. A p erso n w ho is d o m in a te d b y scepticism feels a d o u b t w ith respect to ev ery th in g a n d is u n a b le to re a c h a d ecision as to w here th e tr u th lies. M in d is w eak a n d feeble in th e sense th a t it c a n n o t sta y w ith one sub ject a n d th ro u g h a b so rp tio n p e n e tra te in to its very n a tu re a n d so is to rn b etw een a m u ltitu d e o f topics. Y et this flu c tu a tin g does n o t p re v e n t a h a rd e n e d a n d o b stin ate a ttitu d e w hich is closed to every tenderness a n d p lia b ility .5
1. ibid. I l l 563. According to Abhidharmasamuccya, p. 8 and Sthiramatis Vrtti, p. 30 niggardliness is part of cupidity (ragamsika). Since dvesa and raga (lobha) are mutually exclusive, as we are told b y the Pali sourc es, niggardliness ought to belong to an unhealthy attitude rooted in cupidity. 2. ibid. I l l 563. t According to Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 10 regret is part of delusion and produces instability of mind. The same definition in Sthiramati s Vrtti, p. 32. See also Abhidharmakosa II 28 and Bhasya, as well as Yasomitras Vyakhya. 3. Atthasalini III 565; 556. 4. ibid. I l l 566-568. 5. ibid. I l l 566-567. According to Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 7, scepticism is doubt and divergence (vim iti ) from the Truths of Buddhism. Sthiramati in his Vrtti, p. 29 adds doubt as to the relation between Karman and its effects and the doctrine of probability and improbability.

A n o th e r a s p e c t o f a n u n h e a lth y a t t i t u d e r o o te d in d e lu s io n b e w ild e r m e n t is friv o lity . I t d o e s n o t a llo w th e m in d to c o m e to re s t, th o u g h it d o e s n o t d iv id e i t a g a in s t its e lf b e tw e e n a v a r i e t y o f to p ic s. I t is lik e a c a r r ia g e o v e r w h ic h o n e h a s lo st c o n tr o l a n d w h ic h th e r e f o r e la n d s in a d itc h , o r i t is like c a t t l e g o in g a s t r a y a n d s ta y in g w h e r e th e y h a p p e n to b e . H e n c e fr iv o lity is e n g ro s s e d w ith o n e to p ic a n d n o t w ith m a n y a t th e s a m e tim e .1 A ll u n h e a l t h y a t t it u d e s a r e m a r k e d b y a n a b s e n c e o f c o n fid e n c e , in s p e c tio n , a n a ly tic a l a p p r e c ia tiv e u n d e r s ta n d in g , a n d th e e a se , s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d n e s s , a n d a d a p t a b i l i t y o f a ll p sy c h ic fu n c tio n s .2 W h e r e th e r e is n o c o n fid e n c e th e r e is n o lu c id ity o f m in d . B u t, it m a y b e a r g u e d , d o n o t th o s e w h o h a v e c e r ta in v ie w s t r u s t t h e ir te a c h e r s . C e r ta in ly , th e y d o so, b u t w h a t th e y d o h a s n o th in g to d o w ith c o n fid e n c e , i t is j u s t ta k in g th e ir -w ords a t t h e i r fa c e v a lu e . A c tu a lly it is n o n - in v e s tig a tio n , a c e r ta in v ie w o n e h o ld s . A lso w h e r e t h e r e is n o c o n fid e n c e th e r e is n o in s p e c tio n . B u t, i t m a y b e a s k e d , d o n o t th o se w h o h a v e c e r t a i n v iew s r e m e m b e r s o m e th in g th e y h a v e d o n e . C e r ta in ly th e y d o so, b u t th is h a s n o th i n g to d o w ith in s p e c tio n ; it is j u s t th e c o u rs e o f a n u n h e a l t h y m in d w h ic h looks lik e th is fu n c tio n . I t m a y b e a s k e d w h y th is f u n c tio n is c a lle d w ro n g in s p e c tio n in th e S d tra s . I t is p o in te d o u t in o r d e r to m a k e th e n u m b e r o f w ro n g s te p s a g r e e w ith t h e n u m b e r o f th e r ig h t s te p s in th e E ig h tfo ld P a th , a lth o u g h e v e r y th in g u n h e a l t h y is d e v o id o f in s p e c tio n a n d o p p o s e d to in s p e c tio n .3 A c tu a lly w r o n g in s p e c tio n d o e s n o t e x is t.4 A lso in a d a r k a n d im m a tu r e m in d th e r e is n o a n a ly tic a l a p p r e c ia tiv e u n d e r s ta n d in g . B u t it m a y b e a s k e d , d o n o t th o s e w h o h o ld c e r ta in v iew s m a k e Lise o f d is c r im in a tio n in d e lu d in g o th e r s . C e r ta in ly th e y use d is c r im in a tio n . B u t th is d is c r im in a tio n is n o t a n a n a ly tic a l
1. A tthasalini III 568. For the definition o f auddhatya see Abhidharm akosavyakfoya ad II 26; Abhidharm asamuccaya, p . 9; Sthiramatis V rtti, p. 31. 2. ibid. I l l 546. 3 .' Inspection is a factor b y which w e try to learn more about the nature of the object we are studying. But when we hold certain views we autom atically refuse to learn. 4. T h is is an interesting remark. T h e Vaibhasikas and Yogacaras considered wrong inspection fmusitasmrti) as an existent entity. See Bhasya ad Abhidharm akosa II 26. Abhidharm asam uccaya, p . 9.

ap preciativ e u n d erstan d in g (w hich produces know ledge), it is deceit (maya ). In reality it is craving. A nd so this (u n h ealth y ) a ttitu d e is care-w orn, heavy, oppressed, hardened, o b d u ra te , un ab le to operate w ith ease, m o rbid, biased and crooked. T herefore it does n o t know o f relax atio n and sc o n 5.1 Conclusion D ue to its p ractical n a tu re w hich points o u t a way that w ill lead m an to his goal and also points o u t th a t w hich is not conducive to this, Buddhism has alw ays b een concerned w ith the im m ediately present a n d th e im m ediately given : the d is position o f th e in d iv id u al or, as I prefer to re n d e r the technical term s citta, th e a ttitu d e o f a p erson o f a m ore or less stable set o f opinion, interest, an d purpose, involving expectancy of certain kinds of experience a n d readiness w ith an a p p ro p ria te response. H ow ever, the highly technical language has often obscured this p ractical n a tu re of B uddhism an d has led scholars an d philosophers to believe th a t B uddhism is as h ighly speculative as are the W estern philosophical systems. Y et actually there is n o th in g in the teaching o f B uddhism w hich o ur im m ediate experience does n o t contain. T his an d the absence of dogm as w hich induce the belief th a t we h ave know ledge w here actually w e h ave ignorance, certainly a c co u n t for the appeal Buddhism has to the m o d ern W estern m in d . T h e discussion o f the v arious attitu d es w hich we can observe any tim e, is certainly n o t scientific in the sense th a t it provides th e a posteriori, in d irect test for the p ostulated a priori theory. But there can be no d o u b t th a t it is a descriptive type o f science, th e science o f the h u m a n m ind. P u t m ore precisely, it is tru e phenom enology, the system atic investigation o f o u r experiences as experiences, a n d it has succeeded in giving a tru e and realistic pictu re o f o u r em otions a n d the role they p lay even in our cognitive processes, and it also has succeeded in setting u p a tru e an d realistic m orality. A healthy a ttitu d e is one w hich broadens our outlook, w hile an u n h ealth y a ttitu d e m akes us narrow , bigoted, a n d cuts us off from w ider p a rtic i p atio n . But healthiness a n d unhealthiness a re evaluative

ju d g m e n ts w h ic h fo rm a n essen tial a s p e c t o f a ll c o g n itio n s, a n d n o t fu n c tio n s w h ic h a re th e a c tiv ity o f th e p sy ch ic s tru c tu r e o r, since i t is d o u b tfu l to sp e a k o f a p sy ch ic s tr u c tu r e as c o n tra ste d w ith a p h y sic a l s tru c tu re , th e a c tiv ity o f a liv in g o rg a n ism . T h is also th e B u d d h ists h a v e re c o g n iz e d fro m th e v e ry b e g in n in g a n d h e n c e d istin g u is h e d b e tw e e n m e re ly fu n c tio n a l processes a n d q u a lita tiv e ly d iffe re n tia te d processes. A b o u t th ese d iffe re n tia tio n s a ll schools o f B u d d h ism a g re e d , b u t th e y d iffe red fro m e a c h o th e r in w h a t a p p e a rs to us as th e w e ak p o in t, v iz ., the n u m e ric a l classificatio n o f v a rio u s a ttitu d e s a n d th e n u m e ric a l lim ita tio n o f fu n ctio n s. T h u s , fo r in s ta n c e , th e T h e ra v a d in s re c o g n iz e d fifty -tw o to fifty-six fu n c tio n s, th e S a rv a stiv a d in s forty -six , a n d th e Y o g a c a ra s fifty -o n e. T h o u g h th e re is a close re se m b la n c e b e tw e e n th o se w h ic h a r e c o n sid e re d to b e fu n c tio n s o f m in d , th e g ro u p in g o f th e m h a s b e e n d o n e b y th e v a rio u s schools fro m v a rio u s p o in ts o f v iew .1

i.

See the tables at the end of the book.

( dhyana ) W O R L D L IN E S S AND GESTALTUNG

T h e w o rld o f th in g s a n d e v e n ts w h ic h s tim u la te s us se n su o u sly a n d s e n s u a lly a n d to w h ic h w e r e a c t w ith o u r im p u lse s, o u r a p p re h e n s io n s , w ith a ll t h a t m a rk s s e n tie n t life, b e g in s a n d e n d s w ith o u r a t t i t u d e a n e m o tio n a l a n d in te lle c tu a l p a t t e r n w h ic h g o v e rn s a ll in d iv id u a l life .1 A c c o rd in g t o its m o d e o f b e in g e m o tio n a lly a n d in te lle c tu a lly to n e d a n a t t i t u d e is e ith e r h e a lth y o r u n h e a lth y . B u t w h e th e r h e a lth y o r u n h e a lth y , o u r a t t i t u d e in th is w o r ld o f se n su o u s a n d s e n s u a l re la te d n e s s is s o m e th in g g iv e n ; w e fin d o u rse lv e s in th e w o rld w ith a c e r ta in d is p o s itio n to w a rd s it, a n d o n ly a n in s ig n ific a n t p a r t o f its o v e r t m a n if e s ta tio n c a n b e sa id to o w e its p re se n c e to th e in te n tio n s o f th e in d iv id u a l. I ts ro o ts lie b e fo re th e b e g in n in g o f a n in d iv id u a l a n d lose th e m se lv e s in th e d im n e b u lo s ity o f b e g in n in g le s s tim e .2 A n o th e r c h a r a c te r is tic o f h e a lth y a n d u n h e a lth y a ttitu d e s is th e fa c t t h a t th e y do n o t g iv e u s a tr u e a n d v iv id p ic tu r e o f r e a lity to w h ic h th e y p ro fess to b e r e la te d , th o u g h in a h e a lth y a tt i t u d e th is f a c t is less a p p a r e n t th a n in a n u n h e a lth y a t t it u d e . T h e r e is n o d e n ia l o f th e fa c t t h a t in e ith e r case th e v iv id e x p e rie n c e w h ic h is th e esse n ce o f t h a t g e n e r a l h u m a n re sp o n se c a lle d life, h a s b e e n p ro je c te d a n d tr a n s la te d in to a sy ste m o f e n titie s a n d , in h a v in g b e c o m e a t h in g h a s lo st its sy m b o lic ex p ressiv en ess. I n w o rld ly a ttitu d e s w e a r e c o n c e rn e d w ith th e te r m in a tio n o f
1. See for instance the famous verse in Samyuttanikaya I 39; cittena niyati loko cittena parikissati. cittassa ekadhammassa sabbe va vasam anvagti ti T h e world is conducted b y our attitude, the world is harassed b y our attitude. Everything comes under the control o f this unique pow er." Further references p . 15. n. 2. 2. In the final analysis our present attitude has been brought about by Karm an.

t h e s y m b o lific a c tiv ity o f m in d r a t h e r t h a n w ith th e sy m b o l f o r m in g p ro c e s s itse lf. P a r ti c u l a r l y w h e r e th o s e a ttitu d e s a r e c o n c e r n e d w h ic h a r e c o n s id e r e d to b e u n h e a lth y , th e loss o f v iv id a p p r e c i a t i o n o f a ll t h a t is, th e d is r e g a r d o f m e a n in g w h ic h , i f i t h a s a n y life a n d h e a l th , m u s t d e e p e n a t e v e ry tu r n , is m o st c o n s p ic u o u s . U t i l i t a r i a n c o n s id e r a tio n s a r e th e p r e d o m in a n t f e a tu r e o f s u c h a ttitu d e s . T o g iv e o n ly a few e x a m p le s , ta k e n a t r a n d o m f ro m w h a t is a lw a y s b e f o r e o u r eyes. W e lo v e th in g s a n d c o v e t th e m b e c a u s e th e y a r e a s o u rc e o f in c o m e a n d in c o n s id e r in g th e m so, w e t u r n th e m in to c o u n te rs fo r u n d e r s ta n d in g a n d c o m p u tin g t h e c o u rs e o f p ric e s in th e m a rk e tp la c e ^ O r , w e e n te r in t o a n a r m a m e n t r a c e , a t th e s a m e tim e , h y p o c r itic a lly , c o n v e n in g d i s a r m a m e n t c o n fe re n c e s , b e c a u s e , w h ile p r o je c tin g o u r d e lu s io n o f p e r s e c u tio n w h ic h in th e la n g u a g e o f p o litic s m e a n s to th in k in te r m s o f n a tio n a l s e c u rity , to w a r d s o th e r s w e w a n t to b e r e a d y to b e th e first to s trik e th e f a ta l b lo w , a n d w e a r e n o t a s h a m e d o f in d u lg in g in h o s tile a n d s u b v e rs iv e a c tiv itie s w h o s e f o u n d a tio n in h a tr e d is o n ly to o o b v io u s . U n d e r th e p o w e r o f d e lu s io n w e m a k e s u c h b e h a v io r a c c e p t a b l e b y c a llin g i t a d u t y w e o w e to o u rse lv e s o r to o u r c o u n t r y , w h ic h is b u t a n o t h e r w a y o f s o c ia liz in g th e d e lu s io n o f g r a n d e u r a n d o f s p r e a d in g th e d ise a se o f rig h te o u s n e s s . T h u s th e r e is a c lo se c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n d e lu s io n a n d h a tr e d a n d d e lu s io n a n d c u p id ity . B u t th e r e is still a n o t h e r k in d o f u n h e a l t h y a t t i t u d e in w h ic h d e lu s io n a lo n e h o ld s its u n d is p u t e d sw a y it is th e a t t i t u d e o f th e s lo g a n -r a is e r w h o b e lie v e s in a ll e a rn e s tn e s s t h a t a n y s lo g a n t h e s illie r, th e b e t t e r is th e c u r e fo r a ll th e evils i n th e w o r ld . A g a in s t th is m u ltip lic ity o f u n h e a l t h y a ttitu d e s , h e a l t h y a tt i tu d e s a lm o s t fa d e in to in s ig n i fic a n c e . M a y b e th e n u m e r ic a l d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n h e a lth y a n d u n h e a lt h y a ttitu d e s , a s s e rte d in th e Pe.li A b h id h a m m a , h a s a d e e p e r sig n ific a n c e t h a n j u s t b e in g a m e r e c la s s ific a tio n a n d lis tin g o f e ig h t h e a l t h y a n d tw e lv e u n h e a lth y a ttitu d e s . I t r e m a in s a fa c t t h a t u n h e a lth y a ttitu d e s c a n n o t b e d e v e lo p e d in a n y w a y ; th e y m o v e in a v ic io u s c irc le , fo r c u p id ity b r e e d s c u p id ity , h a tr e d ro u se s a n d in te n sifie s h a tr e d , a n d d e lu d e d n e s s u n le a s h e s a h o s t o f m a n ia s . B u t, a lth o u g h u n h e a lth y a t t it u d e s a r e p r e d o m in a n t a n d c o n s titu te wo rld lin e s s in the n a r r o w e r se n se o f th e w o r ld , th is d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t th e r e is no

way o u t o f th is calam ity . A n a ttitu d e is n o th in g rigid a n d p e rm a n e n t, a t best it is p ersisten t for som e tim e, a n d w hile a t one m o m en t a n u n h e a lth y a ttitu d e m ay p rev ail a t an o th e r m o m en t a h e a lth y one m ay o p e ra te . M a n is too com plex in his n a tu re to restrict him to som ething o r o th er. A ll th a t w e c a n say is th a t the in te rp la y b etw een h e a lth y a n d u n h ealth y a ttitu d e s m ay d ep en d on th e d istrib u tio n o f energy w ithin the o rg a n iz e d system called m a n , b u t c e rta in ly n o t th ro u g h th e presen ce o f some s u p e rn a tu ra l en tity , soul o r entelechy o r m in d -stu ff . W hile cu p id ity , a n tip a th y , a n d delusion have never b e e n constructive c u ltu ra l elem ents, b u t h ave served only to destro y th a t w hich they them selves h a d erected a n d in this catacly sm , to p u t a n end to all th a t is h u m a n e , cu ltu ra l values h a v e been p ro d u ce d by those w ho h a d a h e a lth y a ttitu d e , in w hom th ere w as no cu p id ity , no a n tip a th y , no deludedness, w ho realized th a t th e w orld, a t best, ju s t is a n d in this acceptance possessed som ething w hich co n tin u ed to live in th em a n d w hich d id n o t allow itse lf to be tu rn e d in to a m ere counter. T h e b e a re rs of c u ltu re a re the philosophers, artists a n d m usicians. I t is w rong to consider a r t as -unintellectual a n d philosophy as u n a rtistic a n d , u n d e r a m isco n cep tio n o f w h a t reason, in te lle c t a n d so on has to be, to d en y th e v alue o f the one or the o th er. T h e essential p o in t is w h e th e r th e re is insight and d ire c t know ledge ( iidna) o r m e re opinion (d iflh i ), w hethei th ere is significant form a n d expressiveness o r purposeful ex p ression.1 T o find th e w ay back from a w orld o f th in g s to a w orld o f p u re G estalten, to expressive form s (rupa).2 O u t o f w hich
1. That intellectualism or rationalism is not hampered by an appre. ciativeness of art and vice versa, has also been insisted upon by Susaime K. Langer, Philosophy in a new key, p. 82. 2. There are three main interpretations of rupa in Buddhist texts. The oldest one is found in Sariiyuttanikaya III 86 : ruppati ti kho bhikkhav, tasmd rufiam iti vuccati it breaks down, oh Bhiksus, therefore it is callec rupa . This definition emphasizes fragility in the sense of transformatior and deterioration, as is pointed out in the Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa I 13 In this way rupa might be said to be a term for grouping events which com monsense attributes to the physical world. The second explanation derive.' rupa from rupaxla in the sense of pratighdto resistance, not allowing something, else to occupy a certain space. This is the commonsense view about a

w e c o n s tr u e a w o rld o f th in g s a n d e v e n ts p r a c tic a lly a n d o b je c tiv e ly a r r a n g e d , b u t i n w h ic h w e a ls o fin d lib e r a tio n fro m th e o p p re s s iv e n e s s o f e x te r n a lly a n d in te r n a lly fix e d r e la tio n s , h a s c o n s titu te d a v e r y s p e c ia l, i f n o t th e c e n t r a l, p r o b le m in B u d d h is t te a c h in g s . T h e s o lu tio n o f th e p r o b le m is b a s e d o n th e re c o g n i tio n o f c e r ta in f u n d a m e n ta l h u m a n n e e d s . A c tu a lly , th e w o rld o f p u r e G e s ta lte n is th e s t a r t in g p o i n t o f a ll in te lle c tu a l a c tiv ity a n d i t is m o r e g e n e r a l t h a n d ir e c tiv e th in k in g a n d f a n c y in g , a l th o u g h th is fa c t is r e a d ily o v e r lo o k e d in a w o r ld o f th in g s w h e r e a ll life h a s b e e n f la tte n e d o u t i n d isc u rsiv e n e ss. B u t s in c e life d o e s n o t a d m it o f a n y s to p p a g e , G e s ta ltu n g is o f th e u tm o s t im p o r t a n c e as th e f o r m u la tiv e n o n - d is c u rs iv e u n d e r s ta n d in g o f s e n tie n t life. T h a t w h ic h le a d s to th e w o r ld o f G e s ta lte n a n d to th e e x p e r ie n c e o f G e s ta ltu n g is c a lle d cetana a n d a ll t h a t is c o n n e c t e d w i t h a cetana-1 A s w e h a v e s e e n 2 cetana is e s s e n tia lly a d r iv e , a n im p u ls e m o tiv a te d b y a n i n h e r e n t n e e d r a t h e r th a n b y a p r o s p e c t o f a c q u ir in g so m e u s e fu l to o l fo r p e r p e tr a tin g so m e u t i l i t a r i a n d e sig n . A t th e s a m e t i m e th is n e e d is a lso th e w a y o r th e s e e k in g o f t h e s itu a tio n w h ic h w ill sa tis fy th e n e e d o r per contra, th e s tr iv in g to a v o id th e s itu a tio n w h ic h b lo c k s s a tis f a c tio n .3 B u t th e r e is a q u a li t a tiv e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n cetana o n t h e le v e l o f s e n s u o u s a n d s e n s u a l r e la te d n e s s a n d cetana o n th e le v e l o f m e d ita tiv e p r a c tic e s . W h ile w e a r e b o r n in to th e w o r ld o f se n su o u s a n d s e n s u a l r e la te d n e s s , to w h ic h w e a d ju s t a n d a d a p t o u rs e lv e s w ith v e r y little o f w h a t is in u^s,
material object. -The third explanation, in M adhyam akavrtti, p. 456, understands rupana in the sense o f indicativeness. None o f these definitions, w ith the possible exception o f the second one, guarantees the translation by matter . O u r merest sense-experience is a process o f Gestaltung- or for m ulation. T h e translation o f rupa b y Gestalt, w hich I offer here* avoids the dualism o f mind and matter, w hich does not exist in experience, and experience is the keynote o f Buddhism. 1. A tth asalini I I I 326. 2. p p . 43 sq. H ere again the absurdity o f the translation o f cetana by volition becomes apparent. It is impossible to w ill meditation. Unless a person feels the need for m editation he is unable to start w ith it. 3. A tth asalini I I I 326 : maggo ti upayo. vacanattho p a n ettha tam upapattim maggati gavesati ja n eti nipphadeti ti maggo W a y has the meaning of means . T h e literal m eaning is : he makes a w av for this origination, seeks it, produces it, expands it.

with item s w hich re p o rt or refer o r m ostly su b stitu te direct experience, o u r needs a re v egetative, to p u t it b lu n tly , a n d there is very little o f th e h u m a n in us. B ut w hen we m ake a n effort o f some kind to find access to th e w o rld o f G estalten, to regain a d ire c t experience, then we a c t in a w ay in w hich no other an im a l w ould ac t, because sym bolific activ ity is a p rim ary need o f m an . T herefo re th e section on m ed ita tio n does not begin w ith an en u m eratio n a n d classification o f m e n ta l functions an d processes, b u t w ith th e w ords th a t he, th e individual, seeks a w ay to th e a tta in m e n t o f G e sta ltu n g .1 The Differences in Temperament T h e essentially phen o m en o lo g ical a p p ro a c h to problem s o f psychology an d o f sp iritu al g ro w th , -which characterizes the w hole o f B uddhism th ro u g h o u t its historical developm ent, is a g a in evident in a n d helpful in th e m eth o d ical e la b o ra tio n and p resen ta tio n o f all th a t is necessary to a n d g u aran tees the a tta in m e n t o f G estaltu n g (rdpupapatti ). T h e m ethod itself is term ed dhyana (Pali jhana) a n d m ay be said to b e a process o f concen tra te d m ed itatio n an d ensuing ab so rp tio n .2 T h is process starts from v arious objects a n d topics, all of th em subsum ed u n d e r th e generic term kammatthana, w hich m ay be rendered in E nglish as a sta rtin g p o in t for relev an t processes .3 H ow ever, th e selection o f a n o bject o r a topic from w hich to start, depends u p o n the tem p eram en t o f th e in d iv id u al. T his is im p o rta n t to n o te because only o n th is basis does Buddhist m ed itatio n becom e intelligible a n d p racticab le. M oreover, i t is only after a p rolonged study o f the a sp ira n t b y a com petent teach er th a t an object o r topic suited to th e a s p ira n ts ternpera1. Atthasalini III 326. Dhammasarigani gi6o. 2. dhyana is derived from the root upanidhyai to know directly and correctly in Abhidharmakosa V III 1. (Bhasya), 141c add Vyakhya; Atthasalini III 337, where the object of knowledge is divided into the object proper (drammana} and the intrinsic character (lakkhana) , Buddhaghosa in his Visuddhimagga IV 119 also gives the derivation from upanidhyai, but adds a popular etymology burning away obstacles (paccanikajhapana). Simi larly Atthasalini III 337. 3. Visuddhimagga III 59. In III 60, 104-105 forty such starting points are mentioned, while Atthasalini III 339 acknowledges only thirtyeight.

m e n t w ill b e g iv e n to h im . T h is h a s o n e o th e r c o n s e q u e n c e . M e d ita tio n in th e B u d d h is t sen se is n o t so m e s o rt o f p a n a c e a w h ic h a n y b o d y cart m a k e u se o f in d is c r im in a te ly a n d w ith o u t h arm . T h e r e a r e six b a s ic te m p e r a m e n ts , th r e e o f w h ic h e m p h a s iz e th e e m o tio n a l a s p e c t a n d th r e e th e in te lle c tu a l a s p e c t o f m a n s n a t u r e . T h e f o rm e r th r e e fin d t h e i r c h a r a c te r is tic e x p re ssio n in c u p id ity o r possessiv en ess ira g a ca rita ), a n tip a th y (dosacarita), a n d d e lu d e d n e s s o r a g e n e r a l s ta te o f b e w ild e rm e n t (m okacarita). T h e l a t t e r th r e e a r e c h a r a c te r iz e d b y c o n fid e n c e (saddhacarita), c r itic a l in te lle c tu a l a c u m e n (buddhicarita), a n d th e te n d e n c y to a t t e n d to a ll a n d e v e r y th in g (vita kka ca rita ), in p la in w o rd s : w o o lg a th e r in g .1 C o n fid e n c e , a s w e h a v e s e e n , 2 is p e llu c id ity o f m in d , b u t i t h a s a ls o a s tr o n g re lig io u s c o n n o ta tio n . H o w e v e r, w e m u s t g u a r d o u rse lv e s a g a in s t u n d e r s ta n d in g B u d d h is t re lig io s ity as s o m e th in g lik e a s e c ta r ia n s e n tim e n t w h ic h , in B u d d h is t th o u g h t, w o u ld j u s t fa ll u n d e r ig n o r a n c e a n d o p in io n a te d n e s s , h a v in g n o th in g to d o w ith o r in c o m m o n w ith k n o w le d g e a n d p e llu c id ity o f m in d . A ll th e se b a s ic te m p e r a m e n ts c a n e n te r v a r io u s c o m b in a tio n s 3 a n d th e r e is a lso a c e r ta in in tim a te r e la tio n b e tw e e n th e e m o tio n a l a n d i n te lle c tu a l a s p e c ts , w h ic h B u d d h a g h o s a h a s d e s c rib e d in th e fo llo w in g w ay4 : S in c e w ith a p e rs o n in w h o m p o ssessiv en ess p r e v a ils , c o n fid e n c e is s tr o n g w h e n h e tu r n s to th e g o o d a n d w h o le s o m e , a p e rs o n in w h o m c o n fid e n c e p re v a ils is s im ila r to a p e rs o n in w h o m possessiv en ess d o m in a te s b e c a u s e o f th e a ffin ity t h a t exists, b e tw e e n p o ssessiv en ess a n d c o n fid e n c e . E o r, o n th e u n w h o le s o m e s id e p o ssessiv en ess is a t ta c h m e n t a n d n o n -a v e rs io n , w h ile c o n fid e n c e is th is o n th e sid e o f th e g c o d a n d w h o le so m e , a n d j u s t as p o ssessiv en ess seeks f o r o b je c ts o f se n su o u s a n d s e n s u a l s a tis fa c tio n c o n fid e n c e s e a rc h e s fo r v irtu e s to b e f o u n d in e th ic s a n d so o n , a n d j u s t a s p o ssessiv en ess d o es n o t le t g o o f e v il, so c o n fid e n c e d o e s n o t a b a n d o n g o o d .

1. 2. 3.

Visuddhim agga II I pp-. S i sq. Vjsuddhimagga II I

74. 74.

 S ince w ith a p e rso n in w h o m a n tip a th y p re v a ils, discri m in a tio n is stro n g w h en h e tu rn s to th e good a n d w holesom e, a perso n in w h o m d isc rim in a tiv e in te lle c tu a l a c u m e n prevails is sim ila r to a p e rso n in w hom a n tip a th y d o m in a te s because o f th e affinity th a t exists b etw een a n tip a th y a n d in te lle c tu a l a c u m en . F o r, on th e side o f th e unw holesom e, a n tip a th y has n o th in g o f fondness o r desire fo r a n o b ject, w hile d iscrim in atio n o p e ra te s in th e sam e w ay on th e side o f th e w h o leso m e, a n d ju s t as a n tip a th y seeks fo r n o n -e x iste n t fau lts, so d isc rim in a tio n finds o u t th e ex istin g fau lts, a n d ju s t as a n tip a th y is m anifest in m isa n th ro p y , so is d isc rim in a tio n in a rejectio n o f m otiv atio n s. S ince in a p erso n in w h o m b e w ild e rm e n t a n d delusions p re v a il, as a ru le , d e stru c tiv e id eas cro p u p w h e n h e a tte m p ts to in s titu te th e goo d a n d w holesom e th a t h as n o t y e t becom e m an ifest, a p erso n w ho is a s c a tte rb ra in is sim ila r to a person in w hom b e w ild e rm e n t a n d delu sio n s w o rk b ecau se o f th e affinity th a t exists b etw een th e te n d en cy to a tte n d to a ll a n d every th in g a n d b ew ild e rm e n t. F o r ju s t as b e w ild e rm e n t is so m eth in g u nfirm o w in g to its confusedness so also th e te n d e n c y to a tte n d to aH a n d e v e ry th in g is so m eth in g u n firm o w in g to its g o in g h ere a n d th e re a n d ju s t as d elu sio n is so m eth in g sh ak y because o f its in a b ility to p e n e tra te to th e re a l, so also th e te n d e n c y to a tte n d to all a n d e v e ry th in g is so m eth in g u n s ta b le b ecau se o f the easiness w ith w h ich it p ro d u c e s id e a s .1 A lth o u g h in this d e sc rip tio n o f th e v a rio u s tem p eram en ts a c e rta in te n d en cy to d e n y th e v a lu e o f th e e m o tio n al aspects as a g a in st th e in te lle c tu a l ones is a p p a re n t, th e in tim a te con n e xion b e tw e e n relig io sity (saddhd ) a n d possessiveness ( raga) a c tu a lly raga is a term w h ich oscillates b etw een th e ideas we associate w ith love, p assion, desire, c u p id ity , lu st, possessiveness an d so on rev eals a v e ry im p o rta n t fe a tu re . R elig io sity is in tim a te ly co n n ected w ith a consciousness o f v a lu e , w ith a c lea r p e rc e p tio n o f m erits (hence saddha is p e llu c id ity o f m in d ), an d o p en s o u r eyes to a B eyond a n d M o re filled w ith holiness w hich a n d this is th e decisive p o in t only love a n d th e c a p a city to love is a b le to realize. B ut w h ere love is a b sen t n o th in g becom es possible. F o r absence o f love is the ru le o f cu p id ity
i . In III 87-96 follows a long discussion on how to ascertain the res pective temperaments.

a n d p o ssessiv en ess, a n d th is b y its v e ry n a tu r e e x c lu d e s a n y p e llu c id ity o f m in d .1 H o w e v e r, i t w ill b e r e a d ily a d m itte d t h a t i t is v e ry d iffic u lt to d e c id e w h e re lo v e e n d s a n d w h e re c u p id ity b e g in s , a n d th is d iffic u lty e n ta ils tw o e rr o r s w h ic h g o h a n d in h a n d : ( i) th e c o n fu s io n o f lo v e w ith c u p id ity a n d v ic e v e rs a , a n d ( ii) th e r e je c tio n o f e v e r y th in g t h a t h a s th e s lig h te st r e s e m b la n c e to th e e m o tio n o f lo v e in o r d e r to a d o p t a n a lm o s t in c u r a b le n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e to w a r d life. N o t o n ly h a s th is h a p p e n e d i n e a r lie r tim e s , i t still c o n tin u e s to h a p p e n . I t is, th e r e f o r e , m o r e t h a n p la u s ib le t h a t th e T a n t r i c e le m e n t in B u d d h is m , w h ic h g o es b a c k to a v e r y e a rly p e r io d o f B u d d h ism a n d w h ic h h a s b e e n a so re p u z z le to sc h o la rs, Avas a h e a lth y r e a c tio n a g a in s t th e n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e o f b e in g a f r a id o f lo v e, b e c a u s e th is fe a r in th e lo n g r u n w o u ld h a v e s te riliz e d a n d b lo c k e d m a n s s p ir itu a l g r o w th a n d d e v e lo p m e n t. N a r o p a q u i t e e x p lic itly s ta te s t h a t E v il s p rin g s fro m th e loss o f lo v e, b e c a u s e a ll c o m p a s s io n a te te n d e rn e s s h a s d is a p p e a r e d ,2 a n d S a r a h a a d v ise s us : P a i n t a ll th e th r e e lev els o f th e w o rld I n th e u n iq u e c o lo r o f G r e a t L o v e .3

.T
i. A s has been pointed out in Atthasalini I I I 54.6, unhealthy attitudes do not adm it o f saddha, which is a purely healthy function. a. S e k o d d e sa tik a , p . 66. T h e author further declares that karuno, compassion, sympathetic tenderness, has as its character the increase of love. T h e positive aspect o f love, as the unique means o f liberating beings from misery, has also been pointed out by Anangavajra in his Prajfiopayaviniscayasiddhi I 1 5 : , Because it makes beings cross the ocean o f all misery and all that stems from misery, Compassionate tenderness is called Love '. Love (raga) is the unique means and the single momefit in which the course o f the world is decided. T h e moment love is born, the sense o f self m ay be increased and possessiveness m ay assert itself whereby new fetters are forged, but the sense o f self m ay also completely disappear and in this disappearance o f all selfish and possessive thoughts freedom from all that narrows man and makes him unhappy and poor, is won. A s is stated in the Cittavisuddhiprakarana 35. O n e becomes tainted by love thoughts, one becomes free through lovin g . 3. Dohakosa 28. In verse 29 the author refers to the fact that in true love we are lifted out o f any dualism w hich we are accustomed to read into a ll and everything. H e says : T here is neither beginning nor m iddle nor end, There is neither Samsara nor N irvana; In this supreme great bliss There is neither an I nor a T h o u .

As a n a tu ra l consequence, th e T a n tric s a d v o c atin g love a n d p ra c tisin g love w ere, a n d still a re , con sid ered as people o f ap p a llin g w ickedness .1 S im ilarly th e c ritic a l in te lle c t v e ry often a p p e a rs as cool, b e cau se its c ritiq u e w h ic h lays b a re an y defect th a t m ay b e fo u n d in th e kno w ab le, n a tu ra lly destroys a n y a tta c h m e n t a n d w arm feeling w e m a y h av e for a given th in g . B ut to p o in t o u t defects is in itse lf n o th in g n eg ativ e. O n th e c o n trary , it is so m eth in g h ig h ly positive, for p h ilo so p h ical th in k in g , th e p u rsu it o f m ean in g s, begins w ith d isc rim in a tio n . O n ly if w e s ta rt from th e p rem ise th a t th ere is n o th in g b u t defects a n d th a t th e w o rld exists to a n n o y us, w hile a c tu a lly th ere is n o evidence th a t it is co n cern ed w ith us in e ith e r w ay o f pleasing o r disp leasin g us, d o w e allow th e in te lle c t to overstep itself a n d to succum b to th e u n d isc rim in a tin g ac tiv ity o f a n tip a th y . T h e d e n u n c ia tio n o f th e love o f reason o r o f w h a t w e call ra tio n a lism a n d in tellectu alism is b ased on a m isco n ception o f th e fu n ctio n o f d isc rim in a tio n a n d o n a n u n w a rra n te d lim itatio n o f th e k n o w a b le .2 In o th e r w o rd s, d isc rim in a tio n is u n d e r stood as im p ly in g o n ly discursiveness, w hile th ere a re m an y o th e r form s o f d isc rim in a tio n w h ich a re n o t discursive. W ith o u t d isc rim in a tio n m a n w o u ld cease to b e m a n a n d d iscrim in atio n is the king o f a ll th e fu n ctio n s o f m incj .3 I t is easy to u n d e rsta n d w h y th e te m p e ra m e n t o f a sc a tte r b ra in is re la te d to delu sio n a n d b e w ild erm en t. N e ith e r a deluded p erson n o r a sc a tte rb ra in w ill ever a tte m p t to p e n e tra te to th e n a tu re o f a p ro b le m , b u t w ill soon stop sh o rt in his in q u i
1. This Puritan prejudice against all that is connected with the Tantras is found everywhere, not only in India but also in the Western world. The ideal is obviously to produce and to recognize only a race that is physi cally and mentally impotent. However, against this ideal stands the irre futable fact that neither the Hindu orders nor the Buddhist orders admit an impotent person into their ranks. 2. As is well known, the philosopher Locke thought that there must be some imperceptible substratum to which thfvsensiblv perceptible charac ters of the thing belong and he believed this substratum to be unknowable. Similarly for Kant the thing in itself was unknowable. Following this trend of thought the Russian scholar T h . Stcherbatsky has read this assumption rnto the Buddhist texts which precisely assert the opposite. 3. Yasomitras Vyakhya ad Abhidharmakosa I 2; api tu dharmaPravicqyakdle firqjna caUlasydpi sarrasya kalafxaya rajdyaU.

rie s , b e c a u s e h e is c o n te n t to a c c e p t th in g s a t th e ir fa c e v a lu e . I n th e s tr ic tly B u d d h is t sen se o f th e w o r d , d e lu s io n is th e c o n v ic tio n o f o n e s o w n im p o r ta n c e . U n d e r su c h c ir c u m s ta n c e s t h e s t a r tin g p o in t fo r m e d ita tio n m u s t v a r y in d iv id u a lly . F o r , to g iv e a n e x a m p le , it w o u ld b e p o is o n to a p e rs o n a ffe c te d by c u p id ity to s t a r t w ith a n o b je c t o r a to p ic w h ic h w o u ld ro u se h is p a ssio n s a n d in te n s ify a t t a c h m e n t a n d a d d ic tio n to a th in g , b e c a u s e th is v e r y a t t a c h m e n t h a s a lr e a d y le d h im in to a n im p a s s e . F o r th is re a s o n th e o b je c ts a n d to p ic s to s t a r t w ith a r e a c c o r d in g to th e v a rio u s te m p e r a m e n ts as fo llo w s .1 * I n o r d e r to s e v e r th e tie s t h a t b in d a p e rs o n in w h o m c u p id ity is p r e d o m in a n t, to a n o b je c t w h ic h in m o s t cases is a liv in g p e rs o n o f e ith e r th e o p p o s ite o r th e sa m e sex, th e c o n te m p la t i o n o f th e v a rio u s sta g e s o f d e c a y in a c o rp s e is a v e ry effec tiv e m e a n s . T r a d i ti o n a ll y te n sta g e s h a v e b e e n la id d o w n a s to p ic s o f c o n te m p la tio n a n d m e d i t a t i o n .2 S in c e c u p id ity d o e s n o t o p e r a te s in g ly , b u t is in tim a te ly c o n n e c te d w ith d e lu s io n , (w h e re th e r e is n o d e lu s io n , i.e ., w h e re th e r e is k n o w le d g e , d is c r im in a tio n b o th d is c u rs iv e a n d n o n -d is c u rs iv e (praj'^a), c u p id ity a n d a n ti p a t h y a r e a b s e n t) , a n d sin c e d e lu s io n is a b o v e a il th e id e a o f self, a n o t h e r e ffe c tiv e m e a n s is th e a n a ly s is o f o n e s b o d y a s to its c o n s titu e n ts .3 H o w e v e r, i t h a s to b e o b s e rv e d t h a t in a ll th e s e e x e rc ise s th e a im is to s e v e r a t t a c h m e n t, n o t to c o n v e r t a t t a c h m e n t in fo its o p p o s ite , a n tip a th y . S in c e w ith o u t lo v e n o th in g is p o s sib le , it is e ss e n tia l t h a t a p e r s o n w h o s e te m p e r a m e n t is o n e o f a n tip a th y , h a t r e d , m a lic e , a n d ill-w ill, firs t o f a ll s h o u ld le a r n to lo v e . T o th is effec t th e p r a c tic e o f th e fo u r d iv in e b e h a v io r s ( brahmavihara) f a lso k n o w n as th e f o u r I m m e a s u r a b le s ( apram ana ) ,4 is o f u tm o s t im p o r1. V isuddhim agga I I I 121. 2. T echn ically they are known as the dasa aiubha. A detailed dis cussion o f each point and o f the means o f practising this kind o f contempla tion is given in Visuddhim agga V I 1-94. See also Atthasalini I I I 417-425. Abhidharm akosa V I 9. 3. Technically this is known as kayagatasati. Visuddhim agga V I I I 42-144.. 4. Visuddhim agga I X 1-124; Abhidharmakosa V I I I 29. A tth a salini II I 399-416. T h e y are called divine because o f their excellence and because those who possess them live like the Brahma-gods. A tth a salini II I 4 12 ; Abhidharmakosa I V 124 and V ya k h ya. T h e y are immea surable because their field o f operation is unlimited. Atthasalini III 4 15. Abhidharm akosa V I I I

ta n c e . T h e first d iv in e b e h a v io r , w ith o u t w h ic h a ll o th e rs a re im p o ssib le, is m aitri (P a li m etta ). T h e te rm m aitrl is e x p la in e d b y to love, to b e fo n d o f , p a rtic u la rly in th e sense o f b e in g ex p ressiv e o f th e s ta te o f feelin g o n e finds in a frie n d o r in the, b e h a v io r o f a frie n d .1 A lth o u g h it is p e rm issib le to say t h a t th is feelin g is lo v e, y e t it is d iffe re n t fro m love in so fa r as it c o n n o te s a feelin g w h ic h p ro c e e d s in a s e ttle d a n d re g u la te d m a n n e r . I t evokes th e g o o d a n d focuses in te re s t o n th e g o o d ; a n d so it m a n ife sts its e lf in a w a y t h a t a ll ill-w ill is re m o v ed . T h e b asis o f th is feelin g is to see th e p le a s a n t sid e o f beings. H o w e v e r, th is feelin g h a s also a n e g a tiv e a s p e c t w h ic h easily m a y o v e r tu r n th e p o sitiv e c h a r a c te r . W h ile its p o sitiv e c h a r a c te r is th e cessatio n o f a ll h o s tility 2 a n d , since B u d d h ism h as a th o ro u g h ly p o sitiv e v iew o f m a n a n d is c o n v in c e d th a t goo d is a lw ay s s tro n g e r th a n ev il, h o s tility is, so to say, o n ly th e r e m o te e n e m y o f m aitri a n d n e e d n o t b e fe a re d . B u t th e p ro x i m a te e n e m y o f m aitri is p a ssio n {raga) w h ic h le a d s to a tta c h m e n t a n d h e n c e in th e p ra c tic e o f m aitri th e u tm o s t a tte n tio n has to b e g iv e n to th e d a n g e r t h a t m aitri m a y n o t b e c o m e a p rey to p a ssio n .3 W h ile m aitri does n o t e x c lu d e love a n d affectio n in th e b e st sense o f th e w o rd s, th o u g h it does n o t a d m it o f p a ssio n , it is esse n tia lly b e n e v o le n c e, a n a t u r a l k in d lin ess a n d in te re st in o th e r s h a p p in e ss a n d w e ll-b e in g , w h ic h fin d s its e x p ressio n in th e d e sire : M a y a ll b e in g s b e h a p p y .4 I t is o n ly w h e n th e re is b e n e v o le n c e a n d in te re s t in o th e rs h a p p in e ss th a t th e m o re a c tiv e c o m p a ssio n (koruna ) c a n o p e ra te ,5 a lth o u g h m o re a c tiv e does n o t m e a n t h a t b en e v o len ce is a m e re p a ssiv e se n tim e n t. C o m p a ssio n m a k es th e h e a rt of g o o d p e o p le b e a t m o re q u ic k ly w h e n th e y see th e m isery a n d p lig h t o f o th e r felio w -b ein g s, a n d so it a tte m p ts to d ig o u t th e ro o ts o f m ise ry t h a t it m a y b e d e s tro y e d fo rev er. I n this w ay co m p a ssio n is like a stre a m th a t tu rn s to all w h o a re a fflic te d

1. etta. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Atthasalini II I 401 :.......mitte va bhava, mittassa vd esd pavattali ti ibid. I l l 402. See also Abhidharmakosa V I I I 29 and Vyakhya Atthasalini III 404. Visuddhimagga I X 9. Bhasya ad Abhidharmakosa V II I 30 Atthasalini III 414.

a n d lik e r a i n p o u r s r e l i e f o n t h e m .1 C o m p a s s io n is t h e r e f o r e a s t e a d y c u r r e n t w h i c h c a r r ie s a l l m is e r y a w a y w i t h it. I t is a f e e l i n g w h ic h is u n a b l e to b e a r t h e m is e r y o f o th e r s a n d it m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f in s u c h a w a y t h a t n o a n n o y a n c e c a n b e f a ll p e o p le . T h u s th e b a s is o n w h i c h c o m p a s s io n o p e r a t e s f o r th e w e l l - b e i n g o f s e n t i e n t b e in g s is a n a w a r e n e s s o f th e h e lp le s s n e s s a n d d e s o la te n e s s o f a ll th o s e w h o a r e a f f l i c t e d b y m is e r y .2 B u t c o m p a s s io n h a s a ls o its n e g a t i v e s id e . W h ile o n t h e p o s itiv e s id e t h r o u g h c o m p a s s io n a l l t h a t a n n o y s .us is r e m o v e d , o n th e n e g a t i v e s id e i t is t h e f u ti l e c r y i n g a n d w h i m p e r i n g o v e r th e m i s e r y o f t h e w o r l d .3 T h e r e f o r e t h e v e r y f a c t t h a t t h e m is e r y a n d fru s tra tio n w e o b se rv e e v e ry w h e re m ak es us sad a n d d e p r e s s e d , is th e p ro x im a te e n e m y o f c o m p a s s io n .4 S o d e p r e s s i o n is s o m e t h i n g w e h a v e to g u a r d o u r s e lv e s a g a in s t a n d i n s p it e o f th e s a d d e n i n g t h i n g s w e se e w e s h o u ld s tr iv e to h a v e a l l b e in g s l i b e r a t e d f r o m m i s e r y .6 J u s t a s b e n e v o le n c e a n d c o m p a s s io n a d v a n c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n o th e r s a n d d e c r e a s e t h e s e n s e o f s e lf - im p o r ta n c e w h ic h is i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m a d e b a s e m e n t o f o t h e r s , so a ls o , a n d m a y b e i n a s till s tr o n g e r m a n n e r , j o y (m u d ita ) h e lp s to o v e r c o m e i n h i b i t i o n s . A s c h e e r f u ln e s s i t m a n if e s ts i t s e l f i n o v e r c o m in g u n w i l li n g n e s s 6 a n d h a s a s its b a s is t h e a w a r e n e s s o f t h e h a p p y a n d a u s p ic io u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e s e n t i e n t b e in g s 7 w h ic h h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t a b o u t t h r o u g h b e n e v o le n c e w h ic h is w e llw i s h i n g a n d th r o u g h c o m p a s s io n w h ic h r e m o v e s m is e r y .8 B u t j o y h a s its p itf a lls , to o . W h i l e o n th e p o s itiv e s id e j o y o v e r c o m e s a n d n e e d n o t f e a r u n w illin g n e s s , o n th e n e g a t i v e s id e i t is m e r e j o l l i t y 9 w h ic h is u n a w a r e o f, o r f o rg e ts th e c o n d itio n s th r o u g h w h ic h tru e jo y c a n c o m e a b o u t. T h e re fo re a h a p p y
1. A tth asalin i I I I 401 : ....... kin ati va paradukkham him sati vinaseti ti karuria. kiriya ti va dukkhitesu karunavasena pasariyati ti karuna. 2 . ib id . I l l 402. A b h id h arm akosa V I I I 29 and V y a k h y a . 3 . A tth asalin i I I I 402. 4 . ib id . I l l 405. 5 . A bhidharm akosa V I I I 30 an d B h a sy a. 6. A tth asalin i I I I 402. A b hid harm akosa V I I I 29 an d V y a k h y a . 7 . A tth asalin i I I I 402. 8 . ib id . 4 14 . 9. ib id . 402 : pakasasambhava.

m ood in b eholding the w ealth w e have a t hom e is the proxim ate enem y to jo y .1 O u t o f this jo y then crystallizes 2 the highest divine b eh av io u r, th e im p a rtia l outlook (upekkha, Skt. upeksa) w hich realizes th a t one being is b y n a tu re the sam e as all others, an d so its im p a rtia lity is d u e to th e circum stance th a t it cannot b e d istu rb ed by eith er sym pathies for o r an tip a th ie s against som e one. T h e basis o f its o p eratio n is th e realizatio n o f the fact th a t everybody reap s the results o f his o r h e r actions an d views th e w hole w o rld from this sta n d p o in t .3 I t is u n fo rtu n a te th a t such im p a rtia l behavior can b e described only in negative term s w hich are a p t to m islead th e casual stu d en t. N ot to be sw ayed b y a n tip ath ies o r sym pathies is u n d o u b ted ly , a positive a n d h ighly v alu ab le asset. To this m a n y w ill agree. Y et a t the sam e tim e the fact th a t this im p ar tia lity sees things a n d individuals in a w ay w hich m akes it perfectly clear th a t n o th in g can be d one ,4 seems to be in no w ay com forting. Y et this view is utm ost realism and m o st sober reasonableness. N obody ca n do a n o th e rs task. A ll th a t can be done is to teach a person how to stan d on his own feet. O nce this has been done, w hatever could be done h as b een accom plished .T h ere is only th e d an g er th a t in our im m a tu re m inds we m ay take im p a rtia lity to m ean indifference w hich is the h a b itu a l a ttitu d e o f h im whose m axim is I couldnt care less. Indifference is ignorance, because it does not dis crim in ate betw een good a n d b a d . But im p a rtia lity is born from know ledge a n d u n d erstan d in g . T herefore, n ot to strive for know ledge b u t to ad o p t a b ehavior rooted in ignorance a n d m anifesting itself in indifference is the p ro x im ate enem y to im p a rtia lity , against w hich we have to g u a rd ourselves .5 Since these four types o f d ivine b eh av io r have as th e ir objects sentient beings, extending from a single individual to th e to ta lity o f beings in the w orlds, a n d since it is often trem end1. Atthasalini 406. m 2. The outflow of the three preceding divine types of behavior is the divine behavior of impartiality, Atthasalini III 410. Visuddhimagga I X 104. 3. Atthasalini III 402. 4. ibid. I l l 414: katabbabhava. 5. ibid. I l l 407.

o u s ly d iffic u lt, i f n o t im p o ssib le in th e first m o m e n t, fo r a p e rs o n w h o is r u le d b y ill-w ill; h a tr e d , a n d a n tip a th y , in b rief, b y a ll th a t a lie n a te s h im fro m h is s u rro u n d in g s , to e sta b lish a frie n d ly r e la tio n w ith o th e r in d iv id u a ls , a n a lte r n a tiv e to th e p r a c tic e a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e se f o u r ty p e s o f d iv in e b e h a v io r a r e th e c o lo r to ta litie s ( varnakrtsnayatana, P a li vannakasina). I s h a ll d iscuss th e v a rio u s to ta litie s in th e n e x t se c tio n . H e r e I o n ly w a n t to e m p h a s iz e t h a t in th e e n tir e p ro cess c o n n e c te d -with th e c o lo r to ta litie s n o re fe re n c e to c o m m o n se n se e x te rn a l o b je c ts is r e q u ir e d . E s s e n tia l is th e c a p a c ity to g r a s p th e im m e d ia te ly a p p r e h e n d e d a e s th e tic f a c to r in a ll its p u r ity a n d it a lo n e .1 A b o v e it h a s b e e n r e m a rk e d t h a t th e re exists a c e rta in a ffin ity b e tw e e n th e in te lle c t (buddhi) a n d th e e m o tio n o f a n ti p a th y . Y e t fo r a p e rso n in w h o m th e in te lle c t is o f d ecisiv e im p o r ta n c e , th e a p p r o a c h to m e d ita tio n is q u ite d iffe re n t. T h e in te lle c t m a y b e sa id to b e a f u n c tio n w h ic h e n a b le s -us to u n d e r s ta n d d e s c rip tiv e p h ra s e s w ith o u t k n o w in g w h e th e r th e r e is a n y th in g t h a t is d e s c rib e d b y th e m , a n d to use su ch p h ra s e s s ig n ific a n tly e v e n i f w e b e lie v e t h a t th e re is n o th in g to w h ic h th e se p h ra s e s a p p ly o r e v e n b e fo re w e a r e a c q u a in te d with th e p e rs o n o r th in g w h ic h is d e s c rib e d b y th e m . I n te lle c tu a l k n o w le d g e is th u s c o n c e rn e d w ith fa c ts w h ic h a r e e x p ressed i n tr u e p ro p o sitio n s a n d w ith d e s c rip tio n s .2 T h is c o n s titu te s m o s t o f o u r k n o w le d g e u se d in o r d in a r y life. Q u ite a d iffe re n t k in d o f k n o w le d g e w e h a v e w h e n w e a re a c q u a in te d w ith a p e rs o n o r a th in g . A c q u a in ta n c e is c o n si d e r e d to b e a n u n a n a ly s a b le r e la tio n in w h ic h a k n o w e r sta n d s to s o m e th in g , a n d w e a r e a c q u a in te d w ith th a t o f w h ic h w e a r e d ir e c tly a w a re . A n d t h a t is v e ry little in o r d in a r y life. A lth o u g h k n o w le d g e b y a c q u a in ta n c e d o es n o t a d m it o f a n y degrees o f k n o w le d g e as d o es k n o w le d g e b y d e s c rip tio n w ith its d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n d e te r m in a te a n d in d e te r m in a te k n o w le d g e ,3 a n d a lth o u g h k n o w le d g e b y a c q u a in ta n c e is o f p r i m a r y im p o r ta n c e in B u d d h is m , y e t th e fo llo w in g d is tin c tio n h a s to b e ta k e n in to a c c o u n t. O r d in a r ily I a m a c q u a in te d
1. 2. 3. Visuddhimagga V 12-20. L . Susan Stebbing, A Modern Introduction to Logic, p. 22. ibid., p . 24.

w ith a p erso n to w h o m I h a v e b e e n in tro d u c e d o r w ith a th in g o f w h ic h I a m d ire c tly a w a re . Y e t th is a c q u a in ta n c e m a y fail to m e a n a n y th in g to m e. I m a y b e in tro d u c e d to M r. X a n d I a m e n title d th e n to say th a t I a m a c q u a in te d w ith M r. X , b u t th e re th e m a tte r ends. T h is ty p e o f k n o w led g e by a c q u a in ta n c e is o f v e ry little a v a il in m e d ita tio n a n d in g a in in g access to th e w o rld o f G e sta lte n . W h a t is necessary is a n e m o tio n ally m o v in g a c q u a in ta n c e w h ich does n o t o p e ra te on th e p rem ise th a t th e k n o w e r a n d th e k n o w n a re m u tu a lly exclusive. F o r th is ty p e o f k n o w led g e w h ich a lo n e is effective I suggest th e te rm ^kn ow l edge b y e x p e rie n c e . I n o rd e r to release th e in te lle c t from its h a b it o f m o v in g in d e sc rip tio n s a n d to m a k e it d ire c tly a w a re o f th a t w h ic h m a tte r s in in d iv id u a l d e v e lo p m e n t a n d b y w h ich h u m a n life becom es ric h e r, it seem s th a t o n ly shock th e ra p y is o f a n y av ail. T h e re fo re to th e in te lle c tu a l ty p e th e c o n te m p la tio n o f d e a th is sug g ested as h ig h ly su ita b le . B u d d h a g h o sa m akes it q u ite c le a r th a t th is c o n te m p la tio n m u s t n o t m ove in d escrip tio n s, a n d th a t it is fu tile to th in k a b o u t d e a th in a w ay in w h ic h d e a th w o u ld b e th e su b je c t o f a p ro p o sitio n . H is w ords a re : 1 W h e n o n e p ro ceed s in a n im p ro p e r w a y it h a p p e n s th a t w e feel so rry w h e n w e th in k a b o u t th e d e a th o f a beloved p e rso n , as a m o th e r feels so rry w h e n she th in k s a b o u t the d e a th o f h e r n ew ly b o rn c h il d ; o r w e feel e la te d w h e n w e th in k a b o u t th e d e a th o f a p e rso n w e d o n o t love, as do rev en g e fu l persons w h e n th e y th in k a b o u t th e d e a th o f th e ir e n e m ie s; o r w e a re n o t m o v ed in th e le a st w h e n w e th in k a b o u t th e d e a th o f p ersons in w h o m w e a re n o t in te re ste d , ju s t as th e official b u rn e r o f corpses is n o t m o v ed a t all w h e n h e sees a d e a d b o d y ; o r we a r e d riv e n in to p a n ic w h e n w e th in k a b o u t o u r o w n d e a th , as is a tim id p e rso n w h e n h e sees th e m u r d e r e r lift h is sw ord. I n a ll these cases th e re is n o in sp e c tio n (sa ti ), by w h ic h w e try to le a rn m o re a b o u t a n o b je c t, th e re is n o th in g th a t m o v es us to th e co re (samvega ), a n d th e re is no know ledge b y ex p e rie n c e ( nana ). T h e re fo re w e m u s t m a k e use o f in sp ec tio n , m u s t allo w o urselves to be m o v e d to o u r in n e rm o st b eing a n d m u s t g a in k n o w led g e by e x p e rie n c e w h e n w e see persons w h o

h a v e j u s t b e e n k ille d a n d w h e n w e o b s e rv e d th e d e a th o f th o se w h o se p ro s p e rity w e h a v e w itn e sse d b e fo re .1 B u d d h a g h o s a m e n tio n s th re e o th e r p ra c tic e s as s u ita b le fo r th e in te lle c tu a l te m p e ra m e n t. T h e i r c o n n e x io n w ith th e in te lle c tu a l a tt i t u d e is o b v io u s w h e n w e b e a r in m in d t h a t th e in te lle c t, in B u d d h is t c o n c e p tio n , p a r ta k e s o f th e n a tu r e o f th e h ig h e s t a n d m o s t v a lu a b le f u n c tio n in m a n , v iz ., d is c rim in a tio n ( p ra jn a ), b u t w ith th is d iffe re n c e t h a t its w a y o f fu n c tio n in g is tra m m e le d b y th e v eil o f b e w ild e rm e n t d e lu sio n (moha), a n d t h a t b e w ild e rm e n t d e lu s io n asso c ia tes w ith th e o th e r e m o tiv e b ases su c h as c u p id ity (raga) a n d a n tip a th y (dvesa ). As a re m e d y a g a in s t th e c o m b in e d o p e r a tio n o f b e w ild e rm e n td e lu s io n a n d th e e m o tiv e b ases, d isg u st o f fo o d ( dhare p a iikk u la sa n n a ) 2 is s u p p o se d to b e e ffectiv e, b e c a u se th e a n a ly sis o f fo o d a n d th e d ig e stiv e p ro c e ss to g e th e r w ith th e c o n s id e ra tio n o f th e effects o f fo o d o n h e a lth a n d d ise a se is a m e a n s to reld ase m a n fro m th e ties th a t k e e p h im to g lu tto n y a n d o th e r ty p e s o f in te m p e r a n c e w h ic h a ll h a v e th e ir ro o ts in c u p id ity . As B u d d h a g h o s a in fo rm s us, u s u a lly w e e a t b e in g fo n d o f fo o d , b e in g g re e d y fo r it, b e in g r a p a c io u s fo r it, a n d b e in g b lin d e d b y th e d e s ire fo r i t .3 A g o o d illu s tr a tio n o f su c h a ty p e o f m a n is S c h o p e n h a u e r w h o c o m b in e d in te lle c tu a lis m w ith m is a n th r o p y a n d th e h a b it o f d in in g w e ll. A n o th e r p r a c tic e w h ic h in v o lv es as m u c h th e in te lle c t as th e e m o tio n s is th e c o n te m p la tio n o f th e m a n n e r in w h ic h a ll th a t is d iv id e d in to th e c o n d itio n e d a n d u n c o n d itio n e d , loses its a ffe c tiv e h o ld o v e r m a n ( upasam a ).4 T h is c e ssa tio n o f a ffe c tiv e ly to n e d a c tio n a n d r e a c tio n (viraga) is th e h ig h e s t v a lu e , N ir v a n a . I t is in te r e s tin g to n o te in th is c o n n e x io n th a t,, fro m a p h ilo s o p h ic a l p o in t o f view , B u d d h a g h o s a sh a re s th e view s o f th e V a ib h a s ik a s w h o c o n s id e re d N irv a n a to b e a n e n tity in its e lf a n d o p p o se d th e v iew o f th e S a u tr a n tik a s for w h o m N ir v a n a w as m e re n e g a tio n (a b s e n c e o f raga). B u d d h a g h o s a s w o rd s a r e : C e s sa tio n o f d e s ire (viraga) is n o t m e re
1. In V I I I 8 sq. Buddhaghosa mentions other topics related to death. But here too the immediacy o f experience and the vividness o f the im age is all important.
2. V isu d d h im a g g a X I 4-26.

3. 4.

Visuddhimagga X I 22. Visuddhimagga V I I I 245-351.

a b se n c e o f r a g a (na ragabhavamatta ) , b u t th e te rm s so b e rin g fro m in to x ic a tio n , N ir v a n a a r e n a m e s w h ic h th e u n c o n d i tio n e d receiv es .1 H o w e v e r, it m a y b e r e m a rk e d th a t th e view o f th e V a ib h a s ik a s is as u n te n a b le as th e view o f th e S a u tra n tik a s . F o r it is in n o w ay n e cessary to assu m e th a t a c e rta in e x p e rie n c e m u st h a v e a n o n to lo g ic a l c o rre la te , w h e th e r th is b e p o sitiv e as it is in th e view o f th e V a ib h a s ik a s, o r n e g a tiv e as in th e view o f th e S a u tra n tik a s . S u c h a n a ssu m p tio n is likely to d e tr a c t m a n fro m th e im m e d ia c y o f e x p erien ce a n d in v o lv e h im in in te lle c tu a l d e sc rip tio n s w h ic h , as m u st b e in siste d u p o n , a re n o t c o n d u c iv e to m e d ita tio n in th e B u d d h ist sense o f th e w o rd . F o r this re a so n b o th th e V a ib h a sik a s a n d S a u tra n tik a s h a v e b e e n severely c ritic iz e d b y th e M a d h y a m ik a s .2 M o re o v e r, th e w o rd in g o f th e p h ra s e in w h ic h this te r m c e ssatio n o f affectiv ely to n e d a c tio n a n d r e a c tio n {virago) o c c u rs, c e rta in ly s u p p o rts th e M a d h y a m ik a c ritic ism .3 As th e la st a lte rn a tiv e fo r th e in te lle c tu a l te m p e ra m e n t, B u d d h a g h o sa discusses th e an a ly sis o f o u r in d iv id u a l ex istence o n th e basis o f its c o n s titu tiv e e le m e n ts {catudhatuvavatthana).* T h e essen tial fe a tu re o f th is a n a ly sis is th e r e a liz a tio n th a t n o w h e re is th e a ssu m p tio n o f a self, ego, o r c re a to r n e ce ssita te d . T h e w h o le o f o u r ex isten ce c a n b e u n d e rsto o d as th e in te rp la y o f fu n c tio n a l d e p e n d e n c e . W h ile B u d d h a g h o sa c o n n e c ts this a n a ly sis w h ich h a s
1 . V isu ddhim agga V I I I 24.7 : tattha virago ti na rdgabhavamattam eva, dtha kho ya d idam madanimmadano.,.nibbdnam ti yo so madanimaddano ti adint ndmdni labhati. 2. Thus, for instance, Saraha declares in his Dohakosa-upadesaglti (mi. zad. pai. gter. mdzod. man. nag.gi.glul, bs Tan . gyur, rgyud, vol. zh i, fol. 29a : Those who assume existence, I call simiiar to cattle; Those who assume non-existence are still more stupid. A ll who make use of the similes of kindling and extinguishing a lamp Stay in the Mahamudra which by nature is indivisible. Similarly Anangavajra says in his Prajnopayaviniscayasiddhi I 9 : It is better to assume existence than non-existence; A burning lam p m ay go out, b u t where does a dead flam e go ?

See also Candrakirtis Prasannapada, p. 525. 3. viraga applies to the conditioned as well as to the unconditioned (idhamma sankhatd vd asankhatd id virago tesam dhammanam, A nguttaran ikaya I I 34 -)'
4. V isu ddhim agga XI 2 7 -1 1 7 .

fo u n d its p r o f o u n d e s t f o r m u l a t i o n in t h e P r a t i t y a s a m u t p a d a , t h e L a w o f i n t e r d e p e n d e n t o r i g i n a t i o n , w ith t h e i n t e lle c tu a l ty p e o f m a n / D v a g s .p o .lh a .r je . c o n s id e r s th is a n a ly s is p a r t i c u l a r l y s u ite d to th e ty p e o f m a n w h o is r u le d b y b e w ild e r m e n td e lu s io n (m o h a ).1 B e w ild e r m e n t- d e lu s io n o p e r a te s i n th e s u b je c tiv e d is p o s itio n (m anas) a n d , b eca-u se o f t h e u n i t y o f m in d , e n g e n d e r s t h e i d e a o f a n A t m a n o r P u r e E g o .2 T h e a n a ly s is o f o u r e x is te n c e o n t h e b a s is o f its c o n s titu tiv e e le m e n ts e ffe c tiv e ly d e s tr o y s th is b e l i e f w h ic h a ls o in m o d e r n E u r o p e a n p h ilo s o p h y h a s b e c o m e v e r y d i s r e p u t a b l e .3 B o th D v a g s .p o .lh a .r je a n d B u d d h a g h o s a a g r e e i n th is r e s p e c t t h a t b r e a t h c o n tr o l 4 is a s u i t a b l e p r a c t i c e fo r a p e r s o n w h o s e t e m p e r a m e n t is s u c h t h a t h e a t t e n d s to a ll a n d e v e r y th in g w i t h o u t e v e r f o llo w in g o n e lin e o f t h o u g h t to its e n d .5 F i n a l l y w e h a v e to m e n t io n th e r e lig io u s t e m p e r a m e n t w h ic h B u d d h a g h o s a a s s e rts to h a v e s o m e r e s e m b la n c e to th e p o sse ssiv e te m p e r a m e n t . I t is t r u e , a p e r s o n o f th is te m p e r a m e n t h a s b y n a t u r e a c e r t a i n f e r v o r w h ic h v e r y o f te n d is p la y s a m a r k e d s im ilitu d e to th e d e s ir e to p o ssess. I n th e is tic sy ste m s th is f e r v o r fin d s its e x p re s s io n i n t h e lo v e f o r G o d . B u d d h is m , h o w e v e r , is a th o r o u g h ly a th e is tic d o c tr i n e . T h e h o s t o f g o d s w h ic h a p p e a r s o n th e s ta g e o f life a r e e th i c a lly in f e r io r t o m a n , s u p e r io r o n ly in t h e i r p o w e r a n d d u r a t i o n o f life . I n m a n y c a se s th e s e g o d s a r e s y m b o ls w h ic h h a v e m a n y s ig n ific a n t f u n c tio n s a n d th r o u g h w h ic h w e a r e e n a b l e d to see m e a n i n g . A th e is m , to b e s u r e , is in n o w a y o p p o s e d to tr u e r e lig io s ity . I t is o n ly d o g m a tis m w ith its a r tif ic ia l r e s tr ic tio n s a n d its t h o r o u g h g o in g d i s o r i e n ta t i o n t h a t p r e v e n ts a n y tr u e re lig io u s fe e lin g f r o m e x p re s s in g i t s e l f a n d in th is v io la tio n o f a liv in g p ro c e s s e n d a n g e r s m e n t a l h e a l t h . H o w e v e r , o n e c a n h a r d l y r e f r a in fr o m r e m a r k in g t h a t
1. D a m . chos. y id . bzhin. gyi. nor. bu. thar. pa.rin. po. chei. rgyan. zhes b y a . b a theg. pa. chen. poi. lain. rim . gyi. bshad. pa, fol. 88b sg. See on this w ork m y D vags. po. lh a. rje s O rnam ent o f Liberation in J A O S

1 9 5 5 . PP- 9
2. 3. 4. Bhasya. 5.

s9 ... . . T rim sika 6 and V r tti, p . 23. V ijnaptim atratasiddhi, p . 255. G . D . Broad, T h e M in d and its Place in N ature, p. 214. V isuddhim agga V I H 145-244. Abhidharm akosa V I 12 and

D vags. p o . lha. rje. loc. cit. foil. 88b; 91 b.

B u d d h ag h o sa has g re a tly u n d e rra te d religious tem p e ra m en t. As p a rtic u la rly suited- to this te m p e ra m e n t h e advocates the co n te m p la tio n o f T h e B u d d h a, in the first in sta n ce .1 I t is c erta in ly a n asset o f religious life a n d essentially th e outcom e o f th e B uddhist conception o f religiosity (sraddha) 2 as pellu cid ity o f m in d (prasada) th a t no defiling elem ent o f sin or the id ea o f bein g p e rm a n e n tly in d e b t because o f som eones sacrifice is p resen t. B ut a lth o u g h th e c o n te m p la tio n o f th e B uddha as th e m a n w ho w on e n lig h ten m en t a n d sub sequently was ab le to show th e w ay to it as w alk ab le to him w ho is read y to go, e m p h a tic a lly refers to the m e a n in g o f en lig h ten m en t, B u ddha gh o sa conceives it as m oving in m ere d escriptions. H ence this c o n te m p la tio n can b rin g a m a n n e a r a m e d ita tiv e m ood, b u t n o t in to a sta te o f m e d ita tiv e a b so rp tio n .3 A n o th e r conse q u e n c e o f this u n d e re stim a tio n o f th e religious tem p eram en t is th a t it becom es can alized in to a n d rem ain s fixed w ith conven tio n a lly form al elem ents instead o f allow ing a sobering expres siveness. M a h a y a n a B uddhism h as m a d e a b e tte r estim ate o f th e relig io u s tem p eram en t, w hich m a n y w riters on B uddhism m is took for a n in tro d u c tio n o f som e theistic o r p a n th e istic elem ent. T h e fact, how ever, is th a t no p h ase o f B uddhism ever h a d th eistic o r p an th eistic 4 tendencies a n d th a t these w riters, fa ilin g to g rasp the essentials o f B uddhism , conceived the g ra m m a tic a l g en d er o f th e nouns used in th e re p rese n tatio n o f th e ineffably vivid experience as a m etap h y sical assertion w ith a n o n to lo g ic a l ad m ix tu re. T h e various p ractices w hich have, been discussed in th e ir re la tio n to in d iv id u a l tem p eram en ts, are essentially a p re p a ra to ry stage to m e d ita tio n . O n ly som e o f th em a d m it o f being
1. Visuddhimagga V II 2-67. Other topics are the Dharma (VII 8-83), the Sangha (VII 89-100), ethics (VII 101-106), liberality (VII 107-114), and popular deities (VII 115-118). This latter topic is essentially -a comparison of oneself with others as regards ones ethical behavior. 2. See above, pp. 59 sg. 3. Visuddhimagga V II 66; III 106. 4. The term pantheistic is used very loosely in works dealing with Mahayana Buddhism, but certainly not in its proper meaning. What this term actually means has been pointed out by F. S. G. Northrop. The Meeting of East and West, p. 401.

ta k e n a s a G e s t a l t a n d t h e r e f o r e c a n b e a c o n t e n t o f m e d ita tio n , p r o p e r w i t h its e n s u in g a b s o r p t i o n .1 The T o ta litie s (k rtsn a y a ta n a ) A nd M e d ita tio n

T o t a l i t y ( krtsnayatana, P a l i K a s in a ) is t h e n a m e g iv e n to a p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e n t a n d e x p e r ie n c e i n m e d i t a t i o n . P r o p e r l y s p e a k in g , i t b e lo n g s to t h e f in a l o r f o u r th s ta g e o f th e m e d i t a t i v e p r o c e s s ,2 b u t its n a m e e x te n d s a ls o to t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t f r o m w h ic h a p a r t i c u l a r e x p e r ie n c e o f w h o le n e s s c a n b e g a i n e d . A ll te x ts , w ith s l ig h t v a r i a t i o n s in te r m s , a g r e e o n th e w h o le n e s s o f th e e x p e r i e n c e d c o n t e n t a n d th e e x p e r ie n c e its e lf . V a s u b a n d h u e x p la in s th is t e r m b y e x c lu s iv e a n d t o t a l p e r v a s iv e n e s s ;3 a n d A s a n g a a d d s t h a t t h e d e e p a b s o r p tio n a n d t h e a n a l y t i c a l a p p r e c i a t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e c o n te n t t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s ta te s o f m i n d in v o lv e d in th is e x p e r ie n c e o f w h o le n e s s a r e th e t o t a l i t y .4 T h e r e a r e te n s u c h to ta litie s , e ig h t o f w h i c h b e lo n g to t h e w o r ld o f G e s t a l t e n ,5 a n d twoo f w h ic h g o b e y o n d th is r e a l m .6 T h e firs t e ig h t d e r iv e t h e i r n a m e s f r o m f o u r e le m e n ts : e a r t h , w a t e r , f ir e , w i n d , alL o f t h e m h a v i n g s y m b o lic s ig n if ic a n c e , a n d fr o m f o u r c o lo r s r b lu e - g r e e n , y e llo w , r e d , w h i t e .7 I n o r d e r to g a i n a c c e s s to t h e w o r ld o f G e s ta lte n o n e o r th e o t h e r o f th e s e e i g h t t o t a l i t i e s c a n b e s e le c te d fo r m e d i t a tio n . A s h a s b e e n p o in t e d o u t , th is s e le c tio n is d o n e b y th e t e a c h e r o f m e d i t a t i o n , w h o in s tr u c t s th e d is c ip le h o w to p r o c e e d w i t h h is e x e rc is e s a n d w h o h a s m a d e th e s e le c tio n a c c o r d in g to th e t e m p e r a m e n t o f t h e d is c ip le .8 S in c e w ith s lig h t v a r i a tio n s d u e to t h e s p e c ific n a t u r e o f e a c h t o t a l i t y th e m e t h o d o f p r e p a r a t i o n a n d th e b e g i n n i n g o f m e d i t a t i o n r e m a in s th e s a m e ,
1. 2. 3. the sense III See V isu d dh im agga I I I 106-107. Abhidharm akosa V I I I 36. ibid. Abhidharm asam uccaya, p . 96. Buddhaghosa declares in. o f en tirety (sakalatthena ) V isu d dh im agga I V 1 19 . Atthasalini: . A b h id h a r m a s a m u c c a y a , p . 9 6 . A bhidharm akosa V I I I 36. ibid. T h e tw o rem aining totalities belonging to the A ru pya realm bear names and w ill be m entioned later on. V isu d dh im agga I V 24.

338.

4. 5. 6. 7. different 8.

a description having as its center th e e a rth to ta lity (prthivikrtsnajatan a , P ali pathavikasina ) w ill suffice. O u t o f clay w hich m ust n o t b e strong colored, a circle is form ed. T h is circle m ust have a very sm ooth surface and a definite outline to separate it from its surroundings. I t is then pla ce d a t such a distance from th e observer th a t though it is p la in ly visible to h ipi th e im perfections o f th e m a te ria l do not a p p e a r. Both th e sm oothness o f th e surface a n d th e even color o f the circle serve as a help to m in im ize the idea o f a three dim ensional ex ternal object as p o stu lated by commonsense a n d to facilitate the tran sitio n from th e percep tion o f the object to p u re sensation. Also th e sh arp o u tlin e o f the circle is m eant to avoid a n y ch ance th a t the m ed itativ e process rem ains a h azy affair. T his purpose underlies all o th e r to talities as well. T h u s, for instance, a color to ta lity is p rep ared o u t o f flowers hav in g a color suitab le to o n es liking in such a w ay th a t the petals, pistals a n d stam ens a n d o th e r details o f th e flowers d o n o t a p p e a r p ro m in e n tly .1 A n ad d itio n al help in keeping atte n tio n on the object o f m ed itatio n is the re p etitio n o f some nam e o r e p ith e t o f this to ta lity . I n th e case o f the e arth to ta lity it is b road one, big one, fertile one, g ro u n d , m ine o f w ealth , co n tain er o f w e a lth . A gain it has to be observed th at o nly one such e p ith et o u t o f a larg e n u m b er o f synonym s is used, because th e use o f several nam es a t th e sam e tim e w ould only lead to discursiveness. In this process we easily recognize the m a n tra w hich plays such a n im p o rta n t role in M ah ay an a B uddhism . T h e etym ology o f this w o rd , as given in a u th o rita tive texts, brings o u t th e id ea of keeping a tte n tio n steadily on th e object a n d o f n o t allow ing m in d to becom e dissipated in discursiveness; for m a n tra is called so because it protects m in d .2 A fter all these p rep aratio n s h av e been concluded the first stage is to acq u ire by p ractice a n d re ta in the pow er to call u p an im age w hich resem bles th a t w hich w e have seen rep eated ly in the past. H ow ever, we m ust n ot confuse this capacity w ith m em ory, though it m a y be a condition for a genuine m em ory situation, because no ju d g m e n t a t a llisin v o lv 1. 2. Visuddhimagga V 13. Sekoddesatika, p. 33.

e d . T h e r e f o r e a ls o , i n o r d e r t o a v o i d t h e d a n g e r o f a r r i v i n g a t j u d g m e n t s , i t is in s is te d u p o n t h a t n e i t h e r t h e c o l o r n o r o t h e r p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f t h e o b j e c t m u s t b e a t t e n d e d to . W i t h o u t , h o w e v e r , i g n o r i n g t h e c o l o r p r o p e r t y o f t h e o b j e c t , b u t k e e p in g i t t h e s a m e a s t h e o r i g i n a l , o n e h a s to a t t e n d to t h e m e a n i n g (p a n n a ttid k a m m a ) w h i c h is s u p p li e d b y t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e m a n t r a . T h e im a g e w h i c h is t h u s c a l l e d u p is t e r m e d uggah a n im itta a n d c o r r e s p o n d s to t h e e i d e t i c i m a g e in W e s t e r n p s y c h o lo g y .1 T h e m o r e a t t e n t i o n is fix e d o n th is e id e tic i m a g e , t h e m o re w e a p p ro a c h a s ta te o f d e e p c o n c e n tra tio n . C o n c e n tra t i o n i t s e l f is d i v i d e d i n t o tw o r e g io n s : d e e p c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( appand s a m a d h i ) a n d b o r d e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n (u p a cd ra -sa m a d h i), b o t h a r e c e r t a i n le v e ls c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f p e a c e a n d in s ig h t o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d b y t h e a b s e n c e o f d i s t u r b i n g in f lu e n c e s , on th e o th e r, r e s p e c t i v e l y , 2 F o r t h e m e d i t a t i v e p ro c e s s i t s e l f t h e b o r d e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n is o f u t m o s t i m p o r t a n c e , b e c a u s e i t is h e r e t h a t t h e i m a g e c o n t e m p l a t e d lo ses its e x t e r n a l r e f e r e n c e w h e r e b y t h e p e r c e p t u a l s i t u a t i o n m e lts i n t o p u r e s e n s a tio n o r , a t le a s t, w h a t is a p p r o x i m a t e l y p u r e s e n s a tio n . T h e o b je c tiv e c o n s t i t u e n t o f th i s s i t u a t i o n is c a lle d p a tib h a g a n im itta .8 ' B u d d h a g h o s a d e s c r ib e s it as fo llo w s : T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n th is o b j e c t i v e c o n s t i t u e n t a n d t h e e id e tic i m a g e is a s fo llo w s. I n t h e e i d e t i c im a g e a n y im p e r f e c tio n s o f t h e ( m a t e r i a l o u t o f w h i c h t h e ) t o t a l i t y (is m a d e ) a r e p e r c e iv e d . T h e p a tib h a g a n im itta , h o w e v e r , lik e a m i r r o r ta k e n f r o m o n e s p o c k e t, o r li k e a p o l i s h e d c o n c h s h e ll, o r lik e t h e d is c o f t h e m o o n c o m in g o u t o f t h e c lo u d s , o r lik e c r a n e s a g a i n s t d a r k c lo u d s , c le a v e s th e e i d e t i c im a g e a n d issu e s fo rth > a h u n d r e d , a t h o u s a n d f o ld m o r e c le a r . B u t i t h a s n o c o lo r a n d n o s h a p e . I f i t h a d i t w o u ld b e g ro s s a n d d is c e r n i b l e to t h e e y e , ta n g i b l e , a n d p o s s e s s in g th e t h r e e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( o f o r i g i n a t i o n , m o m e n t a r y d u r a t i o n , a n d a n n i h i l a t i o n ) . B u t i t is n o t s o ; i t is o n ly
1. V isu d d h im a gg a I V 29-30. T h is term has been com pletely m is understood b y those w ho translated the V isu d d h im a gg a or parts o f this w ork. E ith er th e y n ever p ractised m editation or th ou ght it to b e some physiological or p a th o lo g ica l phenom enon. S ig n , reflex im age, m en tal reflex at the im a g e are th e words used for a perfectly norm al occurrence. 2 . V isu d d h im a gg a I V 32. 3. ib id . I V 31.

an objective constituent, a sensum, in him who attains concen tratio n .1 Although m editation begins w ith the individual, as we have seen, this statem ent must not m ake us assume th at m edita tion is, popularly speaking, an act o f will. O n the contrary, it is a process which m ust be allowed to grow by itself, as it were, with no interference from the individual practising m edita tion .3 Interference m eans to read utilitarian ideas into it, to use m editation for w hat it is not m eant to be used, namely for self-aggrandizement.. Therefore m editation (dhyana, Pali jhdna) can be said to be practised an d to be attained only when the sensuous and sensual relations have been cut off; in other words, w hen the external reference o f the objective constituent in the perceptual situation has disappeared. Therefore also the form ula of the first stage of m editation begins w ith the significant words : H aving become detached from the objects to which one is sensually related and having become detached from unwholesome elements . T his detachm ent is both physical and m ental ,1 the form er referring to the objects of sense, the latter to the em otional reactions to the objects. T he author of the A tthasalini gives a further detailed interpretation of this classical formula. He points out that it essentially refers to the abolition o f a ll obstacles to medi tation, external as well as internal, though it m ust be n o te d that the d istin ctio n between external a n d internal is not so sharply marked as these terms seem to im ply, b u t that the external and internal in terp en etrate e a c h other. T here are five such obsta cles : sensuality (kamacchanda) , ill-w ill (vyapada), indolence and sluggishness (styanamiddha) , frivolity and regret (auddhaccakaukrtya), and scepticism (vicikitsa).8 T he first part of the formula m entioned above is according to our author m eant to refer to the abolition of sensuality, the second part to the abolition of the rem aining obstacles. Similarly the first part refers to the eradication of cupidity as an unhealthy root of certain attitudes, while the second p a rt refers to the xtirpa1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Visuddhimagga I V 31. ibid. I V 67-73. Vibhanga 245. Visuddhimagga I V 83; Atthasalini III 331. Abhidharmakosa V 58; 59 and Bhasya.

t i o n o f a n t i p a t h y a n d b e w ild e r m e n t. T h e f o r m u la f u r t h e r im p lie s t h e n e c e s s a r y a b o l i t io n o f t h e l a t e n t p o s s ib ilitie s fo r e m o t i o n a l o u t b u r s t s a n d t h e i r e ffe c ts w h ic h a r e s u b s u m e d u n d e r v a r io u s h e a d in g s , e a c h o f t h e m p i c t u r e s q u e ly d e s c r ib in g th e s i t u a t i o n i n w h ic h a m a n s w a y e d b y e m o tio n s w ill f in d h im s e lf. T h u s , e m o tio n a l o u tb u r s t s p u t m a n i n to a w k w a r d s itu a tio n s a n d p u s h h i m d o w n f r o m a n y s p i r i t u a l h e ig h t h e m a y h a v e a r i s e n to (asrava) ; o r lik e a t o r r e n t ( o g h a ) th e y c a r r y h im a lo n g i n u n c o n t r o l l a b l e f u r y ; o r , in a s u b t le r w a y , th e y f e t t e r (y o g a ) m a n to m e r e w o rld lin e s s a n d so i n d u c e h im to a s c r ib e (upadancc ) to h im s e lf a ll t h a t w h ic h a c t u a l l y d o e s n o t b e lo n g to h i m .1 T h e a u t h o r o f th e A t t h a s a l i n i a d d s tw o o t h e r h e a d in g s w h ic h r e f e r to p a r t i c u l a r f e a tu r e s o f t h e e ffe c ts o f e m o tio n a l o u tb u r s ts j u s t d e s c r i b e d .2 H e s u m s u p h is d is c u s s io n b y s ta tin g t h a t th e f o r m u la u n d e r c o n s id e r a tio n is m e a n t , in its firs t p a r t , to r e f e r to th e e r a d i c a t io n o f c r a v in g (ta n ka ) a n d o f a ll t h a t is c o n n e c t e d w i t h it a n d a ls o to t h e a b a n d o n i n g o f a n a t t i t u d e r o o t e d in c u p i d i t y , w h ile in its s e c o n d p a r t th e f o r m u la re fe rs t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f u n w is d o m (avid ya) a n d o f a ll t h a t u n w is d o m e n t a i ls a n d a ls o to a l ib e r a t i o n f ro m o t h e r ( u n h e a l t h y ) a t t i t u d e s .3 S o f a r th e c la s s ic a l f o r m u l a f o r th e in i t i a l s te p in m e d i t a t i o n h a s g iv e n a n e g a tiv e a c c o u n t o f w h a t is n e c e s s a ry fo r a n d d u r i n g c o n c e n t r a t io n , b e c a u s e o n ly in th e a b s e n c e o f th e o b s ta c le s c o n c e n tr a t i o n b e c o m e s p o s s ib le a n d t h e m e m b e r s (a n g a ) a s t h e m o s t c h a r a c t e r is t ic f e a tu r e s o f th e m e n t a l s itu a tio n o f m e d i t a t i o n b e c o m e p r o m i n e n t . T h e firs t s te p c o m p ris e s fiv e m e m b e r s : vita rka , vicar a, p r lti, sukha, sam adhi (cittasyaikagrata) ,4 A c t u a ll y th e s e fiv e m e m b e r s c o n s titu te th e m e d ita tiv e c o n c e n t r a t i v e p ro c e s s a n d a r e k n o w n a s dhyang. w h ic h is j u s t a c o n v e n ie n t t e r m to g r o u p t h e v a r io u s a s p e c ts o f m e d i t a t i o n in to
1. Atthasalini I I I 334; Abhidharm akosa V 40 and Bhasya. 2. A tth asalini I I I 334; gantha and sarhyojana. T h e former corres ponds to the bandhana in A bhid h.-kosa V 41. H ere five features are m en tioned. See V 4 1 -49b. 3. Atthasalini I I I 334. 4. Abhidharm akosa V III 7-8. Abhidharm asam uccaya, p . 68

a u n ity .1 I t m ay b e n o ted th a t h e re w e h a v e one of the r a r e instances w here a w ord is n o t tak en as referring to an in d e p e n d e n t existence; w here nom inalism supersedes realism .2 I t has fu rth e r to be n o ted th a t th e prom in en ce given to these jiv e m em b ers does n o t im ply th a t a ll those m e n ta l functions which o p erate in h e a lth y a ttitu d e s, a re absent. O n th e con tra ry , th ey a re all p resen t 3 a n d in terest is cen tred on the five m em bers only because they ac t as strong opponents to the obstacles a n d hence a re o f p rim a ry im p o rtan ce a n d ch arac teristic o f the m e d ita tiv e a ttitu d e . As th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a- , salini po in ts o u t ,4 samadhi co u n teracts sen su ality; priti illw ill; vitarka indolence an d sluggishness; sukha frivolity a n d r e g r e t;, an d vicara scepticism .5 T h e functio n o f b o th vitarka a n d vicara is th e sam e as th a t in a h e a lth y a ttitu d e w ith this difference, th a t th e object is not a com m onsense three-dim ensional ex tern al object, b u t th e eidetic im age .6 I t is w ith respect to th e m ean in g o f priti an d sukha th at th e various schools disagreed. T h e a u th o r o f the A tthasalini understands by priti a n all-p erv ad in g ecstasy w hich fully charges the w hole body, a n d b y sukha a h a p p y a n d co n ten ted m ood .7 T h e sam e view is shared by the S a u tra n tik a s .8 T h e V a ib h a sikas, how ever, u n d erstan d by p riti a hap p y m ood, and by sukha re la x a tio n .9 T h e arg u m en ts for th e ir in terp retatio n s are n o t very convincing, since they a re based on taking certain words in certain Sutras as th e basis ra th e r th a n th e actu al experien ce w hich th e a u th o r o f th e A tth asalin i so vividly des cribes by th e w ords 10 : Ecstasy m atu res in to fu n ctio n al and a ttitu d in a l re la x a tio n ; relax atio n m atu res into functional and a ttitu d in a l pleasantness; an d this pleasantness m atu res into th e
1. 2. 3. 4. 157 Abhidharmakosa V I I I 7-8, Bhasya, p . 148. Samantapasadika 1 146. ibid., V I I I 9 and Bhasya. Atthasalini IJI ibid. I l l 333. 340.

5. A different interpretation is giveiu in Abhidharmakosa V III, p. note 4. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Atthasalini III ibid. Ill 338. 202-210.

Abhidharmakosa, Bhasya ad V I I I 9. Abhidharmakosa V I I I 9 and Bhasya. Atthasalini III 207.

ty p e s o f c o n c e n tr a tio n : m o m e n ta r y c o n c e n tra tio n , th r e e b o rd e rlin e c o n c e n tra tio n , a n d full c o n c e n tra tio n . W ith c o n c e n tr a tio n h a v in g b e e n a c h ie v e d th e first s te p in m e d ita tio n h a s b e e n ta k e n . F ro m h e re th e pro cess c o n ti n u e s u n til it h a s re a c h e d its c o n c lu sio n . M e d ita tio n m a y b e sa id to b e a pro cess b y w h ic h a n o r d in a r ily d iffu sed s ta te o f m in d is b r o u g h t in to focus. T h e m o re th e d isp e rsio n o f m in d s ra y s is g a th e r e d in to a c e n tre , it seem s t h a t m o re a n d m o re th e m in d s ra y s d is a p p e a r . T h is is ex p re sse d in th e tex ts t h a t th e n u m b e r o f m e n ta l fa c to rs d im in is h e s .1 T h e fo c u sin g p ro cess c a n h e v ie w ed fro m v a rio u s an g les. I t m a y b e sa id to b e a g r a d u a l d e sc e n t in to th e c a lm d e p th o f th e sea fro m th e sh allo w n ess o f its sh o re s; o r it m a y b e said to b e a g r a d u a l a sc e n t in to th e p u r e r a n d m o re tr a n s p a r e n t a i r o n a m o u n ta in p e a k fro m th e su ffo c a tin g a n d s te a m y h e a t o f th e v alley s. T h e re fo re , w h e n e v e r m e d ita tio n is re fe rre d to b y sim iles, w e find e x a m p le s o f th e o c e a n o r o f th e to p m o s t h e ig h t o f ex isten ce. B u t it sh o u ld b e n o te d t h a t su c h ex p ressio n s a r e e sse n tia lly sy m b o lic , a n d in so fa r a s th e y a r e c o m p a riso n s th e y a r e im p e rfe c t, as a re a ll c o m p a ri sons. I n a s m u c h as feelings a n d e m o tio n s a r e b a sic to a ll in te lle c tu a l p rocesses, m e d ita tio n is also a n a p p r o a c h to th e b a sis o f m e n ta l life. I t p ro c e e d s fro m th e m o re in te lle c tu a l su rfa c e to th e e m o tio n a l s u b s tra tu m . T h e r e fo re th e n e x t step is c h a ra c te riz e d b y th e c e ssa tio n o f vitarka a n d vicara ' ,2 vitarka a n d vicara , a s w e h a v e seen , b e in g e sse n tia lly in te lle c tu a l fu n c tio n s. H ow ever^ it is n e c e ssa ry to w a r n th e re a d e r o f a possible a n d g ra v e m is u n d e rs ta n d in g . W h e n I say th a t th e m o re in te lle c tu a l p rocesses, su c h as vitarka a n d vicara, a re p a sse d o v e r, th is d o es n o t m e a n th a t th e in te lle c t is d is p a ra g e d a n d th a t th e b e st a n d e asiest w a y to p ra c tis e m e d ita tio n is ju s t to re so rt to so m e s o rt o f w ilfu l s tu p id ity o r a ffe c te d ig n o ra n c e (th is h a s h a p p e n e d a n d still h a p p e n s , m e n ta l in d o le n c e b e in g m a d e a show o f as s p iritu a l v a lu e s ). A c tu a lly it m e a n s th a t th e in te lle c tu a l fu n c tio n s a r e freed fro m th e ir re s tric tio n to th e s u p e rfic ia l a n d th e ir restlessness a n d th a t th ese fu n c tio n s g a in
I.
a.

Atthasalini I I I
ib id . Ill 341.

346.

in d e p th a n d a c h ie v e a m o re tr a n s lu c e n t c h a r a c te r . I t also h a s to b e n o te d t h a t a l th o u g h w e c a n m a k e a d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n th e in te lle c tu a l a n d th e e m o tio n a l, th e y o p e r a te in a u n ity . T h e r e f o r e th e n e w c h a r a c te r is n e v e r th e o n e o r th e o th e r, b u t b o th . T h is n e w c h a r a c te r is c a lle d in d iv id u a l c la rity ' (adhyatmasamprasada, P a li ajjhattam sampasadanam) .* The in te r p r e ta t i o n o f th is n e w c h a r a c t e r h a s in m a n y cases b een m a r r e d b y th e d o g m a tis m o f a r e a lis tic c o n c e p tio n . C lin g in g to a n u m e r ic a l s c h e m a is c e r ta in ly a f a ilu re to c o m p re h e n d th e liv in g p ro cess. T h e S a u tr a n tik a s m u s t b e c r e d ite d w ith n o t c a r in g fo r a rig id ly n u m e r ic a l s c h e m a a n d w ith h a v in g p o in te d o u t t h a t th is in d iv id u a l c la r ity is a s p e c ia l c h a r a c te r is tic a n d n o t a n e n tity in itse lf .2 B u t th e V a ib h a s ik a s a n d th e T h e ra v a d in s , a d v o c a tin g a n u m e r ic a l s c h e m a , u n d e r s to o d this in d i v id u a l c la r i ty a s a n e n tity in its e lf a n d in te r p r e te d it as sraddha c o n fid e n c e a n d c o n v ic tio n .3 W ith th is c la r ity th e p r o p e r focu s ( ekodi) h a s b e e n fo u n d . A s th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i p o in ts o u t th is te rm fo cu s refers to th e f a c t th a t, o n th e o n e h a n d , d u e to th e a b se n c e o f vitarka a n d vicara th e b e st v ie w p o in t h a s b e e n f o u n d a n d th a t, o n th e o th e r , th e b e s t v ie w p o in t is o n ly o n e p o in t a n d re v e a ls e v e r y th in g th a t h a s c o m e in to fo cu s ( sam payuttadham ma) to th e b est o f its n a t u r e .4 W h ile th e s u b s id in g o f vitarka a n d vicara le a d s to a s ta te o f lu c id ity ( samprasada ) a n d to a p e n e tr a tio n to th e u n d e r ly in g e m o tiv e to n e , i t is n e c e s s a ry a lso t h a t th e e m o tio n a l sid e b ec o m e s c la rifie d , j u s t as th e in te lle c tu a l sid e h a d to b e re le a s e d fro m its tu r b id a n d u n c le a r o p e ra tio n s . T h is c la rific a tio n is b r o u g h t a b o u t b y a l l o w n g e c sta sy a n d e n th u s ia s m (p r lti) (w h ic h in th e b e g in n in g is tre m e n d o u s ly h e lp f u l, b e c a u se it k ee p s in te re s t s te a d y ) , to su b sid e a n d th u s to p a v e th e w a y fo r se ein g th in g s w ith a b a la n c e d m in d (samam p a ssa ti) a n d fo r n o t fa llin g p r e y to o n e -sid e d n e ss. T h is s ta te is d e s c rib e d b y th e te c h n ic a l
1. Atthasalini II I 342. Abhidharmakosa V I I I 9 and Bhasya. 2. Bhagya ad Abhidharmakosa V I I I 9, pp. 158 sq, Hsiuan-tsangs remark, quoted b y L . de la Vallee Poussin in note 2 on p . 159, is significant: T h o u gh this is reasonable it is not m y system . 3. Atthasalini H I 342. Abhidharmakosa V I I I 9 c. 4 Atthasalini I I I 342.

te r m upek$a (P a li upekkha), w h ic h is b e s t tr a n s la te d b y e q u a n i m i t y 1. I t is, a s * it w e re , s te e r in g a m id d le c o u rs e ( m ajjh a tta ) .2 W ith th is e q u a n im ity a c h ie v e d th e p e c u lia r a n d s p e c ia l fe a tu r e s o f m e d ita tiv e c o n c e n tr a tio n c a n o p e r a te in p r o p e r fo rm . A lth o u g h th e se f e a tu r e s w e r e p r e s e n t in th e e a r lie r s ta g e s , y e t th e ir o p e r a tio n w a s o b s c u r e d a n d la b o r e d , w h ile n o w th e y o p e r a te fre e ly j u s t a s a m a n c a n w a lk e a sily w h e n h e h a s n o b u r d e n to c a r r y . T h e s e p e c u lia r fe a tu re s a r e in s p e c t i o n (sm rti, P a li sa ti) a n d fu ll a w a re n e s s (samprajanya, P a li sam pajailna) a n d c o n s titu te th e e ss e n tia l o p e r a tio n o f th e s o -c a lle d t h ir d s ta g e o f dhyana. B y in s p e c tio n w e tr y to l e a r n m o re a b o u t th e o b je c tiv e c o n s titu e n t o f th e p a r t i c u l a r p e r c e p tu a l s itu a tio n , i.e ., th e e id e tic im a g e , a n d w e tr y to k e e p th e o b je c t o f o u r c o n te m p la tio n as s te a d y a s p o s s ib le a n d g u a r d i t fro m b e c o m in g lo st to o u r sig h t, w h ile fu ll a w a re n e s s a id s u s in n o t b e c o m in g b e w ild e re d b y t h a t w h ic h w e see a n d is a ls o a th o r o u g h a n a ly sis o f th e n a tu r e o f th e o b je c t o f c o n te m p la tio n .3 A f u r th e r o p e r a tio n o f in s p e c tio n a n d fu ll a w a r e n e s s is to p r e v e n t th o se w h o p r a c tis e m e d ita tio n a n d h a v e p r o c e e d e d u p to th is sta g e , fro m r e v e r tin g t o a n e c s ta tic e m o tiv ity (p riti) a n d fro m s u c c u m b in g to a blissfu l m o o d (sukha) w h ic h ta k e n a s a n a im in its e lf w o u ld o n ly sto p a n y f u r th e r p ro g re s s a n d th e r e b y falsify th e p u rp o s e o f m e d i ta tio n , v iz . to a t t a i n e n lig h te n m e n t. A s th e a u t h o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i p o in ts o u t in c o n n e c tio n w ith th is s ta g e in m e d ita tio n , th e b lissfu l m o o d in th is s ta g e is so s u b tle a n d so d iffe re n t fro m a n o r d in a r y b lissfu l s ta te o f m in d , t h a t it a lm o s t a m o u n ts to a n a b s e n c e o f b lissfu l fe e lin g .4 A lth o u g h m e d ita tio n is e s s e n tia lly o f a c h e e rfu l c h a r a c te r , th is m u s t n o t b e u n d e r s to o d in th e se n se t h a t d e p re s s io n s a n d o t h e r u n h a p p y m o o d s w ill n o t a p p e a r o r t h a t d iffic u ltie s w ill n o t b e e x p e r ie n c e d . A s in e v e ry o t h e r liv in g p ro c e ss, m e d ita
1. Afthasalinl I H 349; 354. Abhidharm akosa V I I I 8 and Bhasya with identical terminology. 2. Atthasalini I I I 354. 3. ibid. I l l 355. 4. ibid. I l l 355; 356. Abhidharm akosa V I I I 9 and Bhasya, p. 152.

tio n is so m e th in g th a t flu c tu a te s. B u t w h e n th e fin al consum m a tio n has b e e n a c h iev ed , w h en a ll o b stacles h a v e b e e n ov er com e, it is im po ssib le to sp eak o f t h a t w h ich is ex p erie n ced in term s o f o rd in a ry p a rla n c e . T h e re fo re also th e fo u rth a n d fin al sta g e is d e sc rib e d m a in ly in n e g a tiv e term s, as n e g a tiv e term s a re less lia b le to m a k e us c o m m it ourselves to so m e th in g , w h ich o n closer in sp e c tio n w o u ld tu r n o u t to b e in v a lid . I n th e course o f th e th re e p re c e d in g ste p s, b o th th e p le a s a n t feeling to n e a n d th e u n p le a s a n t feeling to n e o f th e v a rio u s fu n ctio n s w ith in th e m e d ita tiv e a ttitu d e , as w ell as th e p le a sa n t a n d u n p le a s a n t m oods, a re g ra d u a lly o v erco m e a n d e q u a n im ity in its p u re s t fo rm is b ro u g h t a b o u t. T h is e q u a n im ity in tu rn p ro d u c e s a th o ro u g h lu c id ity a n d p e rsp ic u ity o f in sp ectio n ( upekkkasatiparisuddhi) a n d o f a ll th a t is c o n n e c te d w ith i t .1 W h e n th is stag e has b e e n re a c h e d th e tra n s itio n from th e th in g ' a n d its fra g m e n ta ry asp ects to th e G e s ta lt a n d its in h e re n t to ta lity has b e e n co m p le te d . In a s m u c h as m e d ita tio n is o f u tm o st im p o rta n c e fo r le a d in g m a n o u t o f his fra g m e n ta ry s ta te o f existence a n d diffused state o f m in d to s p iritu a l m a tu rity a n d fullness o f b ein g , it is only n a tu r a l th a t it d e m a n d s o f m a n a ll th a t is in h im . I t d e m a n d s th a t h e does so m e th in g a n d th a t h e a p p lie s in tellec tu a l a c u m e n . D o in g so m e th in g m e a n s th a t m a n a c tu a lly w alks a ro a d (pratipad , P a li patipadd ), a n d th is ro a d b egins w ith th e first a c t o f a tte n tio n w e besto w o n som e th in g a n d exten d s to th e m o m e n t w h e n th e b o rd e rlin e a n d b o rd e rstate o f full c o n c e n tra tio n h as b een re a c h e d . A t this m o m e n t w hen w e a re a b o u t to cross th e b o rd e rlin e to e n te r full c o n c e n tra tio n , in te lle c tu a l a c u m e n a n d a p p re c ia tiv e a n a ly tic a l u n d e rs ta n d in g (prajna) m u st be u sed. T e c h n ic a lly this in te lle c tu a l a c u m e n is k n o w n as abhijna (P a li abhinna ) .2 B u t n o t ev ery o n e is g ifted in th e sam e w ay. D o in g som e th in g m a y b e ex trem ely p a in fu l {dukkhapatipada ) , because it is n o easy task to b rin g in to o p e ra tio n a ll those elem e n ts w hich
i. 144. Atthasalini

III

366.

Abhidharmakosa

V III

8 and Bhasya,

p.

9. Atthasalini III 376. Abhidharmakosa stresses samatha and vipasyana as equilibrating factors. III 3 7 8 .

VI

66 and Bhajya, which See also Atthasalini

c o u n te r a c t th e ob stacles th a t b eset th e ro a d to sp iritu a l m a tu rity . A lso in te lle c tu a l a c u m e n m a y b e la c k in g , so th a t for a long tim e w e fail to ta k e th e fin a l ste p in to full c o n c e n tra tio n ( dandha bhinna). O n th e o th e r h a n d , o th e rs m a y h a v e n o difficulty in re m o v in g th e obstacles a n d a c h ie v in g fu ll c o n c e n tra tio n (sukkapatipada , khippabhiiina). O u t o f th e c o m b in a tio n o f th ese facto rs th e re resu lts q u ite a v a rie ty o f h u m a n ty p e s .1 T h e re c o g n itio n o f this v a rie ty o f h u m a n ty p es a g a in em phasizes th e th o ro u g h ly p ra c tic a l c h a ra c te r o f th e B u d d h ist discip lin e w h ic h d e a lt w ith m a n as h e is a n d n o t as h e sh o u ld o r m ig h t be.
T he Infinitudes

W h ile th e 'to ta litie s o f th e basic e lem en ts e a rth , w ater, fire , a n d a ir, a n d th e p rin c ip a l colors b lu e -g re e n , yellow , red, a n d w h ite , w ere d esig n ed to le a d m a n o u t o f a w o rld o f th in g s in to a w o rld o f fo rm u la tiv e m e a n in g fu l G e sta lte n , th ese to ta li ties 5 b y th e ir v ery n a tu r e in tim a te d t h a t th e y w ere n o thing u ltim a te , b u t if one b e allo w ed to use th e te rm , fo rm u la te d en e rg ie s c a p a b le o f fu rth e r fo rm u la tio n s by w h ic h th e y becom e p ro g ressiv ely a rtic u la te d as th in g s a n d ev e n ts. T h e y thus re p re s e n t a tra n s itio n a l stag e, p o in tin g to w o rld o f th in g s, on th e o n e .h a n d , a n d to a w o rld o f n o -th in g s, on th e o th e r. In a n y case i t is necessary to go to th e very so u rce from w h ic h these fo rm u la te d energies h a v e s p ru n g a n d to fa th o m th e a c tu a l n a tu r e o f fo rm u lativ en ess. T h is source lies b e y o n d th e w orld o f G e sta lte n (rupavacara), th o u g h b e y o n d m u s t n o t b e u n d e r sto o d in a s p a tia l sense. L a n g u a g e easily m isleads ,us b y the lin e a r successive o rd e r in w h ich w ords a re em p lo y ed a n d is th e re fo re m o st d e c e p tiv e in m a n y resp ects. M o re o v e r, th ere also is n o n e e d to assum e a w o rld w h ich is n o t in o u r sp ac e-tim e w o rld . T h e sta te m e n t th a t T h e A r u p y a d h a tu is w ith o u t p la c e b u t fo u rfo ld as to its p ra c tic e o f r e a liz a tio n ,2 can be ea sily u n d e rsto o d (a n d a p p a re n tly w as m e a n t to b e u n d ersto o d th a t in th is w o rld o f o u r ex p e rie n c e th e re a re th in g s a n d events which d o n o t fit th e d iscu rsiv e m o d e o f lin g u istic expression
1. 2. Atthasalini I I I 376-380. Cp. also Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 75. Abhidharmakosa I I I 3.

w h ic h involves sp ace a n d tim e , a n d w h ic h n e v erth ele ss are fa c to rs to b e ta k e n in to a c c o u n t. T h e g e n e ra l te rm is A rupyad h a tu . L ite ra lly this m e a n s th e sp h e re o f n o n -G e s ta lt. O th e r te rm s re fe rrin g to th is w o rld a re su b su m e d u n d e r th e in fin itu d e s: o f w h ic h th e r e a re th r e e re la te d to th e m e th o d o f re a liz a tio n , viz. in fin itu d e o f s p a c e (akasdnantya , P a li dkasananca), in finitude o f p e rc e p tio n ( vijn&nanantya, P a li 1nnnanauca), a n d infinitude o f n o th in g w h a tso e v e r (akirhcanya, P a li akincanna). A fo u rth d e sc rip tiv e te rm is n e ith e r-p e rc e p tio n -fo rm u la tio n n o r nonp e rc e p tio n -fo rm u la tio n (naivasarhjnanasarhjna , P a li nevasanMnasa n n a ), w h ic h refers to th e n a tu r e o f th e p sy ch o lo g ical process. As to th e in trin s ic m e a n in g o f th e te rm driipya various c o n c e p tio n s h a v e b e e n p re v a le n t. T h e V a ib h a sik a s and T h e ra v a d in s co n ceiv ed arupya as a p u re ly n e g a tiv e te rm d e n o t in g n o n -e x iste n c e o f G e sta lt {a-rupabhava).1 O th e r schools, h o w e v e r, su ch as th e A n d h a k a s, M a h a s a in g h tk a s, a n d M ahisasak as, re a liz e d th e d ifficu lty th a t re m a in s as to h ow it is th a t w e c a n th in k a n d sp e a k a b o u t th a t w h ic h in n o sense is. T h is d ifficu lty in d u c e d th e m to h o ld th e v iew th a t th e re a re d ifferen t m o d es o f e x isten ce. T h e y th o u g h t th a t th e re is a little rupa (Jsadrupa ),2 I n m o d e rn te rm in o lo g y th is w o u ld m e a n th a t in th e A ru p y a w o rld rupa subsists. H o w e v e r, th e re is n o n ecessity to assum e sp e c ia l m o d es o f ex isten ce, becau se th e s ta te m e n t th a t th e re is n o rupa is e q u iv a le n t to th e sta te m e n t th a t rupa is u n re a l a n d b e in g u n r e a l is n o t a p ro p e rty w h ich ca n b e lo n g to so m e th in g in th e sa m e w a y as th e p ro p e rty , say, b e in g b lu e . arupa a n d its o th e r n a m e s d o n o t s ta n d for a n y co n c e p tio n a t a ll. T h is is c le a rly b ro u g h t o u t b y V a su b a n d h u in h is A b h id h a rm a k o s a ; T h e in fin itu d e s o f sp a c e , th e in fin itu d e o f p e rc e p tio n , a n d th e in fin itu d e o f n o th in g w h a tso e v e r a re te rm e d a fte r th e m e th o d o f r e a liz a tio n .3 T h e sam e id e a is v o ic e d b y th e a u t h o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i w h e n h e d eclares th a t T h e id e a o f a -s p h e re o f in fin ite sp ace is sy n o n y m o u s w ith sp a ce as s e p a ra te d fro m a to ta lity o b je c t 4 a n d th a t T h e
1. A tth a sa lin i I I I 427.
A bhidharm akosa V I I I 3c, p. 135. A bh i-

2. Bhasya ad A bh idh.-kosa V I I I 3 c , p. 136. 3. i.e ., not after an object that corresponds to the description. dharm akosa V I I I 4. 4. Atthasalini I I I 437

: kasinugghdtim akdsass etam adhivacanam.

w o rd s s p a c e is in f in ite a r e n o t u s e d in th is c o n n e c tio n b e c a u s e o f th e c o - im p lic a tio n o f in fin ite w ith lim ite d . F o r w h e n so m e th in g is in f in ite i t c a n n o t b e lim ite d a n d w h e n i t is lim ite d it c a n n o t b e in finitfe .1 W e e a s ily r e c o g n iz e h e r e th e L a w o f C o n tr a d i c t i o n w h ic h , d e a lin g w ith r e a l e n titie s , s ta te s t h a t a- th in g c a n n o t b o t h b e a n d n o t b e so a n d so ; b u t sin c e s p a c e is n o t a r e a l e n ti t y in th is c o n n e c tio n , w h a t o u r a u t h o r w a n ts to sa y is in te rm s o f L o g ic a l A n a ly s is th e fo llo w in g : T h e r e is n o e n tity c s u c h t h a t x is s p a c io u s a n d in f in ite is tr u e w h e n x is c, b u t n o t o th e r w is e . 2 T h u s , w h e n a p e r s o n is th in k in g o f th e in f in itu d e o f s p a c e o r o f th e in f in itu d e o f p e r c e p tio n o r o f th e in f in itu d e o f n o th in g w h a ts o e v e r, w h a t h a p p e n s is t h a t th e p r o p e r ty o f b e in g s p a c e - in f in itu d e is p r e s e n t to h is m in d , n o t in th e se n se t h a t h e is c o n c e iv in g th e p r o p e r ty o f b e in g s p a c e in f in itu d e , b u t in th e se n se t h a t th e c o m p le x o f p ro p e rtie sc o n n o te d b y s p a c e - in f in itu d e is p r e s e n t to h is m in d . T o b e p r e s e n t to th e m in d m u s t b e ta k e n in a v e ry w id e sen se, e x te n d in g , as i t w e re , in to a ll d ir e c tio n s o f m e n ta l a c tio n , as is e v id e n t fro m th e s t a t e m e n t t h a t I n f in itu d e o f s p a c e is a s p h e r e in th e sen se t h a t it is a b asis fo r a m e d ita tiv e e x p e rie n c e w ith a ll its a t t e n d a n t p s y c h o lo g ic a l f u n c tio n s .3 T h is h a s f a r r e a c h in g c o n s e q u e n c e s ; i t m e a n s n o t h i n g less b u t t h a t o u r m e n ta l life is n o t r e s tr ic te d to w h a t w e c a ll lo g ic a l c o n c e p tio n s a n d to c e r ta in f u n d a m e n ta l p e r c e p t u a l fo rm s th r o u g h w h ic h o r d in a r y sen se e x p e rie n c e is u n d e r s to o d , b u t a lso c o m p rise s t h a t w h ic h d o e s n o t a llo w its e lf to b e c a s t in to a m o u ld o f d is c u rs iv e th o u g h t w h e r e b y i t a ssu m e s th e c h a r a c te r o f th e r e a l, a n d y e t p a r t i c i p a te s in k n o w le d g e a n d u n d e r s ta n d in g . A lth o u g h in f in itu d e o f s p a c e a s a d e s c r ip tio n o f arupya w h ic h d o e s n o t s ta n d fo r a n y c o n c e p tio n a t a ll, as th e e x p la n a tio n o f th is te r m b y th e V a ib h a s ik a s a n d T h e r a v a d in s h a s m a d e q u i t e c le a r , m a y b e ^ le g itim a te ly s a id to e x ist, as a p r o p e r ty it is d if f e r e n t in i m p o r t a n t re s p e c ts fro m in d iv id u a l o b je c ts, fo r p r o p e r tie s c a n b e th o u g h t o f a n d e x p e rie n c e d , e v e n if th e r e

1. Atthasalini. I l l 438. 2. See Bertrand Russell, History o f Western Philosophy, philosophy o f logical analysis. Chapter X X X I . 3. Atthasalini III 437 : ayatanam assa zasampayutladhammassa.

The

a re no objects w h ich possess these p ro p e rtie s .1 I n spite o f this th e V a ib h a sik a s in p a rtic u la r sm uggled in th e id e a o f space as so m e th in g re a l ( vastu ) b ack in to th e ir system , w hich aroused severe criticism from b o th th e S a u tra n tik a s a n d M a d h y am ik as. B o th th e S arv astiv ad in s a n d T h e ra v a d in s d iv id ed space in to sensed sp ace (dkaSadhatu )2 a n d sp ace as su c h (asamskrta d kasa),s I t has to be o b serv ed , h ow ever, th a t th is differen tia tio n does n o t co rre sp o n d to th e d istin c tio n N ew to n in tro d u c e d b etw e e n r e la tiv e ,. . . .a p p a r e n t space a n d a b so lu te ... t r u e . . . . m a th e m a tic a l space. S ensed sp ace (akasadhatu ) is cavities a n d holes a n d o th e r o p en in g s 4 i f this ty p e o f space is m a d e a m e d ita tio n o b ject, a to ta lity (krtsnayatana , P a li kasina), it does n o t le a d b ey o n d o r go p a s t th e w o rld o f G esta lten (rupavacara), b ecause space in this sense as a G e sta lt rem ains a p e rc e p tu a l ^ fu n d am en tal fo rm .5 I t is space as su c h (asam skrta akdsa) th a t becom es th e o b je c t (dlambana, P a li arammana ) o f m e d ita tio n , a lth o u g h this o b ject i tse lf is logically n o n -e x iste n t ( arupa ). T h o u g h this space as su c h c a n n o t be d em ons tra te d in th e m a te ria l m o d e w h ic h a lo n e is con sid ered to b e re a l a n d scientific (actually p seu d o -scien tific), it c a n b e describ ed, as is d o n e b y th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a sa lin i in his long ex p la n a tio n o f how to g o a b o u t a tta in in g th is u n re a lity e x p erien ce. T h is space ex p erien ce is a tta in e d w h e n a ll G e sta lt im pressions h a v e b e e n tra n sc e n d e d , d u e to th e fact th a t th e e m o tio n a l resp o n se to th em h as ceased ( viraga ) , a n d th a t th e y h ave fad ed o u t o f th e sphere o f in te re s t o f a p e rso n in m e d ita tio n (nirodha) ;7 also b ecau se a ll id eas o f th in g -n e ss (patigha) h a v e ceased to o p e ra te ,8 a n d fin ally , b ecau se n o a tte n tio n is p a id to th e

j. Reference may be made to the so-called unreality feeling, which is mostly branded as pathological, although this feeling occurs when in artistic and creative moods we take to the deep and go beyond the limits of conceptions. 2. Abhidharmakosa I 28; Vibhanga, p. 84. 3. Abhidharmakosa I 5b. 4. ibid. I 28; Vibhanga, p . 84. 3. Atthasalini III 387. 6. Bhasya ad Abidh.-kosa V II I 3; Atthasalini III 440. 7. Atthasalini III 428. 8. ibid. I l l 429.

p a n d e m o n i u m o f s h e e r im p r e s s io n s w h ic h a r e f o u n d o n d if f e r e n t le v e ls a n d w it h d i f f e r e n t c o n t e n ts (n a n a tta sa n iid )-1 W h ile th is m e d i t a t i v e e x p e r ie n c e a c c o m p a n ie d b y a p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e s p h e r e o f t h e i n f i n i t u d e o f s p a c e , a s i t is d e s c r i b e d in t h e o r ig in a l te x ts , a n d w h ic h is a ls o te r m e d s p a c e ( r e a liz e d b y ) b re a k in g th ro u g h s p a c e - G e s ta lt .2 m a y b e s a id to b e a n e x p e r ie n c e in w h ic h t h e c o m p le x c o n n o te d s p a c e i n f i n i t u d e is p r e s e n t to s o m e b o d y s m in d j i t is e s s e n tia lly a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f t h e s a m e e x p e r ie n c e , w h e n th e r e is a s h ift fro m th e o b j e c ti v e to t h e s u b je c tiv e a n d a n e x p e r ie n c e c o m e s a b o u t in w h ic h t h e b e in g p r e s e n t to- t h e m i n d it s e l f b e c o m e s th e o b j e c t o f m i n d a n d w h ic h is d e s c r i b e d a s t h e m e d i t a t i v e e x p e r ie n c e a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e s p h e r e o f th e in f in i tu d e o f p e r c e iv in g ( vijilananantya , P a li vi-Mianancayatanas a nn a s a k a g a ta )' .a T h e te r m s s u b je c tiv e a n d o b je c tiv e e m p lo y e d in th is d is c u s s io n o f t h e p r o b le m , m u s t n o t b e a llo w e d to le a d u s a s tr a y . A c t u a l l y t h e r e is n e i t h e r a s u b je c t n o r a n o b je c t in t h a t w h ic h i n n o sense, is. T h e r e f o r e , t h e s h ift f ro m th e o b je c tiv e o r th e p e r c e p t i o n o f s p a c e in f in itu d e to t h e s u b je c tiv e o r th e p e r c e p t io n o f t h e b e c o m in g - a w a r e - in f in itu d e , a n d f ro m th e r e to th e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e s p h e r e o f n o t h i n g w h a ts o e v e r , s h o u ld b e c o n s i d e r e d a s n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a k in d o f d e s c r ip tio n w h ic h b e c o m e s m o r e p e r t i n e n t a n d m e a n in g f u l b y p r o g r e s s in g f r o m p r o b le m to p r o b l e m r a t h e r t h a n f r o m p r e m is e to c o n s e q u e n c e . M o r e o v e r , e v e r y p e r c e p t i o n is b y n a t u r e f o r m u l a tio n , a n d f o r m u la tio n is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d c e n t r a l e x p e r ie n c e , h o w e v e r , is t h e o n e w h ic h fo llo w s a f t e r t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e in f in itu d e o f b e c o m i n g i m m e d ia te ly a w a r e h a s f a d e d a w a y a n d w h ic h is s ig n if ic a n tly te r m e d as . a c c o m p a n ie d b y th e p e r c e p tio n o f th e s p h e r e o f n o t h i n g w h a ts o e v e r ( akirhcanya, P a li akivicanr.ayatanasa n iid sa h a g a ta ) , b e c a u s e p e r c e p t i o n in th e s e n s e o f b e in g p r e s e n t to t h e m i n d w i th r e f e r e n c e to its o b je c t o f in f in itu d e o f s p a c e h a s g o n e .4 T h i s e x p e r ie n c e m a y b e s a id to b e t h e e n e r g e tic
1. 2. 3. 4. A tthasalin i I I I 431. ib id . I l l 437. ib id . I l l 44 1. ib id . I l l 443.

p o in t w hich m ay dissolve in to p ercep tiv ity a n d p ercep tib ility in a process o f tran sfo rm atio n in to G estalten a n d th e ir in te rp re ta tio n in term s o f things a n d events o r th e m a te ria l m ode .1 I t is from this p o in t th a t th e sta te m e n t rupa is b o rn from m in d 2 becom es intelligible, prov id in g th a t w e do n o t concretize m in d in to a n entity. M in d aictually is b o th real a n d unreal. So far the driipya o r th e w o rld o f n o n -G estalt has been d e a lt w ith from the v iew point o f the various techniques em ploy ed in b reak in g th ro u g h the b arriers o f lim ited reality . E ach o f th em a p p e a re d different due to th e difference in discursive sym bolism , language, w hich is th en p ro je c te d on th e arupya so th a t the one realm ap p ears as com prising various ievels. T herefo re, language is responsible for a fo u rth aspect being en u m e ra te d . T h is fo u rth aspect has as its object the a tta in m e n t o f the sphere o f n o th in g w h atso ev er 3 a n d is described as being accom panied by w h a t is n e ith e r p ercep tio n nof non p e rc e p tio n (naivasarhjndnasarhjna, P ali nevasanvandsa;'rnasahagata).* I t has received this d esig n atio n n o t from the tech n iqu e o f realizatio n b u t from th e n a tu re (sabhavato ) of the psychological process. Its n a tu re is such th a t p ercep tio n is involved in the w hole o f m e n ta l life (cittacetasika dhamma), b u t this percep tio n also is such th a t it can n o t be called p ercep tio n in the o rdinary sense o f the w o rd .5 T h is m eans th a t it is n ot a n isolated p h en o m en o n b u t is in in te rp la y w ith all o th er psychological factors. A n o th e r in te rp re ta tio n th e a u th o r o f th e A tthasalini gives, tallies w ith th e one found w ith the V aibhasikas, viz. th a t th e p ercep tio n fo rm ulation-process is so feeble ih a t it is unab le to function clearly (p a tu ). H en ce it is legitim ate to say th a t it is n o n -p ercep tio n . B ut since th ere is still fo rm u la tio n fo rm u latio n in th e sense o f activ e m en tal life though not in a gross form (sarhkharavasesasukhumabhavena) it iy not possible to speak o f n o n -p ercep tio n in th e literal sense of the w o rd . 6
1. 2. 3. 4.
5.

cp. Abhidharmakosa V III p. 143 n. 3. Abhidharmakosa V III 3d. Atthasalini III 452 : akincanna yatanasamapatti-aramanassa jhanassa. ibid. I l l 445.

ibid. I l l 447.
and 451, "Bhasya ad adhidh.-

6. ibid. I l l 448. Cp. also III 449 koSa V III 4c-d.

T h a t w h ic h is p e r c e i v e d ( in t h e lo o s e s e n s e o f t h e w o r d ) is t h e s p h e r e o f n o t h i n g w h a t s o e v e r , s in c e t h e r e is n o t h i n g e ls e t h a t c o u ld b e p e r c e iv e d 01* i n t o w h i c h t h e l iv in g p ro c e s s c o u ld tr a n s f o r m its e lf ,1 th o u g h th is o b j e c t is l i a b l e to b e u p s e t t i n g b e c a u s e i t m a y f o r m u l a t e i t s e l f i n t o t h e p r e s e n t to t h e m i n d t o t h e p e r c e iv i n g i n d i v i d u a l . T h i s o b v io u s ly m e a n s t h a t e v e r y li v i n g p r o c e s s m a y t e r m i n a t e i n a k i n d o f d is c u r s iv e s y m b o lis m a n d t h e r e b y lo s e t h e c h a r a c t e r o f liv e lin e s s . M o r e o v e r , t h e tr a n s f o r m a t i o n w h ic h f a c t u a l e x p e r ie n c e s u n d e r g o w h e n t h e y a r e c a s t i n t o p r o p o s i t i o n s w h e n w e w a n t to c o m m u n ic a te th e m , is t h a t t h e r e la tio n s h ip s i n th e m a r e t u r n e d i n t o s o m e t h i n g l i k e o b je c ts . W h e n t h e a u t h o r o f th e A t t h a s a l i n i illu s tr a te s th e e x p e r ie n c e b y th e p r o v e r b i a l r e s i g n a t io n o f a p o p u l a t i o n to a b a d g o v e r n m e n t ,2 h e w a n ts to te ll o f a w a y i n w h i c h th e p o p u la tio n a n d th e b a d g o v e rn m e n t a re u n fo rtu n a te ly a n d u n h a p p i l y c o m b in e d , b u t n o t o f a s u c c e s s io n o f a c ts . T h e r e is n o e n t i t y p e r c e i v i n g i n t h e c o m p le x o f s u b je c t a n d o b je c t c o m b i n e d i n s u c h a w a y a s to r e p r e s e n t a s t r u c t u r e o f a s ta te o f a f f a ir s . T h e a u t h o r o f t h e A t t h a s a l i n i is a t p a i n s to p o i n t o u t h o w th is n a t u r e is g r a s p e d . H e re f e r s to V i b h a n g a 2 6 3 w h e r e i t iss t a t e d t h a t o n e a t t e n d s to t h e s p h e r e o f n o t h i n g w h a ts o e v e r a s s o m e th in g s e ttle d a n d a c h ie v e s th e a t t a i n m e n t o f t h a t w h ic h is le f t o f s u b tl e f o r m u la tiv e n e s s (sam khardvasesa) . H e e x p la in s t h e s e n te n c e a s m e a n i n g t h a t T h e a t t a i n m e n t is s o m e t h i n g s e ttle d , in a s m u c h a s n o n - e x is te n c e ( n a tth ib h a va ) fin d s h e r e its p l a c e a s o b je c t ( o f c o n t e m p l a t i o n ) .3 T h is is b u t a n o t h e r w a y o f s t a t i n g t h a t i n o n e s e n s e w e c a n s a y t h a t s o m e th in g is, w h ile i n a n o t h e r s e n s e i t is t r u e to s a y t h a t i t is, n o t. I t is w h e n w e u n d e r s t a n d w h a t e x is te n c e a n d n o n - e x is te n c e r e s p e c t iv e l y m e a n , t h a t t h e r e is n o f u r t h e r n e e d to a t t e n d t o a n y t h i n g (a n d v a jjitu k a m a ta y d ). H e n c e i t b e c o m e s p o s s ib le to s a y t h a t t h e s t a t e o f n e i t h e r p e r c e p t i o n n o r n o n - p e r c e p tio n , b e in g t h e n a t u r e o f r a t h e r t h a n t h e a s s e r tio n a b o u t th e e x p e r ie n c e , is m o r e s e tt l e d ( sa n ta ta ra ) a n d m o r e s u b lim e t h a n th e s p h e r e o f n o t h i n g w h a t s o e v e r .4
1. 2. A tthasalini I I I 459. ibid ,

K now ledge an d u n d erstan d in g a re the essence o f m ental life. F o rm u latio n is its elem entary process. In d e ed , every experience is form ulation, w h eth er it b e a t th e level o f m erest sense experience w here seeing an d h e a rin g (as o u r m ost o u t sta n d in g sense-experience) a re them selves a process o f form u la tio n / o r w h eth er it is a t the level o f m ed itatio n . Perception-fo rm u latio n is therefore th e keynote o f all m en ta l life. But m e n ta l life is n o t such th a t in it som ething rem ains static a t all levels. T h e w hole is transform ed an d disciplined th ro u g h its in te rp la y w ith all th e o th e r elem ents in th e w hole. T h u s it is th a t n o t only perceiving as the know ledge-giving function of m in d is in a state described as n e ith e r p ercep tio n n o r non p erce p tio n , b u t also feeling a n d th e rest o f m en tal factors; in o th e r w ords, every th in g th a t we designate by m in d and m en tal processes is involved .2 F o rm u latio n by w ay o f transform ation as the expression o f m e n ta l life is a ra th e r recen t conception in W estern philoso p h y ,3 y et it is the basic conception o f th e V ijn an av ad in s w ho in th eir c ritiq u e o f the S arvastivadins conception o f space as such (asarhskrta akasa) w hich actu ally does n o t stand for a n y concep tion a t all b u t was a ttrib u te d existence ( vastu ), p o in ted out th a t it could be called existent only in th e sense o f being a descrip tio n ; a description, how ever, begins an d ends w ith lan g u ag e w hich has th e h a b it o f m ak in g us conceive objects w here th ere are none, all this being included in the ceaseless transfo rm atio n o f m en tal life (vijiianaparindma).4 T h e a u th o r of th e A tth asalin i, w h o is, as m an y passages in his w ork reveal, m uch in d eb ted to th e in tellectu al a n d spiritual acum en o f th e V ijn an av ad in s, is w ell aw are o f the deceptive ness o f lan g u ag e w hich can n o t b u t n am e one w ord first and then a n o th e r. C ertainly, th a t w hich in n o sense is, the A rupya, c an n o t be said to h av e different levels. D escription alone m ay vary. T hus he says: J u s t as in th e lowest storey of a four-storeyed palace th ere m ay be found the highest perfection
1. S. K . Longer, Philosophy in a New Key, p. 73. (Mentor). 2. Atthasalini III 448. 3. It is indeed so new that Susanne K . Langer could rightly call her book Philosophy in a New Key . 4. See Vijnaptimatratasiddhi, p. 75.

o f th e fiv e se n su a l p le a s u re s in th e fo rm o f h e a v e n ly d a n c in g , s in g in g , m u sic , p e rfu m e s, g a r la n d s , sw e et d r in k a n d fo o d , c o u c h e s, c a n o p ie s a n d o th e r lu x u rie s ; in th e se c o n d sto re y th e se lu x u rie s m a y b e s till m o re re fin e d ; a n d th o se in th e th ir d a n d fo u r th m a y b e s till m o re s u b lim e t h a n th o se in th e p re c e d in g sto re y s , a lth o u g h th ese fo u r a r e a ll p a la c e sto re y s a n d th e re is n o d iffe re n c e in th e m a s su c h , i t is o n ly d u e to th e d iffe re n c e in th e d is p la y o f se n su a l p le a s u re s a n d lu x u rie s t h a t th e h ig h e r sto re y s a r e m o re e x c e lle n t th a n th e lo w e r o n e s 1 T h is s h o u ld suffice to m a k e us a w a r e o f th e fa c t t h a t th e A r u p y a is n o m e ta p h y s ic a l th e sis in th e tr a d itio n a l sense o f th e w o rd . I ts re c o g n itio n , h o w e v e r, w id e n s th e sc o p e o f m in d , in a s m u c h as i t p o in ts o u t t h a t k n o w le d g e is n o t o n ly fo u n d th e r e w h e re d isc u rsiv e p ro je c tib iiity re ig n s. I t is fo u n d also in t h a t w h ic h is b e y o n d p r o p o s itio n a l th o u g h t a n d w h ic h is n o t n eces s a rily b lin d , n o n - r a tio n a l, a n d u n k n o w a b le .2 M asteries and Freedoms M e d ita tio n w h ic h e n c o m p a sse s a ll t h a t w h ic h is cem m o .n ly h e ld to b e re a l a n d u n r e a l, b u t d o es n o t m a k e u se o f e ith e r c o n c e p t fo r p r o p o u n d in g m e ta p h y s ic a l a sse rtio n s o r p r o d u c in g p ro o fs o f p o s tu la te d th e o rie s, is a c o n tin u a l p u r s u it o f m e a n in g . A s su c h i t fo rm s a n in te g r a l p a r t o f h u m a n life w h ic h d e riv e s its m e a n in g p re c is e ly fro m th is p u r s u it o f m e a n in g a n d n o t fro m so m e fin a l m e a n in g , b e c a u s e fin a l m e a n in g s a b o u t w h ic h th e a u th o r itie s o n e te r n a l v e ritie s a r e so c o c k su re , h a v e m o stly n o m e a n in g a t a ll. L ife b e c o m e s m e a n in g le ss o n ly w h e n th is p u r s u it o f m e a n in g co m e s to a d e a d e n d . S u c h a d e a d e n d is re p re s e n te d b y fix a tio n s in th e sen se o f e m o tio n a lly e n tr e n c h e d , o r e v e n obsessive id e a s e x e m p lify in g a n in a b ility to d e v e lo p f u r th e r in te re s ts a n d to a r r iv e a t a d e e p e r, w id e r, a n d c le a re r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f e x p e rie n c e . M o s tly th r o u g h o u t o u r lives w e r e m a in s ta tic a n d o n ly u n d e r r a r e c irc u m s ta n c e s w e try to o v e rc o m e su c h fix a tio n s, b e c a u s e th e y h a v e b e e n so c ia lly a p p r o v e d . S u c h a fix a tio n is th e m a ss m a n v a lu e w ith his sus p ic io n o f p o e try , h is d is tru s t o f a r t , a n d h is c o n te m p t o f p h ilo so p h y . F o r e v e n w h e n w e p a y lip -s e rv ic e to th e v a lu e o f a rtis ts ,
i. a. Atthasalini I I I 455. S. K . Langer, loc. c it., p. 71.

philo so p h ers, a n d o th e r c re a tiv e geniuses for th e ad v a n ce m en t o f c u ltu ra l life, a t h e a r t w e c o n sid er th e m as slip p e ry custom ers, becau se th e y u p set th e fa m ilia r s ta tic p a tte rn . B u t i f life is to re m a in m e a n in g fu l in th e sense in d ic a te d above, it is im p era tive t h a t such fixations a n d o th e r sto p p ag es a re overcom e and th a t th e c u rre n t can go on, freed fro m all obstacles w h ich throw m a n b ack to low er levels o f m e n ta l life a n d fin ally releg ate him to in te lle c tu a l dullness a n d e m o tio n a l sta rv a tio n . T h is rem oval o f obstacles is im p o rta n t also in m e d ita tio n , b ecause, since it form s p a r t o f th e g re a te r stream c a lle d life, a n y d istu rb a n c e in this sectio n is likely to p ro d u c e serious effects in th e form of m e n ta l d e ra n g e m e n ts a n d a tte n d a n t p h y sical ailm en ts, w h ich a re a ll th e m o re d an g e ro u s b ecause m e d ita tio n p ro p e rly pu rsu ed is a g ra d u a l in crease o f a n en e rg e tic p o te n tia l. In te rfe ren c e w ith it is like to u c h in g a live w ire, th e h ig h e r th e v o ltag e th e g re a te r th e d a n g e r. I t is n o t to b e w o n d e re d a t th a t B u d d h ism b y v irtu e o f its p ra c tic a l v alu e in ach iev in g s p iritu a l m a tu ra tio n , sh ould p a y sp ecial a tte n tio n to w h a t is necessary in o rd e r to assure a n u n o b stru c te d course. T w o topics, in d ic a tiv e o f a tec h n iq u e a n d o f a n u n im p e d e d process, a re p o in te d o u t as m ost in ti m a te ly co n n e c te d w ith m e d ita tio n . T h e y a re te rm e d m a ste ries (abhibhvayatana, P a li abkibhayatana) a n d freedom s (vimoksa, P ali vimokkha) respectively. E a c h g ro u p com prises eight Sections, o f w h ich th e tw o first m a ste rie s a re re la te d to the first freedom , th e follow ing tw o m asteries to th e second freedom , a n d th e re m a in in g fo u r m asteries to th e th ird freed o m .1 A c c o rd in g to V a s u b a n d h u th e freed o m s a re so called , b ecause th ey tu rn a w ay fro m lo w er levels ,2 o r b ecause they free a p erso n from th e obstacles on th e w ay to m e d ita tiv e a b so rp tio n ,8 o r becau se th e y m e a n ju s t freedom a n d n o th in g m o re ,4 w hile the m a ste rie s refer to a c o m m a n d over th e o b ject o n e h as chosen, so th a t as a conseq u en ce as it were,
1. Abhidharmakosa V I I I 35b-d and Bhasya; Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 96. See also Atthasalini III 390-398. 2. Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa V II I 32d : adharabhumivaimukhydt. 3. Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa V II I 33a. See also note by L. de la Vallee Poussin. 4. Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa V II I 3sb-d : pimokfamatra.

e m o tio n a l in s ta b ility c a n n o t in te r f e r e .1 T h e e x p la n a tio n b y t h e a u t h o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i is s im ila r to th e o n e g iv e n in A b h i d h a r m a s a m u c c a y a . H e in te r p r e ts fre e d o m (vim okkha) as m e a n in g fre e d o m in th e o p e r a tio n o f a fe e lin g o f w o rth -w h ile n e s s (adhimuccana ) w h ic h , in its tu r n , d e n o te s a p r o p e r fre e in g f r o m o p p o s in g e le m e n ts a n d a p r o p e r in te r e s t in th e c h o se n o b je c t b y ta k in g d e lig h t in it. I ts o p e r a tio n is sa id to b e u n r e s tr ic te d a n d u n h e s ita tin g , as free a n d a b a n d o n e d as a s m a ll b o y ly in g s p ra w le d o n h is f a th e r s l a p .2 H e fur.ther in fo rm s us t h a t th e m a s te r ie s a n d fre e d o m s a r e c e r ta in a sp e c ts o f a m e d ita tio n a l p ro c e ss w h ic h is a lso k n o w n as th e to ta litie s , a n d h e s ta te s t h a t th e t o t a l it y in s tr u c tio n b e lo n g s to th e A b h i d h a r m a , w h ile th e in s tr u c tio n in th e m a s te rie s a n d fre e d o m s 5 b e lo n g s to th e S u tr a s .8 T h is s ta te m e n t is o f tre m e n d o u s * im p o r ta n c e , b e c a u s e i t ir r e f u ta b ly sh o w s t h a t th e r e h a v e alw ay s b e e n tw o d is tin c t m o d e s o f te a c h in g , a n e s g te ric o n e fo r those w h o h a d a d e e p e r u n d e r s ta n d in g a n d w e re fro m th e o u tset p a r t i c u l a r l y g ifte d to g r a s p th e m e a n in g o f re a lity , a n d an e x o te r ic o n e w h ic h d e a lt w ith g e n e ra litie s a n d w a s a d d re sse d to th o s e w h o h a d to b e p r e p a r e d slo w ly for d e v e lo p in g a n u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f th e m e a n in g o f r e a lity . T h is l a t t e r f e a tu r e w e find i n th e S u tra s , w h ile th e fo r m e r is p re s e rv e d in th e A b h id h a r m a which, as h a s b e e n p o in te d o u t ,4 is th e r e a lm o f th e B u d d h a s , o f th o se w h o a r e s p ir itu a lly a w a k e . T h is s ta te m e n t a s to th e d o u b le m o d e o f te a c h in g g iv es fu ll v a lid ity to th e M a h a y a n ic c la im t h a t th e S u tr a s p re s e n tin g , a g e n e r a l id e a o f B u d d h is m , a n d th e T a n t r a s e m b o d y in g th e p sy c h o lo g ic a l d e ta ils o f p r a c ti s in g a p h ilo s o p h y (a n id e a to w h ic h th e W e s te rn w o r ld is r a t h e r u n a c c u s to m e d a s th e d is c re p a n c y b e tw e e n th e liv es a n d te a c h in g s o f th e ir p h ilo s o p h e rs v is ib ly d e m o n s tr a te s ) , w e n t sid e b y sid e. T h e s ta te m e n t b y th e a u t h o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i is a ll th e m o re v a lu a b le , sin c e it h a s b e e n u t t e r e d b y a m a n w h o is a re c o g n iz e d a u t h o r i t y o n H in a y a n a . I t is th e fo llo w ers o f th e H in a y a n a , w h o n o w a d a y s , c o n tr a r y to w h a t is la id d o w n i n th e ir o w n a u th o r i ta t i v e te x ts , v io le n tly o p p o s e th e id e a o f a d o u b le te a c h i n g b y th e B u d d h a .
i . Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa V I I I 35 b-d : vimokfamalra. a . Atthasalini I I I 395. See also Abhidharmasamuccaya, p . r,6. . 3. Atthasalini I I I 398. 4. Sec above* p. 3, note 2.

T h e a u th o r o f the A tth a sa lin i su b stan tiates his statem em by com m enting on th e fact th a t th e form ula o f th e m asteries is d ifferen t in the A b h id h a rm a from th e one given in th e Sutras. In a ll instances o f th e m asteries in th e A b h id h a rm a 1 it ii said th a t th e m asteries a re a tte n d e d to w hile one does not include o n eself in this p ractice, in o th e r w ords, th a t one does n o t a tte n d to o n es bo d y im age w hich refers to the w hole person co n stitu te d o f body a n d m in d , ( ajjkattam arHpasanni),2 b e c au se in the p ractice o f th e m asteries th e p o in t is n o t to gain m astery over the body im age b u t o ver those things w hich are believed to be ex tern al objects, by view ing them w ith o u t the p rim itiv e beliefs a b o u t th e ir m a te ria l n a tu re , b u t solely in th eir aesthetic im m ediacy, in g rasp in g a n d u n d e rstan d in g the visual stru c tu re in one a c t o f cognizing vision (jatiami passdmi) .* P ro p o rtio n s a n d colors p lay a n im p o rta n t role in the p rac tic e o f the m asteries, n o t only to th e ex ten t th a t th a t it is possible to a tte n d to p ro p o rtio n s sep arate from colors a n d vice versa, b u t also by a n aesth etic ev alu atio n o f beauty a n d ugliness. T hese varieties are in tim a te ly re la te d to the te m p e ra m e n t o f the m e d ita tin g person. A n o b ject o f small p ro p o rtio n s is p a rtic u la rly w ell suited for a person w ho h a b i tually is inclin ed to a tte n d to all a n d ev ery th in g ( vitakkacarita ), because an object o f larg e p ro p o rtio n s, ex ten d in g to infinity as it w ere, w ould only reinforce his ha:bit o f a tte n d in g to p a rti cu la r item s w ith in this extensive o b ject w hereby he w ould not succeed in gain in g th e necessary m a ste ry o f g rasp in g the whole in one a c t .4 A n o b ject of larg e p ro p o rtio n s, on the o ther h an d , is suited for him w ho is overcom e by b ew ild erm en t (mohacarita), because it has the effect o f freeing him from the narro w suffocating w orld o f sm all objects an d events w hich m ake him feel im p riso n ed .5 A person w ho sees faults every w here an d has a n a tu ra l aversion tow ards a n y th in g th a t does not com e u p to p erfection (dasacarita}, can gain m astery only by a tte n d in g to th a t w hich is b ea u tifu l, in p a rtic u la r, to a color
1. In his Bhasya ad Abhidh. -kosa V III 35a the Sutra formulae. 2. Atthasalini III 3f)2. 3. ibid. I l l 390. 4. ibid. I l l 392. Visuddhimagga II I 102. 5. ibid. I l l 392. Visuddhimagga III ior. Vasubandhu follows

in a ll its r a d ia n c e a n d s ta in le s s b r i l l ia n c e ,1 w h ile a p e rs o n w h o is d o m in a t e d b y p o sse ssiv e n e ss ( ragacarita) w ill b e a b le to g a in m a s te r y b y a t t e n d i n g to t h a t w h ic h is u g ly , to a c o lo r w h ic h is d u ll a n d m a y b e r e p u ls iv e to h im , b e c a u s e th is is a m e a n s to s e v e r th e tie s t h a t f e t t e r h im to th e o b je c t .2 M a s t e r y , h o w e v e r, is a c h ie v e d o n ly w h e n w e h a v e b e c o m e fre e ; f re e in th e se n se o f b e in g a b le to a t t e n d to a n o b je c t in a w a y w e lik e , w i th o u t m e e t i n g w ith f r u s tr a tio n w h ic h co m e s a b o u t b y o u r r e a d i n g u t i l i t a r i a n id e a s in to th e o b je c t, in o th e r w o r d s , w h e n w e a r e a b le to g r a s p a n o b je c t in its se n se d a n d felt im m e d ia c y , d r o p p in g as f a r a s p o s s ib le th e s u g g e s tio n o f a th r e e - d im e n s io n a l e x te r n a l o b je c t. A n o b je c t is n o t o n ly a n o t h e r p e r s o n o r a n i n a n i m a t e p ie c e o f n a t u r e , i t is a ls o o u r o w n p e r s o n w h ic h is g iv e n to o u r m in d a s a n im a g e ( ru p a , n im itta ) t h a t w e fill w ith o u r b e lie fs a b o u t th r e e - d im e n s io n a l e x te r n a l o b je c ts a n d o u r i m p o r ta n c e . H o w e v e r , in o r d e r tc g a in th e e x p e r ie n c e o f im m e d ia c y w e m a y s t a r t w ith a n y p a r t o f o u r b o d y s u c h a s th e h a i r , th e p u p ils o f th e ey es, th e sk in , th e h a n d s a n d fe e t, w h e t h e r w e v ie w a n d e x p e r ie n c e th e m a c c o r d i n g to o u r t e m p e r a m e n t in t h e i r a e s th e tic b e a u ty o f s h a p e and> c o lo r, o r i n th e ir h id e o u s n e s s o f c o n tin u o u s d e c a y . B u t j u s t a s w e c a n see o u rs e lv e s b e fo re w e i n t e r p r e t a n d fill th e im a g e o f o u rs e lv e s , w e a ls o c a n see th in g s a n d p e rs o n s o u ts id e o u rs e lv e s w ith th e s a m e im m e d ia c y o f a e s th e tic a p p r e c ia tio n . T h u s to b e c o m e a b le to see o u rs e lv e s a n d o th e r s in a n d t h r o u g h a G e s ta lt, is th e f irst f r e e d o m 5, w h ic h A s a n g a in h is A b h i d h a r m a s a m u c c a y a d e s c rib e s a s fo llo w s 3 : I n p r a c tis in g m e d i t a tio n , b y n o t a llo w in g th e e x p e r ie n c e o f a G e s ta lt as to o u rse lv e s, t h e o b s e rv e r, to d is a p p e a r o r, p o s itiv e ly s ta te d , b y b r in g in g a b o u t in th e o b s e r v e r th e e x p e r ie n c e o f G e s ta lt, i t is t h a t h e sees v is u a l s tr u c tu r e s . I n th is s ta te w h e r e o n e is w e ll v e rs e d in th e p r a c tic e th e r e a r e f o u n d c o n c e n t r a t e d a b s o r p tio n , a p p r e c i a tiv e a n a ly t i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a ll th e a t t i t u d i n a l a n d fu n c t i o n a l p a tte r n s c o n n e c te d w ith th is u n d e r s ta n d in g , a s w e ll a s fre e d o m fro m th e p o w e r t h a t v e ils s p ir itu a l c r e a t i v i t y .4
1. 2. 3. 4. Atthasalini I I I 392. V isu d d h im a gga I I I 100. ibid. I l l 392. V isuddhim agga H I 97. Abhidharm asam uccaya, p. 95. A s to nirmana see A bhidharm akosa V I I 50.

S im ilarly th e second freed o m is c h a ra c teriz e d as th e ability to see visu al stru ctu res in th e e x te rn a l objects, w ith o u t experie n c in g th e sam e as to o n e s ow n person. T h is, a t least, is th e in te rp re ta tio n o f th e -technical te rm ( adhyatmam arupasarhjfli) given by V a su b a n d h u a n d by th e a u th o r o f th e A tth asalin i w ho expressly states th a t th e G estalt-ex p erien ce is n o t b ro u g h t a b o u t by a tte n d in g to the p a r ts o r o u r bod y b u t only to th e external o b jec ts .1 A n o th e r in te rp re ta tio n w h ich reflects a different psych o lo g ical a ttitu d e , is ' given' b y A sanga. H e declares: I t is in th e p ra c tic e o f m e d ita tio n , b y m ak in g th e experience o f G e sta lt w ith reference to th e o b server d isa p p e ar or, positively stated , b y b rin g in g a b o u t in th e ob serv er th e experience o f u n re a lity (arupasarhjnd ), it is th a t h e sees visual structures. J u s t as in the first fre e d o m so also h e re th ere is co n c en trated a b so rp tio n and a p p re c ia tiv e a n a ly tic a l u n d e rsta n d in g .2 T h e re is h e re a m a rk e d difference in o rie n ta tio n . W ith V asu b a n d h u a n d th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a sa lin i em phasis is laid on th e ex p erien ce o f o u te r objects as G estalten , obviously because th e o u te r objects in th e ir in te rp re ta tio n as three-dim ensional m a te ria l things h a d th e strongest h o ld on them . B u t w ith A san g a th e ex p erience o f oneself as u n re a l gain in im p o rtan ce, because th e subjective facto r in m e d ita tio n is ju s t as im p o rtan t. T o b eco m e free from th e self-concept as som ething solid and re a l is m o st decisive, becau se this freedom facilitates the expe rience o f visual stru c tu re s in a m o re deep ly m oving form . W h en V a su b a n d h u even goes so far as to id en tify these tw o types o f freed o m w ith th e p ra c tic e o f m e d ita tin g on the progressive d e te rio ra tio n o f corpses (aJubhabhavana), w hich is b u t related to a c e rta in te m p e ra m e n t a n d n o t u n iv ersal, he restricts the m e a n in g o f freedom in a m a n n e r w h ich is c e rta in ly n o t g u a ra n teed by th e form ula itself, since its w o rd in g ad m its o f a m uch w id e r in te rp re ta tio n . T h e psychological difference in a ttitu d e o ne is alm ost te m p te d to speak o f e x tra v e rte d a n d in tro v e rte d types is still
1. Bhasya ad Abhidh. -kosa V III 32a. Atthasalini III 397. 2. Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 95. This interpretation tallies wit! the one given bv Harivarman. See Abhidharmakosa V I I I , p. 204 note 2 < by L. de la Vallee Poussin. 3. Abhidharmakosa V III 32ab. Cp. also Bhasya ad V III 34,

m o r e o b v io u s in th e in te r p r e ta tio n o f th e th ir d f re e d o m , b y w h ic h th e o b s e rv e r is p h y s ic a lly a w a r e 1 o f th a t .w hich is te r m e d th e b e a u tif u l (subha, P a li subha)'. A c c o rd in g to V a s u b a n d h u 2 th is fre e d o m is r e la te d to th e f o u r th sta g e o f th e m e d ita tiv e p ro cess e x c lu siv e ly , w h ile th e a u th o r o f th e A t t h a s a lin i 3 a llo w s th is fre e d o m w ith e v e ry sta g e in m e d ita tio n a n d re le g a te s i t to th e c o lo r to ta litie s . A g a in i t is A sa iig a w h o b rin g s o u t th e d e p th a n d sc o p e o f th is e x p e rie n c e w h ic h is so s tro n g t h a t it d o es n o t r e m a in a m e n ta l im a g e b u t in n e rv a te s th e w h o le o f o u r p h y s ic a l e x iste n c e . H e s ta te s 4 : I n p r a c tis i n g m e d ita tio n , b y g a in in g th e e x p e rie n c e o f th e re la tiv ity o f th e b e a u tif u l a n d th e u g ly as to a n d w ith in o u rse lv e s, o f th e m u t u a l c o n fo rm ity o f th e b e a u tif u l a n d u g ly , a n d o f th e sam en ess o f th e e m o tio n a l fe e lin g to n e a n d v a lu e o f th e b e a u tif u l a n d u g ly , th e r e is in th e m a s te ry o f th is p r a c tic e c o n c e n tr a te d a b s o r p tio n , a p p r e c ia tiv e a n a ly tic a l u n d e r s ta n d in g , a n d fre e d o m fro m t h e p r o d u c tio n o f w h a t is b e a u tif u l a n d w h a t is u g ly a n d fro m th e v e ilin g p o w e r o f th e rise o f e m o tio n a l in s ta b ility ( in tro d u c in g a d iffe re n c e o f v a lu e s ) . I n p a s s in g i t m a y b e n o te d t h a t sa m e n e ss o f e m o tio n a l fe e lin g to n e a n d v a lu e ( ekarasa, samarasa) a p p lie d to th e a r b i t r a r y d iv isio n o f life in to a p a r t c a lle d S a m s a r a a n d a n o th e r p a r t c a lle d N ir v a n a , is th e k e y n o te o f th e T a n t r a s w h ic h , j u s t as th e A b h id h a r m a , e m b o d y th e e so te ric te a c h in g a s to p sy c h o lo g ic a l e x p e rie n c es. T h e f o u r th to th e s e v e n th fre e d o m s a r e r e la te d to th e A ru p y a - w o r ld , e a c h fre e d o m re fe rrin g to a p a r tic u la r m a s te ry i n t h a t w h ic h is d e s c rib e d in f o u r d iffe re n t w ay s ( in fin itu d e o f s p a c e , in fin itu d e o f p e r c e p tio n , s p h e re o f n o th in g w h a ts o e v e r, a n d s ta te o f n e ith e r p e r c e p tio n n o r n o n - p e r c e p tio n ) , S in c e th e A r u p y a -w o rld d o es n o t c o m p ris e lev els, th e fo u r c o rre s p o n d in g fre e d o m s o w e th e ir e x is te n c e to th e lo g ic a l p ro je c tio n b y la n g u a g e , in w h ic h w e c o n c e iv e o u r w o rld , r e a l o r u n r e a l. T h e e ig h th f re e d o m is th e m a s te ry w h ic h frees us fro m t h a t w h ic h is d e s c rib e d as n e ith e r p e r c e p tio n n o r n o n - p e r c e p tio n , a n d
1. kayena sakfcitkrlva. See Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa V I I I '34 and V y a khya, Abhidharmasamuccaya, p . 95. 2. Abhidharmakosa V I I I 32c; Bhasya ad V I I I 34. 3.. Atthasalini I I I 397. 4. Abhidharmasamuccaya, P .95.

th ro u g h w h ic h w e re a liz e th e d e e p p e a c e o f th e cessation o f fo rm u la tio n b y p e rc e p tio n a n d feelin g ( sathjnaveditanirodhasamap a tti ) .1 Conclusion I n d iscussing m e d ita tio n as a n in te g ra l p a r t in B u d d h ist d iscip lin e th e lim ita tio n s o f la n g u a g e a re p a rtic u la rly obvious a n d tro u b leso m e. M e d ita tio n is n o t o n ly a c e rta in p ra c tic e , it is also a u n iq u e e x p e rie n c e w h ic h d oes n o t allo w itse lf to be p ro je c te d in to discu rsiv e form s. C e rta in ly , th e re a re d ifferen t stages in m e d ita tio n , e a c h o f th e m le a d in g to a d e e p e r, w ider, a n d m o re in te n se re a liz a tio n a n d a ll o f th e m fo rm in g o n e in te g ra l w h o le. T h e re fo re th e freed o m s ( vim okfa ), m aste rie s (abhibhvayatana ) , to ta litie s (krtsnayatana ) a n d m e d ita tiv e stag es (dhyana ) are' n o t iso lated p h e n o m e n a . T h e y are so in tim a te ly in te rre la te d th a t n o t o n ly th e o n e leads to th e o th e r b u t also th a t th e o n e is n o t w ith o u t th e o th e r .8 A n o th e r a n d v ery im p o rta n t fe a tu re o f B u d d h ist m e d ita tio n is th e fact th a t to c o n c e n tra te on a n o b je c t o f o n e s ch oice is n o t th e m a in a im o r a n e n d in itself. T o b eco m e free fro m a ll ties th a t fette r us in te lle c tu a lly a n d e m o tio n a lly is th e a im , a n d this also im p lies th a t fre e d o m has to b e g a in e d ev en fro m th e o b je c t o n w hich c o n c e n tra te d a tte n tio n h as b een b esto w ed . I n th is respect B u d d h ist m e d ita tio n is d ia m e tric a lly o p p o sed to th e m e d ita tio n p ra c tic e s o f Ig n a tiu s o f L o y o la in his exercitia, w h e re th e object o f m e d ita tio n is k e p t c o n s ta n t a n d n o t tra n sc e n d e d . T h e o u tc o m e o f m e d ita tio n c a n n o t be specified ju s t b e cau se it also encom passes th a t w h ic h re a so n as th e in stru m e n t o f d iscu rsiv e th in k in g w o u ld b ra n d as u n re a l. A n y d e scrip tio n o f it re m a in s in a d e q u a te . R e a lity is n o t a w ell-defined o r d e fin a b le e n tity b u t so m eth in g w h ic h ex p a n d s th e d e e p e r we div e in to it. E a c h d iv e rev eals new aspects. B eing co n cern ed w ith g a in in g know led g e w h ich is co m p reh en siv e r a th e r th a n , fra g m e n ta ry , m e d ita tio n aim s a t m a k in g m a n a b le to w alk th e

1. Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 32a and 33a. .

95.

Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa

V III

2. According to the Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa V I I I 36cd the topics, mentioned follow this order, each one leading to the other.

P a t h 1 w h ic h w ill fin a lly le a d to e n lig h te n m e n t a n d s p ir itu a l m a t u r i t y . S in c e s p ir itu a l m a t u r i t y is r a r e ly f o u n d in th e w o r ld , a l t h o u g h th is o u r w o r ld is p e r h a p s th e o n ly o n e w h e r e w e m a y fin d m e a n in g , th e P a th b e lo n g s to t h a t w h ic h is te r m e d s u p e r w o r l d l y ( lokottara ) . A g a in i t m u s t n o t b e a s s u m e d t h a t s u p e rw o r l d ly h a s a n y s p a tia l c o n n o ta tio n s . T h e p u r s u i t o f m e a n in g le a d s in to re a lm s fro m w h ic h a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f R e a l i t y b e c o m e s p o ssib le . B e tte r u n d e r s t a n d i n g m e a n s a c l e a r e r v ie w a n d m o r e e n d u r in g e m o tio n a l s a tis f a c tio n . T h i s is a lr e a d y a c h ie v e d o n th e first le v e l o f t h e m e d i ta t i v e p ro c e s s ( dhyana) a n d is te c h n ic a lly te r m e d d rfta dharmasukhavihara a n d m e a n s t h a t w e h a v e p a s s e d fr o m a d iffu se d s t a t e o f m in d in to a c o n c e n tr a t e d a n d in te g r a te d s ta te in w h ic h w e e x p e r ie n c e th e s a tis f a c tio n a n d h a p p in e s s o f h a v in g b e c o m e f r e e f r o m e m o tio n a l in s ta b i li t y .2 A lth o u g h th is fe e lin g o f s a tis f a c tio n a n d h a p p in e s s a ls o o b ta in s in th e fo llo w in g sta g e s e a c h su c c e ssiv e s ta g e is c h a r a c t e r i z e d in a d d itio n b y d e e p e r k n o w le d g e a n d a w id e r v ie w . T h u s a t th e s e c o n d s ta g e a s u p e r io r k n o w le d g e a n d w id e r o u tlo o k is a t t a i n e d so t h a t th e in c e s s a n t c o m in g a n d g o in g o f b e in g is r e a l i z e d .3 W h ile o n th e t h i r d s ta g e th e a n a ly tic a l a p p r e c ia tiv e u n d e r s ta n d in g b e c o m e s m o r e a n d m o r e p e n e t r a t i n g 4 u n t i l in th e fo u r th

1. Abhidharm akosa V I I I 34- A ll types o f meditation belong to the w orldly ( lau kika ) sphere. See Atthasalini I I I 4.66. 2. Abhidharm akosa V I I I 2 70 2 8 ; I I 4. 3. B hasya ad A bhidh.-kosa V I I I 2 70 2 8 . T h is wider view has itsroot in the superior knowledge in the form o f divine vision (dhyacakfurab hijn S 'l. , 4. ibid. prajm prabheda. B y it the nature or the properties (gitrta) o f the three world spheres are understood, v iz , asubha (horrid), anapanasmft (attention to breathing), arafid (knowledge as to emotional outburst on the level o f the w orld o f sensuality. A bhidh.-kosa V I I 36; Abhidharm asam uecaya, p . 96; Atthasalini I I 52), pranidhijnana (knowledge b y resolution attending to all the knowable, A bhidh.-kosa V I I 3 7 ; Abhidharm asam uccaya, P- 96). pratisamvid (exact knowledge, A bhidh.-kosa V I I 37-38; Abhidharm a sam uccaya, p . 96; further references w i t h L . d e la V allee Poussins transla tion o f Abhidharm akosa V I I , p . 89 note), abhijna (superior knowledge, A b hid h.-kosa V I I 42; Abhidharm asam uccaya, p . 9 7 ), vimoksa (freedom, see above p . 14 1), abhibhvayatana, etc. See in particular, Abhidharm a sam uccaya, p p . 97-102. A ll o f them have a double nature according to their being w orldly or superworldly .

stag e a ll fetters a re th ro w n off a n d a n u n sh a k a b le in te g ra tio n has b e e n ach iev ed w h ic h is sig n ifican tly te rm ed V a jro p a m a , sim ilar to a V a jr a '1, th e V a jra b e in g th e sym bol o f in d e stru c tib ility a n d u n sh a k a b le n e ss .2

1. Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa V II I 270-28. 2. A similar gradation is found in Atthasalini III 387. Here the meditation with sensed space is said to lead to ditthadhammasukhavihSra and to be the basis of abhinna, vipassand and nirodha. In this passage vipassand corresponds approximately to prajnaprabheda and nirodha to Vajropama.

T H E IN T E R P R E T A T IO N O F T H E W O R L D W E L IV E IN (ru p a ) T he W orld A s W e Perceive I t T h e in te r e s t in m a n a s h e a p p e a r s to h im s e lf a n d t h e w a y in w h ic h i t b e c o m e s p o ssib le fo r h im to d e v e lo p s p ir itu a lly , h a v e d o m in a te d th e w h o le o f B u d d h is t th o u g h t to s u c h a d e g r e e th a t th e e x te r n a l p h y s ic a l w o rld , a s w e a r e w o n t to sa y , h a s m o r e o r less c o m p le te ly b e e n lo s t s ig h t of. T h is s ta te m e n t isv a lid w ith t h e p ro v is o t h a t m in d a n d m a t t e r a r e tw o e n titie s t h a t c a n b e c le a r ly a n d e a sily d iv id e d fro m e a c h o th e r , h a v e n o th in g in c o m m o n w ith e a c h o th e r , a n d d o n o t o v e rla p a t arry p o in t. H o w e v e r, th e p r e c e d in g a n a ly s is o f m in d a n d m e n ta l s ta te s h a s sh o w n t h a t m i n d is b u t a c o n v e n ie n t a n d c o n v e n tio n a l te r m fo r g r o u p in g a v a r ie ty o f e v e n ts in a u n ity . P r o p e r ly s p e a k in g , i t is th e c e n tr e o f th is u n i t y t h a t rec eiv e s th e n a m e m i n d , w h o se lo g ic a l n a t u r e is c o n s id e r e d to b e e ith e r e x is te n t o r s u b s is te n t, a lth o u g h i t h a s to b e n o te d th a t th e r e is n o n e e d to a ss u m e s u b s is te n c e . A s th e c r itiq u e o f th e v a r io u s v iew s h e ld a b o u t m i n d b y th e M a d h y a m ik a s h as sh o w n , m e n ta l s ta te s a r e fo r a ll p r a c t i c a l p u rp o s e s r e a l, b u t m i n d is a fic tio n . I n a n a ly z in g m a t t e r w e a r e fo rc e d to a s im ila r c o n c e p tio n n o t o n ly b y w h a t m o d e r n e x p e r im e n ta l a n d th e o r e tic a l p h y sic s h a s fo u n d , b u t a lso b y a n a n a ly s is of p e r c e p tu a l s itu a tio n s . W h e n m o d e r n sc ie n c e , w h ic h h a s , su c c e e d e d in m a k in g m a t t e r less m a te r ia l a n d m i n d less m e n ta l, d e c la re s t h a t th e o b s e rv e r is p a r t o f h is o b s e rv a tio n , th is m e a n s t h a t a p e rs o n w h o h a s e x p e rie n c e o f a n y th in g is p a r t o f t h a t e x p e r ie n c e ; th e th o u g h t is p a r t o f th e th in g th o u g h t of. S o w e a r e th r o w n b a c k to a p e r c e p tu a l s itu a tio n a n d a re fo rc e d to a n a ly s e i t fro m th e v ie w p o in t o f e x p e rie n c e , b e c a u se e x p e r ie n c e is th e c e n tr a l th e m e o f B u d d h is m , n o t th e o r e tic a l p o s tu la tio n a n d d e d u c tiv e v e rific a tio n . S in c e n o e x p e rie n c e o c c u rs m o re t h a n o n c e a n d a ll r e p e a te d e x p e rie n c e s a c tu a lly a r e o n ly a n a lo g o u s o c c u rre n c e s , it follow s t h a t a th in g o r

m a te ria l su b sta n c e c a n o n ly be said to b e a series of events in te rp re te d as a th in g , h a v in g no m o re su b sta n tia lity th a n a n y o th e r series o f events w e m a y a r b itr a r ily single o u t. T h u s th e d istin c tio n b e tw e e n m e n ta l a n d m a te r ia l becom es irre le v a n t a n d it is a m a tte r o f ta ste to sp eak o f p h y sical objects. In o th e r w o rd s, a lth o u g h w e sh all c o n tin u e to speak a b o u t m a tte r a n d m in d , w e m u st b e a r in m in d th a t it is b u t a fig u re o f speech as u n tr u e as th e s ta te m e n t th a t th e su n rises o r sets. W h a t B u d d h ism asserts a n d w h a t ev ery o n e w ill b e agreed u p o n , is th a t th e re a re p e rc e p tu a l situ a tio n s, in w hich w e claim to b e in co g n itiv e c o n ta c t w ith so m e th in g o th e r th a n o u r states. Such situ a tio n s a re in tu itiv e a n d sensuous, to use th e term in o lo g y o f C. D . B ro a d ,1 a n d h av e a n ep istem o lo g ical o b je c t. H o w ever, as d elusive p e rc e p tu a l situ a tio n s, w h ic h d o n o t show a n y re le v a n t d ifferen ce from a v e rid ic a l p e rc e p tu a l situ a tio n , m a k e a b u n d a n tly c le a r th e ex istence o r p resen ce o f a n epistem o logical o b je c t does n o t g u a ra n te e th a t th e re exists a n o n to lo g ic al o b je ct w h ic h c o rresp o n d s a c c u ra te ly to th e ep istem o lo g ical o b jec t. W e believ e th a t th e re a re trees, m o u n ta in s, tab les a n d o th e r o b jects, b u t w e d o n o t b eliev e th a t th e re a re p in k ra ts. F u rth e rm o re , th e ep istem o lo g ical o b je c t is a com plex w hole. I n a d d itio n to a sp a tio -te m p o ra lly e x te n d e d p a rtic u la r, a c e rta in q u a lity o f w h ic h is sensuously m a n ife ste d in a p e rc e p tu a l situ a tio n , th e re is th e b e lie f th a t th is p a r tic u la r so m eth in g is n o t c o m p le te ly rev ealed in a ll its q u a litie s, th a t it is p a r t o f a lo n g e r s tra n d o f h isto ry th a n th e m c m e n ta ry s itu a tio n , a n d th a t this s p a tia lly la rg e r a n d te m p o ra lly lo n g e r w h o le is a c e rta in th in g . I n o th e r w ords, every p e rc e p tu a l situ a tio n possesses a n objec tiv e c o n s titu e n t o f a c h a ra c te ris tic k in d a n d a n e x te rn a l refe re n c e b ey o n d th e o b jectiv e c o n stitu e n t. I t is this e x te rn a l re fe re n ce w h ic h w e b eliev e to b e a p h y sic a l o b je ct. In o rd e r th a t a c e rta in q u a lity m a y re v e a l itse lf to th e m in d it is neces sary th a t a p p ro p ria te sense-organs exist. S ince w e h av e a t least five senses we also h a v e a t least five d iffe ren t p e rc e p tu a l situ a tio n s : e.g., color rev eals itse lf to sight, sound to hearing,, flavor to ta ste , fra g ra n c e to sm ell, a n d h ard n ess to to u ch . T h e se q u a litie s o r o b jectiv e c o n stitu e n ts o f a p e rc e p tu a l
i. G. D . Broad, T h e Mind and its Place in Nature, pp. 144 sqq.

s i t u a t i o n a r e r e f e r r e d to b y t h e te r m sarvam r upam .x S in c e t h e r e is n o r e a s o n to b e lie v e t h a t th e o b je c tiv e c o n s titu e n t o f a p e r c e p t u a l s it u a t i o n is li t e r a l l y a s p a tio - te m p o r a l p a r t o f a p h y s ic a l o b je c t, b e c a u s e th e i d e a o f a p h y s ic a l o b je c t c a n n o t b e a b s t r a c t e d fro m th e d a t a o f se n se b u t is a h y p o th e s is a n d is d e f in e d b y p o s tu la te s , t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f rupa b y m a t t e r , c o n t r a s t i n g it w ith m in d in th e m a n n e r o f D e s c a r te s ( w h e th e r th is is o p e n ly a d m i t t e d o r n o t ) , is d o w n r i g h t s illy .2 A ll t h a t w e c a n s a y a b o u t rupa is t h a t i t is a n a m e fo r a n o b je c tiv e c o n s ti t u e n t in a p e r c e p t u a l s it u a t i o n . B u t s in c e th e o b je c tiv e c o n s ti t u e n t is m ix e d u p w ith th e e x t e r n a l re f e re n c e i t is a lo o se w a y o f s p e a k in g w h e n rupa is a ls o u s e d f o r a n o b je c t, a t h i n g . C e r t a in o f th e q u a litie s w h ic h r e v e a l th e m s e lv e s to a m in d , a r e re g a rd e d as m o re e le m e n ta ry o r p rim a ry a n d h en ce b a s ic , t h a n o th e r s . T h e s e m o r e e l e m e n ta r y q u a litie s a r e te r m e d m a h a b h u ta , u s u a lly t r a n s l a t e d a s g r e a t e le m e n ts o r g r e a t e s s e n tia ls , a l t h o u g h th e p r o p e r t r a n s l a tio n s h o u ld h a v e b e e n g r e a t e l e m e n ta r y q u a l i t ie s . T h e r e a r e f o u r s u c h g r e a t e le m e n t a r y q u a l i t i e s : e a r t h - , w 'a te r-, fire -, and a ir - b a s is .3 T h e i r n a m e s h a v e b e e n d e r iv e d f r o m th e o b je c ts , w h ic h c o m m o n - s e n s e a s s u m e s , a l t h o u g h th e B u d d h is ts n e v e r h a d th e a s s o c ia tio n o f o b je c ts in o u r se n se o f th e w o r d . E a r t h is thes y m b o lic e x p re s s io n fo r a ll t h a t is s o lid a n d a b le to c a r r y a l o a d , w a t e r f o r a ll t h a t is f lu id a n d c o h e s iv e , f ir e fo r a ll t h a t is w a r m o r h a s t e m p e r a tu r e , a n d a i r fo r a ll t h a t is lig h t a n d m o v i n g .4 V a s u b a n d h u a n d Y a s o m itr a e x p la in th e n a m e o f th e fo u r g r e a t e le m e n t a r y q u a litie s in th is w a y t h a t t h e i r g re a tn e s s (m a h a tva ) is d u e to th e f a c t t h a t t h e y a r e th e b a s is o f .a ll s e c o n d a r y q u a litie s a n d t h a t i t is fr o m t h e p h y s ic a l o b je c ts w h ic h h a v e e m e r g e d fro m th e s e p r i m a r y q u a litie s , t h a t w e le a rn
1. Abhidharm asam uccaya, p . 3; 4 1. A tthasalini I V 2; 3 etc. 2. T h e translations o f the Pali T e x t Society have com pletely failed to grasp the Buddhist meaning o f rupa an d m ade a distinction not guaranteec b y the texts into m atter an d attenuated m atter . U nfortunately also th( translators do not tell us how m atter is attenuated an d w hat m atter is. 3. A tth asalini I V 3. Abhidharm akosa I 12; Abhidharm asam uccaya P- 3 4. A bhidharm akosa I 12; A bhidharm asam uccaya, p. 3. A tth a salini I V 93, here being lig h t belongs to earth .

th e ir m o d e o f o p e ra tio n ,1 w hile th e ir elem entariness an d e x iste n c e is d u e to th e fact th a t th ey k n it to g e th er th e w hole o f th a t w h ich exists2. Y a 'o m itr a gives as exam ples o f th e ir m o d e o f o p e ra tio n th e fo llow ing: I n rocks a n d oth er te rre s tria l objects w e find cohesion (sarhgraha), te m p e ra tu re (p a k ti ), extension (vyvhana), a n d so th e existence o f th e other ele m e n ts (beside th e a b ility to c a rry things, dhrti ) 'i s inferred. S im ila rly w e see th a t w a te r carries ships (sathdkarana), has te m p e ra tu re , a n d m o v em en t, so th a t in it th e re is also ea rth (th e a b ility to c a rry th in g s ), fire (te m p e ra tu re ), a n d air (m o v e m e n t) (beside its ow n p ro p e rty o f co h esio n ). In a flam e w e observe c o n tin u a n c e , com pactness, m o v em en t, so th a t in it th e re is e a rth (so lid ity ), w a te r (co h esio n ), a n d a ir (m o v em en t). I n w in d w e see th a t it is a b le to c a rry things, has te m p e ra tu re w a rm o r cold, a n d possesses ta n g ib ility , so th a t in it th e re are p re se n t e a rth (a b ility to c a r r y ) , w a te r (co n tin u ity a n d ta n g i b ility ) , a n d fire (te m p e ra tu re ) . 3 S ince q u alities, in B uddhism , a re d y n am ic, e ach p ro p erty is defined from a d y n am ic p o in t o f view . E x te n sio n ( vyiihana) is b o th g ro w th (vrddhi) a n d tra n s itio n (prcsarpana). G ro w th m e an s th a t w ith in a given series c e rta in factors a p p e a r, as for in stan c e th e lim bs o f a b o d y o r th e shoots o f p la n ts, w hile tra n s itio n m eans th e a p p e a ra n c e in a n o th e r p lace o f th a t w hich co n stitu te s a series o f events form in g a n ob ject. H ow ever, tra n s itio n , th e m oving from p lace to p lace, rep resen ts ra th e r a co m p licated p ro b lem because o f th e m o m en tarin ess o f the whole o f re a lity . J u s t as a n ex p erien ce is a m o m e n ta ry event a n d c a n n o t be re p e a te d , every re p e titio n b ein g essentially an an alo g o u s exp erien ce, so also d u e to th e m o m en tarin ess of the o b je c tiv e c o n stitu e n t in o u r p e rc e p tu a l situ a tio n , it is im possible th a t o n e m o m e n t should m ove from h e re to th ere. T h e co n ti n u ity w e observe is a c tu a lly a series o f analogous m om ents. So Y ar'o m itra d eclares: T h a t w h ich is m o m e n ta ry can n o t go from o n e p lace to a n o th e r. T h a t w h ich is m o m e n ta ry dis ap p e a rs on th e spot w h ere it has a p p e a re d . H en ce it is said : M o v em en t o r th e stre a m o f e le m e n ta ry p ro p erties w hose n a tu re
1. Bhasya and Vyakhya ad Abhidharmakosa I 12. 2. Vyakhya, ibid. : bhutam lanvantiti 'bhiitani. 3. ibid.

is .s u c h t h a t i t a p p e a r s in s u c c e s s iv e p la c e s , is lik e a fla m e b e c a u s e o f its m o m e n ta r in e s s . T h e m o m e n ta r y e le m e n ta r y q u a l i tie s a r e lik e a f la m e b e c a u s e o f th e i r n a t u r e o f b e in g o b je c tiv e c o n s titu e n ts o f p e r c e p t u a l s itu a tio n s . T h e c o m p a r is o n w ith a f la m e is g iv e n b e c a u s e t h e m o m e n ta r y c h a r a c t e r o f a fla m e is a n e s ta b lis h e d f a c t . 1 'T h e a u t h o r o f th e A t t h a s a l i n i g iv e s r a t h e r a d if f e r e n t e x p la n a t io n o f th e te r m g r e a t e le m e n ta r y q u a litie s . H e s ta te s t h a t t h e ir g r e a tn e s s is m a n if e s t in th e c o n tin u ity o f o u r e n v ir o n m e n t a l w o r ld ( anupadinnakasantdna ) a s w e ll as in th e c o n tin u ity o f o r g a n is m s ( upadinnakasantana ) liv in g in th is w o r ld .2 I n th is c o n n e c tio n i t m a y n o t b e o u t o f p la c e to d is c u s s t h e m e a n i n g o f o r g a n i s m , b e c a u s e th e tw o te c h n ic a l te r m s upadinna o r g a n iz e d a n d anupad'mna u n o r g a n i z e d a r e e v e r r e c u r r i n g in A b h i d h a r m a l i t e r a t u r e . P o p u la r ly s p e a k in g , a n o r g a n is m is a b o d y a n i m a t e d b y a m i n d ,3 o r in p u r e ly B u d d h is tic te r m s , i t is t h a t w h ic h a m in d a n d its s ta te s h a v e ta k e n u p , a p p r o p r i a t e d as o p e r a ti o n a l b a s is 4, so t h a t a p e c u lia r ly in t i m a t e c o n n e x io n o b ta in s i n w h ic h t h e r e is tw o -s id e d i n t e r a c t i o n .5 B u t i t s h o u ld b e n o te d t h a t n o w h e r e h a s a n y th in g b e e n s a id a b o u t th e n a t u r e o f m i n d a n d m a t t e r a n d th e n a t u r e o f t h e o r ig in o f th is c o n n e x io n . I n th e n a r r o w e r se n se , h o w e v e r* o r g a n i s m is b u t a c o n v e n tio n a l t e r m fo r g r o u p in g b io lo g ic a lly o r g a n iz e d s tr u c tu r e s , o f w h ic h th e fiv e sen se s a r e m o s t .p r o m i n e n t . H e n c e th e s t a t e m e n t t h a t th e fiv e senses a r e alw ays, a n d w i t h o u t e x c e p tio n o r g a n iz e d s t r u c t u r e s {upadinna), b u t o n ly a s f a r a s th e p r e s e n t m o m e n t is c o n c e r n e d ; th e p a s t a n d t h e f u t u r e t h e o n e n o lo n g e r e x is tin g a n d th e o th e r n o t y e t h a v i n g c o m e i n t o e x is te n c e c a n n o t be. s a id to b e so O rg a n iz e d .* I n a s m u c h a s a c c o r d in g to th e d o c tr in e o f th e V a ib h a s ik a s i t is n o t m i n d t h a t sees b y u s in g th e e y e a s its in s tr u m e n t, a s is th e c o n c e p tio n o f th e V ijn a n a v a d in s , b u t th e o r g a n iz e d i. ibid.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. A t t h a s a lin i I V 4 -7 . V y a k h y a a d A b h id h a r m a k o s a I 3 4 : y a l lake sacetanam iti sajivam B h a s y a a d A b h id h .- k o s a I 3 4 . ib i d . V y a k h y a . : anyonyanuvidhanad B h a s y a a d A b h id h .- k o s a I 3 4 d .

ity arthali.

stru c tu re eye (again th is w o rd m u st n o t be u n d ersto o d a n a to m ically , b u t fu n c tio n a lly as th e term cakftifiprasada suggests -),1 th e c o n cep tio n o f a n organism a p p ro a c h e s a tho ro u g h ly b e h a v io ristic th eo ry o f m in d a n d m a tte r : a n y o rg an ized stru c tu re , in so far as it behaves in a c e rta in w ay , is this m in d (w hich p o p u la rly is supposed to a n im a te so m eth in g a p a rt from it) . F u rth e r, since a n y o rg an ized stru c tu re is said to c o n ta in o th er q u a litie s th a n those d eriv ed from th e e le m e n ta ry q u alities an d fo rm in g th e p a rtic u la r o rg an ized stru c tu re , a n d since these o th e r q u a litie s p a rta k e o f th e o rg a n iz a tio n , th ey a re o rg a n iz e d (upadinna) in co n trast to a ll o th e r q u a litie s w h ich a re n o t so o rg a n iz e d (anupddinna ) .2 T h is som ew hat loose use o f a c e rta in tech n ical term has led th e T h e ra v a d in s a n d th e ir m odern in te rp re te rs in to a w elter o f confusion. I t has p ro m p te d them to fail to m a rk the im p o rta n t d istin ctio n b etw een organized stru c tu re (upadinna) a n d physical .object w hich is b u t th e con cep tio n o f so m eth in g n o t b iologically o rg a n iz e d .3 A fter this digression let us re tu rn to th e e x p lan a tio n of th e g re a t e le m e n ta ry q u a litie s used b y th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a salini. H e continues to p o in t o u t th e ir greatness b y referrin g to the trem en d o u s changes th a t o ccu r a t th e tim e o f the dissolu tion o f th e w orld an d w h en o th e r d e te rio ra tin g circum stances a p p e a r in o rganism s .4 O f p a rtic u la r in te re st a n d im p o rtan ce, how ever, is th e follow ing d escrip tio n , because it suggests th a t th ere a re no v erid ical p e rc e p tu a l situ atio n s b u t only delusive ones a n d th a t th e four e lem en tary q u a litie s a re n ot som ething existen t b u t ju s t nam es for c e rta in events a n d th e ir in te rre la tio n s., W ith this con cep tio n th e a u th o r shows his ac q u a in ta n ce w ith th e ideas o f M a h a y a n a B uddhism o f w hich h e was in fav o u r, as o th e r passages h av e m ad e ev id en t. H e says : J u s t as a m a g ic ia n shows w a te r w hich is n o t a gem as a gem , or clay w h ich is n o t gold as go ld , o r him self n o t b ein g an ogre or a b ird , m akes him self a p p e a r as a n o g re o r a b ird , so also the
V y a k h y a and B h asya a d A b h id h .-k o sa I 42. A tth a s a lin i I V 104 : yasma pana r upayatanadini upadinnani p i ahtti . anupadinndni p i . ...... 3. S ee also note 1 on p . 63 o f th e first vo lu m e o f L . d e la V a lle e Poussins translation o f A bh idh arm ako sa. 4 . A tth a s a lin i I V 10. 1. 2.

fo u r g re a t e le m e n ta ry q u a litie s^ th e m se lv e s n o t b e in g e ith e r b lu e o r y e llo w o r r e d o r w h ite , sh o w th e m se lv e s as th e seco n d a r y q u a litie s b lu e , y e llo w , r e d a n d w h ite . T h u s , b e c a u se o f th e ir re s e m b la n c e to th e g r e a t fe a ts o f m a g ic ia n s ( m ahabhuta) th e y a r e te r m e d g r e a t e le m e n ta r y q u a litie s , (m ahabhuta ) . O r , ju s t as s u c h g r e a t b e in g s (m ahabhuta ) a s d e m o n s, a re n o t fo u n d in s id e o r o u ts id e a p e rs o n w h o m th e y h a v e a tta c k e d , a n d y e t -exist in r e la tio n to t h a t p e rso n , so also th e se e le m e n ta ry q u a litie s a r e n o t fo u n d in sid e o r o u ts id e e a c h o th e r, a n d y e t e x is t in r e la tio n to e a c h o th e r. T h u s , b e c a u s e o f th e ir re se m b la n c e to su c h g r e a t b e in g s as d e m o n s, d u e to th e fa c t t h a t th e ir lo c a tio n is u n th in k a b le , th e y a r e te rm e d g r e a t e le m e n ta ry q u a litie s . O r , j u s t as su c h g r e a t b e in g s ( m ahabhuta ) as Y a k siru s h id e th e ir fe a rfu l n a tu r e b y g ra c e fu l d e p o r tm e n t, b y fa ir c o m p le x io n a n d sh a p e , a n d d e c e iv e s e n tie n t b e in g s, so also th e se g r e a t e le m e n ta r y q u a litie s h id e th e ir tr u e c h a r a c te ris tic s o f h a rd n e s s a n d o th e r p r o p e r tie s ; in th e ir a p p e a r a n c e as w o m a n a n d m e n , b y lo v e ly c o m p le x io n , b y g ra c e fu l s h a p e s o f iim b s, b y s e d u c tiv e m o v e m e n ts o f h a n d s a n d fe e t, fin g ers a n d e y e b ro w s, th e y d e c e iv e sim p le p e o p le a n d d o n o t allo w th e m to see th e ir re a l n a tu r e . T h e r e f o r e , b e c a u se o f th e ir re s e m b la n c e to su c h g r e a t b e in g s a s Y a k s in ls , d u e to th e ir d e c e p tiv e n e ss th e y a r e te r m e d g r e a t e le m e n ta r y q u a litie s . 1 I t is a g r e a t p ity t h a t th e a u th o r d oes n o t e la b o r a te th is s ta te m e n t, b e c a u s e i t is th e v e ry id e a w h ic h is so im p o r ta n t in th e T a n t r a l ite r a tu r e -em b o d y in g th e a c c o u n t o f th e p sy c h o lo g i c a l p rocesses a n d e x p e rie n c es in c o u rse o f s p ir itu a l d e v e lo p m e n t, v iz ., th e d o c tr in e o f a p p e a r a n c e w h ic h lea v es th e ex iste n c e o f p h y s ic a l o b je c ts m e re ly h y p o th e tic a l a n d w h ic h a c tu a lly is th e k e y n o te o f M a h a y a n a B u d d h is m as a p r a c tic a l d isc ip lin e r a t h e r t h a n as a p h ilo s o p h ic a l h y p o th e sis. T h is c o n c e p tio n is re fe rre d to b y th e te c h n ic a l te r m S u n y a ta in its a sp e c t o f p o ssessin g a ll e x c e lle n t G e s ta lte n (m am . pa. kun. g yi. mchog. dan. Idan. p a i. stcn. p a .n id ) ,2 T h is te r m re v e a ls a v e ry
1. A tth a s a lin i I V 8. 2. S e e fo r in sta n ce R n a l. h b y o r . b z h ii. b s a d . p a . d o n . d a m . m d z u b . ts h u g s .s u .b s ta n .p a , fo l. 8 b . P h y a g . r g y a . c h e n . p . p . ln a . Id a n . g y i. k h r id . d m ig s . y id . k y i. sn e . m a . fo l. 5 a . R t e n . h b r e l. k h o . b o . lu g s . k y i. k h r d . c h o s. th a m s . c a d . k y n siiin . p o . le n . p a . fo l. 3 a . P h y a g . r g y a . c h e n . p o i. m a n . n a g .

im p o rta n t aspect o f B uddhism , n am ely , th a t th e pro b lem o f R ea lity w as closely c o n n ected w ith p e rc e p tio n . I n m o d ern term in o lo g y this m ig h t be expressed in th e follow ing w ay : T h e re is a c e rta in sense field w ith a n o u tsta n d in g sensum , o f w hich it is im possible to p re d ic a te existence o r non-existence an d w h ich is hence te rm e d SunyatS. T h is o u tsta n d in g sensum has a c e rta in c h a ra c teristic ( rnam .pa^akara) o f w hich I believe th a t th e re is a physical o b je c t c o rresp o n d in g to it a n d to w hich it has a c e rta in re la tio n th a t it h as to no o th e r o b ject. By v irtu e o f this re la tio n th e c h a ra c teristic sensum is a n a p p e a ra n c e o f a ph y sical object so th a t it is tru e to say th a t th e re is a p p e a ra n c e w ith o u t an y existence (or n o n -ex isten ce ) 1 (med. bzhin. dd. snan.ba.)1 T h e sim ila rity to w h a t C .D . B ro ad calls T h e Sensum T h e o ry is obvious. I t is this th eo ry to w hich he gives p reference ov er all o th e r th e o rie s .2 T h e re are , o f course, c e rta in differences b u t th ey n e e d n o t be d e a lt w ith in d e ta il h ere. W h ile all schools o f B uddhism a g ree th a t th ere a re n e ith e r m ore n o r less th a n fo u r e le m e n ta ry q u a litie s, from w hich all o th e r q u a litie s have b een d e riv e d , a lth o u g h n o th in g is said of how , to give a n exam ple, color m a y b e d eriv ed from solidity or th e o th e r e lem en tary qu alities, th e re is co n sid erab le diver gence o f o p in io n as to these seco n d ary q u alities (upadarupa , upj.ddyarupa). T h e T h e ra v a d in s 3 reco g n ized tw en ty -th ree cate gories, w h ile th e S arv astiv ad in s a n d V ijn a n a v a d in s 4 ad m itte d only eleven. C ertain ly , som e o f th e tw e n ty -th re e categories o f th e T h e ra v a d in s a re also found in th e o th e r schools, b u t as sub-categories ra th e r th a n full categories, w hile o thers a re not found in th em a n d seem to owe th e ir o rig in to a transfe rence fro m th e m e n ta l to th e p h y sic a l, so th a t a physical
gi. b sad . sb y a r. rg y a l. bai. g a n . m d zod , fo l. 3 1 1 a . B sre. hphoi. la m . skor, g y i. thog. m ar. la m . d b y e . bsdu, fo l. 60a; 45a. R y g a l. b a . k h y a b . b d a g . rd o. rje. Kchan, chen . p o i. lam . gyis. rim . p a . gsan, b a . ku n . gyi. g n a d . ro a m . p a r. p h y e . b a . fo l. 270b. 1. S ee fo r instance B sre. hph oi. la m . skor. g y i, th og. m a r. la m . d b ye. bsdu, foil. 66 b ; 7 2 b ; 77b. 2. C . D . B ro a d . T h e M in d a n d its P la ce in N a tu re , p p . 182 sq. 3. A tth a sa lin i I V 12; 25. A bh id h am m atth asarh gah a V I 4 increases this artificia l system b y an o th er catego ry, th e h e a rt (hadqyavatthu). 4. A b h id h a rm a k o sa I 9 ; A b h id h arm asa m u ccay a , p . 3.

o b je c t w as h a lfw a y b e tw e e n a n o rg a n iz e d s tr u c tu r e w ith its p e c u l i a r f u n c tio n a n d a n u n o r g a n iz e d s o m e th in g c a lle d a th in g . I t is c e r ta in t h a t th e a n a ly s is h a s n o t b e e n c a r r ie d o u t sufficie n tly d e e p ly b y th e T h e r a v a d in s a n d S a r v a s tiv a d in s , b e c a u s e th e y w e re p r e v e n te d fro m d o in g so b y th e ir c lin g in g to th e n u m e r ic a l d o g m a tis m o f th e ir r e s p e c tiv e sch o o ls. O n th e w h o le it c a n h e s a id t h a t th e s e c o n d a ry q u a litie s (upddayarupa) c o m p rise t h e o b je c tiv e c o n s titu e n ts o f p e r c e p tu a l s itu a tio n s (co lo rs, s o u n d s , e t c .) a n d t h e s e n s itiv itie s (rvpaprasada ) o f th e sense o r g a n s w h ic h a re m a n ife s te d to a p e rs o n h im s e lf b y a m ass o f b o d ily fe e lin g a n d to o th e r s th r o u g h c e r ta in v is u a l a n d ta c tu a l s e n s a .1 H o w e v e r, th e T h e r a v a d in s a lo n e h e ld th e v ie w , w h ic h w as c h a lle n g e d b y S a r ig h a b h a d r a , t h a t th e o b je c tiv e c o n s titu e n ts o f ta c tile s itu a tio n s w e re n o t s e c o n d a ry q u a litie s b u t th e th r e e e le m e n ta r y q u a litie s o f s o lid ity , te m p e r a tu r e , a n d m o v e m e n t, w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f 't h e fo u rth e le m e n ta ry q u a l it y o f c o h e s io n .3 T h e V a ib h E .fik a s, o n th e o th e r h a n d , t h o u g h t t h a t th e o b je c tiv e c o n s titu e n ts o f ta c tile s itu a tio n s d id c o m p ris e b o th th e fo u r e le m e n ta r y q u a litie s a n d se v e n se c o n d a ry q u a litie s .3 T h e y also r e c o g n iz e d a d o u b le n a tu r e o f th e e le m e n ta r y q u a l i t y . a i r , in s o fa r as m o v e m e n t w as sa id to b e a p r im a r y a n d e le m e n ta r y q u a lity , w h ile th e p r o p e r ty b e in g l i g h t ( laghu) w as a s e c o n d a ry q u a l i ty .4 T h e T h e r a v a d in s , o n th e o th e r h a n d , c o n s id e re d th e p r o p e r ty b e in g l i g h t as a m e ta p h o r fo r th e p r im a r y q u a lity o f s o lid ity ( e a r t h ) .5 A p a r t fro m th e se d iffe re n c e s, th e T h e r a v a d in s a n d S a rv a s tiv a d in s a g r e e d t h a t th e a b ility to p e rc e iv e (r upaprasada) w a s its e lf in v is ib le (anidarsana , P a li anidassana ) 6 T h is m e a n s t h a t th is p r o p e r ty o f b e in g a b le to p erceiv e} m a rfife ste d its e lf t o th e p e rs o n s p e rc e iv in g , as a m a ss o f b o d ily fe e lin g a n d th u s i t b e lo n g s m o r e to th e ta c tile g r o u p ,7 w h ile it w o u ld fall u n d e r th e v is ib le g r o u p , w h e n b e c a u s e o f th e in te rm in g lin g o f
1. B h a s y a a d A b h id h .- k o s a 1 9 ; A b h id h a r m a s a m u c c a y a , A t t h a s a lin i I V 39. 2. Atthasalini I V 93-97. 3 . A b h id h a r m a k o s a I 35 a n d B h a s y a . 4 . A b h id h a r m a k o s a I 12 a n d B h a s y a . 5 . A tt h a s a lin i I V 9 3 . 6 . A t t h a s a lin i I V 2 9 ; A b h id h a r m a k o s a I 28 ( B h a s y a ) . 7 . C p . B h a s y a a d A b h id h .- k o s a I 28. p.

3>

objective co n stitu en ts a n d e x te rn a l references, it w ould b e m a d e a n ob ject o f in sp ectio n . A lth o u g h th e texts do n o t say so, this is im p lic it in th e fa c t th a t th e c a p a c ity to perceive is refer red to b y an ato m ic a l term s a n d physiological processes .1 T h o u g h invisible, as th e texts say, it is activ e -rea ctiv e (sapratigha, P ali sappatigha ) ,2 inso far as th e o rg an ized stru c tu re proceeds in th e d irectio n o f, i.e., acts on th e o bject w hich, in tu rn , stops its fu rth e r progress o r even proceeds in to th e direc tio n o f th e p erceiv in g stru c tu re o r o rg a n , as th e a u th o r o f the A tth a sa lin i describes : W h e n lig h tn in g flashes, this event (rupa) acts on th e eye, even if one sh o u ld n o t w a n t to see a n d W hen som eone w h o w a n ts to see, ad ju sts his eyes, th e eyes act on th e o b je c t .3 T h is tw'o-sided in te ra c tio n as it w ere, b etw een th e perceived ob ject a n d th e p erceiv in g o rg a n has raised th e p ro b lem as to how these tw o entities re a c h (prdp ) ea c h o th er. V a su b a n d h u a n d th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i d e c la re th a t in th e case o f h e a rin g a n d seeing this re a c h in g c a n b e b u t a fig u rativ e m ode o f speech, w hile in th e case o f th e o th e r sense p e rcep tio n s there is an in tim a te c o n n ectio n betw een th e o b ject a n d th e o rg a n , a sta te o f non-sep arated n ess in th e sense th a t n o th in g else can com e in b etw een .4 I t is p la in th a t this p ro b le m owes its origin to th e am b ig u ity o f lan g u ag e w h ich uses one a n d th e same w ord for a sensum a n d for th e b e lie f a b o u t it. T o refer to this co n cep tio n o f th e T h e ra v a d in s a n d S arv astiv ad in s as a philoso p h ic a l p ro b le m is p e rh a p s m u c h too gen ero u s, it is b e tte r listed as the naiv est view o f I ca n see th e d is ta n t sun w ith o u t an y tro u b le , b u t I ca n taste su g a r only w h en I p u t it on m y to n g u e . T h e re is n o th in g new o r asto n ish in g in th e fact th a t o u r senses have d ifferen t ranges o f o p e ra tio n (gocara). F o r th e V ijn a n a v a d in s, n a tu ra lly , this p ro b lem re m ain ed m eaningless, because th a t w h ic h w as te rm e d rupa d id n o t exist a p a rt from th e psychological process (vijnana ) w'hich alo n e is real a n d w hich transform s itse lf in to a darianabhaga perceiving p rocess a n d a nimittabkaga p erceiv ed im ag e. B oth these
1. 2. 3. 4. A tth a sa lin i A tth a sa lin i A tth a sa lin i A tth a sa lin i I V 28; 35. I V 29; A b h id h arm ak o sa I 29 a n d B h a sya , 32; 33. IV 4 3; A b h id h a rm a k o sa I 43 a n d B h asya: niraniaratra.

tra n s f o r m a tio n s fin d th e ir in te g r a tio n in th e svasarhvittibhaga th e d ir e c t e x p e rie n c e .1 F o r m u la te d in th is w a y , th e v ie w e x p re s s e d b y th e V ijn a n a v a d in s a v o id s th e c o n s ta n t c o n fu sio n b e tw e e n th e fo rm se n se d a n d th e p o s tu la te d e x te r n a l o b je c t, a c o n fu s io n to w h ic h th e T h e r a v a d in s a n d S a rv a s tiv a d in s w e re p a r ti c u l a r l y p ro n e . I t is o b v io u s t h a t th e v ie w o f th e V ijn a n a v a d in s ra ise s th e p r o b le m to a p u r e ly p sy c h o lo g ic a l le v e l. H o w e v e r, th e te r m svasam vitti is a m b ig u o u s , in a s m u c h as it m a y b e in te r p r e te d as c o g n iz in g its e lf . T h is in t e r p r e t a tio n w a s m o re o v e r p r o m p te d b y c o n s id e rin g th e svasariivitti as th e r e s u lt (p h a la ) o f th e c o g n iz in g p ro c e ss 2 w h ic h , b e in g m in d itse lf, c o u ld n o t d o o th e rw is e b u t c o g n iz e itse lf. T h is in t e r p r e ta t i o n p ro v o k e d th e s e v e re c ritic is m o f th e M a d h y a m ik a s w h o d e c la r e d t h a t m in d d o es n o t c o g n iz e itse lf, j u s t as little a s th e e d g e o f a k n ife c a n n o t c u t its e lf o r th e tip o f a fin g e r c a n n o t to u c h its e lf .3 T h is c ritic is m le d to a d iffe re n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e te r m svasam vitti b y th e T a n tr ik s w h o u s e d th is s a m e te r m m e re ly as a n a m e fo r th e u n a n a ly s a b le q u a lity o f b e in g c o n sc io u s. I t th u s w as a te r m o f e x p e rie n c e a n d n o t o f th e o r y , a n d as e v e ry o n e c a n v e rify fo r h im se lf, in e x p e rie n c e th e p o s tu la te d p re m is e o f th e u n r e s o lv a b ility o f th e g u lf b e tw e e n th e k n o w e r a n d th e k n o w n d o e s n o t o b t a i n .4 I n g iv in g a n a c c o u n t o f w h a t a p p e a r s as a n o b je c tiv e c o n s titu e n t o f a p e r c e p tu a l s itu a tio n a l l sc h o o ls w h o a d m it a n A b h id h a r m a , sh o w g r e a t s im ila r ity in te rm s a n d d e fin itio n s. T h e n u m e r ic a l sy ste m is v e r y m u c h e m p h a s iz e d . S tr ic te s t in th e lim ita tio n o f th e n u m b e r o f p o ssib le o b je c tiv e c o n s titu e n ts o f p e r c e p tu a l s itu a tio n s , w e re th e V a ib h a s ik a s , w h o a d m itte d tw e n ty o r tw e n ty -o n e v a rie tie s a t th e u tm o s t .5 T h e V ijn a n a v a d in s a d m itte d a s lig h tly g r e a te r n u m b e r ( tw e n ty - th r e e ) , 6 w h ile th e T h e r a v a d in s s ta r te d w ith re c o g n iz in g tw e n ty -o n e

1.

V ijn a p t im a t r a t a s id d h i

o f H iu a n - t s a n g , p .

1 31 .

2.
3. 4. m d zod . 6. 5.

ibid.
M a d h y a m a k a v r tt i, p p . 62 s q . ; M a d h y a m a k a v a t a r a , p. 166 . P h y a g .r g y a . c h e n . p o i. m a n . n a g . g i. b s a d . s b y a r . r g y a l. b a i. g a n . f o il. 4 2 a s q q . A b h id h a r m a k o s a I 10 a n d B h a s y a . A b h id h a r m a s a m u c c a y a , p . 3.

varieties a n d th e n b ro k e u p th is lim ita tio n b y a d m ittin g a n alm o st in d e fin ite n u m b e r (ye-vd-panaka)-1 T h e objectiv e c o n stitu e n ts o f a v isu al s itu a tio n co m p rise tw o types : color (varna) a n d sh a p e (samsthana ) ,2 C olor is a cc o rd in g to th e S a rv a stiv a d in s a n d V ijn a n a v a d in s fourfold : b lu e, yellow , re d , a n d w h ite . A ll o th e r colors stem from these four p rim a ry colors. T h e T h e ra v a d in s a d d to th ese fo u r colors five o th ers. T h e ir d istin c tio n o f colors is betw een colors p e r se (sabhdva ) a n d colors fo u n d in p a r tic u la r objects( vatthu )'. T h e fo rm er a re b lu e , yellow , re d , w h ite , b la c k , c rim son, a n d d a rk green , th e la tte r leaf-g reen a n d m a n g o -sh o o tg re e n .3 / - T h e r e is also a n o th e r set o f e ig h t item s w h ic h a re consi d ere d to b e colors. T h e y a re g la re (atapa ), shad e (chdyd)> lig h t (aloka ) , p a rtic u la rly th e lig h t o f th e m o o n , th e stars, a n d o f fire, p la n ts , a n d jew els, d ark n ess ( andhakdra ), clouds (abhra ), fog (m akikd ),4 sm oke (dhiima) a n d d u st (rajas).5 T hese la tte r tw o co lo rs a re n o t m e n tio n e d b y th e T h e ra v a d in s w ho, obviously in o rd e r to m a k e u p for th is o v ersig h t, e la b o ra te th e colors o f n a tu ra l p h e n o m e n a endlessly. T h e re seem s ,to have b e e n a co n tro v ersy a b o u t th e inclu sio n o f such item s as clouds etc. in to th e list o f colors. As Y a 'o m itra p o in ts o u t :7 B ecause o f th e ir d elusive a p p e a ra n c e clouds a n d o th e r p h e n o m e n a h a v e been m e n tio n e d s e p a ra te ly , a lth o u g h th e y possess d iffe ren t colors such as b lu e a n d so o n . F ro m afar th e y look like w alls, b u t w hen o n e a p p ro a c h e s th e m th e y a re n o t seen. In o rd e r to d estro y erro n eo u s co n cep tio n s a n d d o u b ts a b o u t th e m som eone m ig h t say, th e re is n o th in g ; to believe in th em
1 . A tth a sa lin i I V 52-55. 2. A b h id h a rm a k o sa I 10. T h e sam e d iv isio n also in the o th e rA b h id h arm a -tex ts, th o u g h n o t re fe rre d to b y n a m e. 3. A tth a sa lin i I V 52. 4 . A c c o rd in g to th e V y a k h y a mahika is th e fog th a t rises o v er w a te r a n d e a rth . T h e A tth a sa lin i g iv e s as syn o n ym hima w h ich is tran slated b y sn o w or fro s t . T h is is c e r ta in ly w ro n g , a n d th e in te rp re ta tio n o f th e V y a k h y a has to be a ccep ted , b ecau se it refers to a p a rtic u la r p hen om en on one c a n w a tc h in tro p ical cou n tries d u rin g th e c o ld season. 5 . B h a sy a a d A b h id h .-k o s a I to , A b h id h a rm a s a m u c c a y a . p . 3; A tth a sa lin i I V 53. 4. A tth a sa lin i I V 54-55. 7. V y a k h y a a d A b h id h .-k o s a I 10.

is fo o lis h n e s s ; w h a t s h o u ld i t b e b u t o n ly a d e lu s io n c lo u d s a n d o th e r p h e n o m e n a h a v e b e e n m e n tio n e d . T h e y a r e re a l o b je c tiv e c o n s titu e n ts o f v is u a l s itu a tio n . S h a p e (saihsthana ) is a c c o r d in g to th e V a ib h a s ik a s e ig h t f o ld , a c c o r d in g to th e V ijn a n a v a d in s te n fo ld , a n d a c c o r d in g to th e T h e r a v a d in s tw e lv e fo ld .1 T h e la s t n a m e d s u b - d iv id e d .sn a p e in to t h a t w h ic h ex ists b y c o - im p lic a tio n ( annam aw .am upam dhaya} a n d t h a t w h ic h h a s a p a r t i c u l a r d is tr ib u tio n o f g e o m e tr ic a l e le m e n ts (satfinivesavisesa ) .2 A s e x a m p le s o f th e f o r m e r class lo n g a n d s h o rt, th ic k a n d th in a r e g iv e n ; as e x a m p le s o f t h e s e c o n d g r o u p : r o u n d , o v a l, q u a d r a n g u la r , h e x a g o n a l, -sloping, a n d a s c e n d in g . S in c e s h a p e m a y a ls o b e k n o w n From t a c t i le s itu a tio n s , th e a u t h o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i is lo a th to r e c o g n iz e s h a p e as a p r o p e r o b je c tiv e c o n s titu e n t o f a v is u a l s itu a tio n . A s im ila r list, o m ittin g th ic k , t h in , o v a l, a n d h e x a g o n a l a n d a d d i n g 6v e n a n d u n e v e n is g iv e n b y th e V a ib h a s ik a s . T h e y a ls o m a k e r e fe re n c e to th e s k y ( tiabhas ) w h ic h w a s re c o g n iz e d a s a c o lo r ' b y th e V ijn a n a v a d in s , b e c a u s e fro m a f a r i t lo o k s lik e a w a ll o f b e r y l .3 T h e V a ib h a s ik a s a lso d isc u sse d a t le n g th th e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n c o lo r a n d s h a p e . A c c o r d in g to th e m , b lu e , y e llo w , r e d , w h ite , g la r e , s h a d e , lig h t a n d d a rk n e s s c o u ld b e co lo rs w i th o u t s h a p e ; w h ile t h a t a s p e c t o f l o n g a n d s h o r t o r ev e n a n d u n e v e n w h ic h is te r m e d g e s tu r e (ka ya vijila p ti) c o u ld b e sh a p e w i t h o u t c o lo r. A ll o th e r q u a litie s c o u ld b e b o th c o lo r a n d s h a p e , a c o n c e p tio n w h ic h w a s c h a lle n g e d b y th e S a u tr a n tik a s w h o d id n o t re c o g n iz e th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n c o lo r a n d s h a p e . T h e i r c h a r g e a g a in s t th e V a ib h a s ik a s , h o w e v e r, v a s t h a t th e l a t t e r c o n c e iv e d c o lo r a n d s h a p e as tw o d is tin c t su b s ta n c e s (d ravya), b u t tw o d is tin c t s u b s ta n c e s c a n n o t o c c u p y th e sa m e p la c e . T h e r e t o r t o f th e V a ib h a s ik a s t h a t c o lo r a n d sh a p e a r e

1. B h a s y a a d A b h id h .- k o s a I 10 ; A b h id h a r m a s a m u c c a y a , p . 3 > A t t h a s a lin i I V 5 3 . 2. T h e tr a n s la tio n o f sarimivesa b y ju x t a p o s it io n in th e P a li T e x t S o c ie t y s tr a n s la tio n o f th e A t t h a s a lin i n o t o n ly m isses t h e im p o r t o f th is p a s s a g e , b u t th e r e is a lso n o s u p p o r tin g e v id e n c e fo r it . 3 . V y a k h y a a d A b h id h .- k o s a I 10 . O n tiabhds a s a c o lo r se e A b h i d h a r m a s a m u c c a y a , p . 3.

perceived in one an d th e sam e th in g a c tu a lly evades th e po in t in question a n d therefore c a n n o t be co nsidered as a n answ er .1 T h e conception o f g e stu re (kdym ijnapti) as a ce rta in shape (sarhsthana) and d istin c t from color has also b een criticised by the S a u tra n tik a s, w ho refused to co n sid er sh ap e as a consti tu en t o f a tru ly visual situ a tio n an d acknow ledged it only as an in te rp re ta tio n ( manasa, parikalpita ),2 because a cc o rd in g to th em lo n g a n d o th e r g eo m etrical form s a re a b strac ted from a p a rtic u la r d istrib u tio n o f color p o in ts .3 W h ile thus th e V aib h asik as co n te n d e d th a t g estu re (kayavijnapti) was a c e rta in shape (sarhsthana) a p a rt from color, an d w hile th e S a u tra n tik a s d enied th e existence o f gesture as a p a rtic u la r substance ( dravya ), th o u g h they recognized it as h av in g a n o m in al existence by b eing a n in te rp re ta tio n , th e T h e ra v a d in s d id not w ran g le a b o u t th e logical n a tu re o f ges tu re , b u t sim ply accep ted it as th a t w h ich m akes know n a certa in state o f ours to o th ers o r th a t o f o th ers to ourselves .4 P ro m p te d b y th e o p e ra tio n o f h e a lth y a n d u n h e a lth y a ttitu d e s., a n d by c e rta in su b lim in al processes ,5 it resu lted a n d becam e a p p a re n t in ad v an cin g or w ith d ra w in g th e body, in looking stra ig h t a h e a d or g lan cin g a ro u n d , in b e n d in g o r stretc h in g the b o d y ,6 w hile its n a tu re w as a stiffening o f th e bo d ily o rg a n i zatio n in various d eg rees .7 O bv io u sly th e m a n y features involved in gestures led th e T h e ra v a d in s to consider gesture as a categ o ry o f its ow n r a th e r th a n as a p a rtic u la r co n stitu e n t in- a visual situ atio n . I t also should be n o te d th a t in ex p laining gestu re b y m ovem ent o f bod y a n d lim b s th e T h erav a d in s offended ag ain st the basic ten et o f B uddhism , viz., the m om en tariness o f ev ery th in g co n d itio n ed . As has been p o in te d o u t above, th a t w hich is m o m e n ta ry does n o t m ove from one p lace to a n o th e r, b u t ap p ears a n d d isap p ears on th e spot. T o consider
1. 2. kalpitam. 3. 4. 5. 6. Bhasya and Vyakhya ad Abhidh.-kosa I 10. ibid. : na hi cakfusam etat samsthanagrahanam, manasam tv etat pariBhasya and Vyakhya ad Abhidh.-kosa I V 2. Atthasalini IV 68. ibid. I V 69. ibid. I V 70.

g e s tu r e a s m o v e m e n t fro m o n e p la c e to a n o t h e r h a s a lso b e e n th e v ie w o f th e V a ts T p u triy a s , th is w a s c r itic iz e d b y th e V a i b h a s i k a s .1 T h e n u m e r ic a l lim i t a t i o n is m e t w ith a g a i n in th e d is c u s s io n o f s o u n d , th e o b je c tiv e c o n s titu e n t o f a n a u d itiv e s itu a tio n . A c c o r d in g to th e V a ib h a s ik a s s o u n d ( sabda ) is e ig h tfo ld , i n a s m u c h a s th e fo u r m a in c a te g o r ie s c a u s e d b y o rg a n iz e d g r e a t e le m e n ta r y q u a litie s (updttam ahabhrltahetuka), c a u s e d b y u n o rg a n iz e d g r e a t e le m e n ta r y q u a l i ti e s ( anvpattam ahabhvtahetu k a ) , b e lo n g in g to s e n tie n t b e in g s (sa itva kh ya ), a n d b e lo n g in g t o o th e r s t h a n s e n tie n t b e in g s (a sa ttv a k k y a ) w e r e e i t h e r p le a s a n t o r u n p le a s a n t. T h e first c a te g o r y c o m p ris e s s o u n d s p r o d u c e d b y t h e h a n d a n d b y th e o r g a n s o f s p e e c h ; th e s e c o n d b y th e w h is tl in g o f th e w in d , o f th e r u s tlin g o f th e le a v e s o f tr e e s , a n d th e m u r m u r i n g o f w a te r ; th e t h i r d is a r t i c u l a t e s p e e c h (va g vijn a p ti ) ; a n d th e f o u r th c o m p ris e s a ll o th e r s o u n d s .2 W h a t th e s e s o u n d s a r e , is n o t s ta te d , b u t i t m a y b e s u rm is e d t h a t th e y a r e th o s e w h ic h a r e n o t a u d ib le u n d e r o r d i n a r y c o n d itio n s . T h e T h e r a v a d i n s d o n o t lim it th e ty p e s o f s o u n d . A l th o u g h th e y d o n o t s a y so, o n th e w h o le th e y fo llo w th e sa m e c la s s if ic a tio n w e f o u n d w ith th e V a ib h a s ik a s . T h u s th e y m e n tio n s o u n d s p r o d u c e d b y th e c la p p in g o f h a n d s , th e s o u n d s o f a h u g e a s s e m b ly o f p e o p le w h e r e w o r d s a n d s e n te n c e s c a n n o t b e u n d e r s to o d b u t s u b m e r g e in th e g e n e r a l h u m , th e s o u n d o f tre e s r u b b i n g a g a in s t e a c h o t h e r o r o f b e lls a n d , g o n g s, th e w h is tlin g o f th e w in d , a n d th e r o a r i n g o f th e se a . T o th e la st tw o c a te g o r ie s o f th e V a ib h a s ik a s c o r r e s p o n d th e s o u n d o f a r t i c u l a t e c o n v e r s a tio n o f p e o p le a n d th e s o u n d o f n o n - h u m a n b e in g s , b o t h ty p e s c o n s id e re d to b e su ffic ie n t to a c c o iin t fo r a ll k in d s o f s o u n d . I n a d d it i o n th e y m e n tio n th e s o u n d s o f b ig d r u m s , ta b o r s , to m - to m s , th e s p littin g o f b a m b o o a n d th e te a r in g o f c l o t h .3 B u t w h ile th e V a ib h a s ik a s c o n s id e re d c o m m u n i c a ti o n ( vagvijiiapti, P a li vaciviuilatti) a s a s u b -d iv is io n o f th e g e n e ra l c a te g o r y o f s o u n d , th e T h e r a v i d i n s r e c o g n is e d it a s a c a te g o ry o f its o w n . I t seem s t h a t th e y fe lt p r o m p te d to d o so, b e c a u s e c o m m u n i c a ti o n is n o t a n y o d d s o u n d , b u t a sp e cific k in d Of
1. 2. Bhasya and V ya k h y a ad A b hid h.-k osa I V 2. Bhasya ad A bhid h.-kosa I io.

v ib ra tio n to w h ich a c cru es m e a n in g a n d significance. As a noise it c e rta in ly is a n o b je c tiv e c o n s titu e n t o f a n a u d itiv e situ a tio n (rupa), b u t this does n o t e x h a u st th e n a tu re o f c o m m u n ic a tio n . T h e ir d efin itio n o f c o m m u n ic a tio n is th a t it m akes k n o w n a c e rta in sta te o f o u rs to o th ers o r th a t o f o th e rs to o u r selves a n d th a t in the co u rse o f la n g u a g e u n d e rsto o d th is p a r ti c u la r sta te w e w a n t to b e k n o w n is a c tu a lly c o g n iz e d .1 T h e V ijfta n a v a d in s also ack n o w led g e eig h t types o f sound, b u t th e ir d efin itio n is w ith b u t tw o ex cep tio n s to ta lly d iffe re n t fro m th e o ne given b y th e o th e r schools w h o ack n o w led g e th e A b h id h a rm a . A cc o rd in g to th e V ijn a n a v a d in s sound is caused b y o rg a n iz e d g re a t e le m e n ta ry q u a litie s , cau sed b y u n o rg a n ized g re a t e le m e n ta ry q u a litie s 5, o r it is caused by b o th types to g e th e r. T h is d istin g u ish es th e m fro m th e V a ib h a sik a s w h o d id n o t a c c e p t this d o u b le o rig in a tio n , v iz ., a so u n d p ro d u c e d b y a h a n d b e a tin g a d ru m , th e h a n d b e in g o rg a n iz e d a n d th e d ru m b e in g u n o rg a n iz e d .2 F u r th e r so u n d or, b e tte r said, w o rd s a n d topics expressed b y sp eech a re fo r 'e x a m p le those th a t a re re co g n ized b y th e w o rld , those for w h ich p ro o f is fo rth co m in g , those th a t a re m erely im a g in a tiv e , those th a t a re used in in stru c tio n s b y sain ts (B u d d h ist sain ts, o f c o u rse) a n d ' those th a t a re used b y h e te ro d o x p e o p le . A ll these sounds, ' w ords, v e rb a l topics, m a y b e p le a s a n t, u n p le a sa n t o r indiffe r e n t in th e ir e m o tio n a lly to n e d q u a lity .8 O d o u r (gandha) is a c c o rd in g to th e V a ib h a sik a s fo urfold : good sm ellin g , b ad -sm ellin g , stro n g -sm e llin g , a n d w eak-sm ell in g ; b u t it m a y also be th re e fo ld : g o o d , b a d , in d iffe re n t .4 T h e V ijn a n a v a d in s reco g n ize o d o u r as b e in g g o o d sm ellin g , b ad -sm ellin g , a n d in d iffe re n t. T h e y a d d n a tu ra l o d o u r (sahajagandha), a c c id e n ta l o d o u r (samyogikagandha), a n d c h a n g in g o d o u r (parinamikugandha ) ,5 T h e se th re e la tte r types re fe r to th e fact th a t c e rta in th in g s h a v e an in n a te o d o u r, o th e rs a d o p t a c e rta in o d o u r by co m in g in to c o n ta c t w ith o th e r
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Atthasalini I V 72-75. Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa I Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. Abhidharmakosa I 10 and Abhidharmasamuccaya, p.

10. 4. Bhasya. 4.

th in g s , a n d s till o t h e r th in g s c h a n g e t h e ir o d o u r in c o u rs e o f tim e . T h e T h e r a v a d i n s r e c o g n iz e a s tw o m a in d iv is io n s , w h ic h su ffice to lis t a ll ty p e s o f o d o u r s a s g o o d o r b a d . B u t th e n to e n la r g e u p o n th is to p ic th e y m e n tio n th e s m e ll o f r o o ts a n d o f s a p , w h ic h m ig h t b e a s s o c ia te d w ith th e in n a t e sm e ll o f th e V i j n a n a v a d i n s . S im ila r ly a s s m e ll w h ic h tu r n s o u t in c o u rs e o f p r e p a r a t i o n th e y m e n t io n th e s m e ll o f a s y e t u n c o o k e d a n d b a d l y c o o k e d v e g e ta b le s , a n d to th e c h a n g in g sm e ll m a y b e r e f e r r e d t h e i r lis t o f sm e lls fo u n d in fish, sh e ll fish , r o t t e n fish, a n d s ta le b u t t e r . O t h e r e x a m p le s th e y g iv e is th e sm e ll o f m ild e w a n d o f c lo th e s .1 T a s t e (rasa) is a c c o r d in g to th e V a ib h a s ik a s six fo ld : s w e e t, s o u r , s a lin e , p u n g e n t , b i t t e r a n d a s t r i n g e n t .2 A c c o r d in g to th e V i j n a n a v a d i n s i t is s u b - d iv id e d in s u c h a w a y t h a t th e s e six ty p e s o f ta s te m a y b e p le a s a n t, u n p le a s a n t, n e i t h e r th e o n e n o r th e o t h e r , i n n a t e , a c c i d e n t a l , a n d c h a n g i n g .3 T h e c o n c e p t i o n o f ta s te w it h th e T h e r a v a d i n s a g a in re s e m b le s t h a t of th e V ij n a n a v a d i n s , th o u g h a d d i t i o n a l ta ste s h a v e b e e n a d d e d . T h e a u t h o r o f th e A t t h a s a l i n i d e c la r e s t h a t a ll ty p e s o f ta s te h a v e b e e n a b s t r a c t e d f r o m c e r t a i n th in g s a n d h e e x e m p lifie s h is s t a t e m e n t b y s a y in g t h a t s o u r is - d e r iv e d f r o m b u tte r m ilk , s w e e t f ro m c o w s g h e e w h ic h d o e s n o t lo se its sw e e t ta s te e v e n i f i t is k e p t s ta n d in g f o r a v e r y lo n g tim e , w h ile h o n e y th o u g h s w e e t, a f t e r so m e tim e b e c o m e s a s t r i n g e n t , a n d r a w s u g a r th o u g h a ls o s w e e t, tu r n s a f te r s o m e tim e a lk a lin e , b i t t e r fro m th e lea v es o f th e n e e m tr e e , p u n g e n t fro m g i n g e r a n d p e p p e r , s a lin e fro m s e a - s a lt, a l k a l i n e fro m b r i n j a l s p r o u ts a n d c e r ta in f ru its , a c r i d f r o m th e j u j u b e , a n d a s t r i n g e n t fro m tlie m y r o b a la n . O th e r ta s te s m e n t i o n e d a r e th o se o f c la y , o f w a lls, a n d o f c lo th e s .4 A s h a s b e e n p o in te d o u t a b o v e , t h e t a n g ib le (sprastavya, P a l i p h o tih a b b a ) is a c c o r d in g to th e T h e r a v a d in s n o t m a d e u p o f s e c o n d a r y q u a l i t i e s , b u t c o m p r is e s o n ly th e th r e e g r e a t ele m e n ta r y q u a litie s o f s o lid ity , te m p e r a t u r e , a n d m o tio n , a ll o th e r
1. 2. 3. 4. A tth asalin i I V 58. Abhidharm akosa I 10 and B hasya. Abhidharm asam uccaya, p. 4. Atthasalini I V 59-60.

tang ib les b e in g m e ta p h o rs for these elem en tary qualities. A ccording to th e V aib h asik as it is o f eleven tvpes. T h e y are the four g re a t elem en tary q u alities to w hich are ad d ed th e seven seco n d ary q u a litie s: soft, h a rd , heavy, lig h t, coH , h u n g er, a n d th irs t .1 V ijn a n a v a d in s a d d e d to this list th e follow ing pro p erties: slipperiness, feebleness, violence, w a rm th , satiatio n , stren g th , w eakness, sw oon, itch in g , p u trefactio n , disease, aging, d ea th , fatigue, repose, an d n o u rish m en t, all o f th em referrin g to some visceral sensation. In a d d itio n to this long list o f objective co n stitu en ts o f tactu al situ atio n s (in th e b roadest sense o f the w o rd ), th e re is co u n ted as som eth in g tan g ib le a p a rtic u la r form o f rupa w hich does n o t form p a rt o f th e rupayatana o r field o f o bjective constituents o f sense p e rc e p tio n s, b u t o f th e dharmayatana o r re a lity field .2 T o u n d e rsta n d w h a t is m e a n t by this c o n stitu e n t it is necessary to refer to th e fact th a t in the a n c ie n t tex ts 3 th ree types o f rupa a re m en tio n ed , th e former tw o bein g th e objective co n stituents o f p e rc e p tu a l situations a n d in th e w id er sense o f th e w ord, th e epistem ological object in p e rc e p tio n , on th e one h a n d , a n d th e o rg an ized structure term ed senses on the o th e r, w hile th e th ird was said to be n e ith e r visible n o r activ e-reactiv e (anidassana, appatigha). V ijn a n a v a dins in te rp re te d this th ird ty p e o f rupa in th e sense p o in ted o u t a bo ve a n d d eclared th a t it was set u p a n d realized in m e d ita tio n 4. T h e re m ark ab le statem en t th a t this rupa is som ething
1. Abhidharmakosa I 10 and Bhasya. 2. Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 4. It is said to be of five kinds. It belongs to concentratedness (abhisamkfepika) (cp. Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa I V 4 object of absorption samddher dlambanam and Bhasya ad V I I ) ; it is abhvavakdsika openness. Does it mean that it does not occupy ordinary space ? Bhasya ad IV 4. O r has this term to be understood in the sense given by Buddhaghosa in Visuddhimagga II 62; breaking with the obstacles a fixed abode offers (for meditation), and abolition of sluggishness and drow siness ? It is further connected with taking upon oneself certain restrictions, sdmdddnika, cp. Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa I V 49. It is a construct of mind (parikalpita), being a transformation of the sole reality mind, and it is allpervasive, vaibhutvika. 3. Dighanikaya III 217; Vibhanga, pp. 13; 64. 4. Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa IV 4. Hiuan-tsangs Vijfiaptimatratasiddhi, p. 140.

ta n g ib le sh ed s lig h t o n a n o th e r a s p e c t o f B . id d h is t m e d ita tio n w h i c h is lik e ly to b e o v e r lo o k e d o w in g t o th e i m p o r t a n c e t h a t a t t a c h e s to th e v i s u a li z a t i o n o f f o rm s . I n B u d d h is t th o u g h t , r e a l i t y is n o t s o m e t h in g i n t a n g i b l e a n d u n a t t a i n a b l e , ly in g fo r e v e r u n k n o w n a n d u n p e r c e i v e d b e h i n d a n i m p e n e t r a b l e w a ll, b u t is s o m e t h i n g t h a t c a n b e r e a l i z e d t h r o u g h a n d i n u s a n d is s e n s ib ly f e lt, w h e r e b y f e e lin g m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d a s f e e lin g s o m e t h i n g a n d n o t m e r e l y a s f e e lin g s o m e h o w . ( T h e E n g lis h v e r b to f e e l is r a t h e r a m b ig u o u s a s it c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d e i t h e r w a y , w h ile B u d d h i s t te r m i n o l o g y is m o r e p r e c is e , d e n o tin g t h e f e e lin g to n e b y vedana, a n d t h e s e n s ib le a s p e c t o f th e p ro c e s s b y sp a rS a ). T h e r e f o r e i t is t h o r o u g h l y p e r m is s ib le to in c lu d e th is ru p a w h ic h is r e a l i z e d in m e d i t a t i o n a n d w h ic h in a p r e v io u s c h a p t e r h a s b e e n r e f e r r e d to a s G e s t a l t in its v is u a l a s p e c t, i n t h e fie ld o f t h e t a n g ib l e . B e c a u s e i t is b e in g f e l t , i t is a n e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h is so s t r o n g t h a t t h e w h o le o f w h a t w e a r e a c c u s t o m e d t o c a l l o u r p h y s ic a l e x is te n c e is i n n e r v a t e d a n d p e r m e a t e d b y it. V a i b h a s i k a s g a v e r a t h e r a d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to th e t h i r d t y p e o f ru p a m e n t i o n e d in t h e a n c i e n t te x ts . T h e y te r m e d i t a v ijn a p ti a n d c o n s id e r e d i t a s t h e e l e v e n th c a t e g o r y o f sarvarh r-upam.1 L i t e r a l l y t r a n s l a t e d a v ijn a p ti m eans t h a t w h ic h d o e s n o t m a k e k n o w n . A c c o r d i n g to t h e V a i b h a s i k a s T h e r a v a d i n s a ls o k n o w th is t e r m b u t a t t a c h n o p h i l o s o p h i c a l im p o r t to i t 2 i t is a s e r i a l c o n t i n u i t y , th e c o u n t e r p a r t o f a n y v ijn a p ti ( in f o r m a t i o n , g e s t u r e , c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) , w h ic h is s e t u p im m e d ia te ly a fte r a c o m m u n ic a tiv e a c t h a s b e e n p e rfo rm e d , a n d c o n t i n u e s to s e t u p i t s e l f b y t a k i n g its s ta n d o n th e f o u r g r e a t e l e m e n t a r y q u a l i ti e s o r g a n i z e d i n t o a s e n t i e n t b e in g , w h ile t h e a v ijn a p ti i t s e l f d o e s n o t p a r t a k e o f th is o r g a n i z a t i o n ( avijiiaptir a n u p d ttik a ). I n m e d i t a t i o n th e a v ijn a p ti d e r iv e s fr o m th o s e e l e m e n t a r y q u a l i ti e s w h i c h a r e n o t o r g a n iz e d i n t o a s e n t i e n t . b e i n g , 3 t h e i d e a b e h i n d th is s t a t e m e n t b e i n g o b v io u s ly th e f a c t , t h a t in m e d i t a t i o n t h e s u b je c ti v i ty o f th e i n d i v i d u a l is

1. 2. 3.

See above p . 139. A b h id h a rm akosa I 9; I V See A tth asalin i I I I 584. A bhidharm akosa I V 5-6 a n d B h a sy a .

4.

o v erco m e a n d a w ider re la tio n sh ip w ith th a t w hich lies outside th e su b jectiv e an d p erso n al is estab lish ed . T h e u p sh o t o f the lo n g discussion th e V a ib h a sik a s d evote to this topic, seems to be th a t o u r a ctio n s, o v ert, sym bolic, a n d co v e rt, d o n o t o p era te a v acu u m a n d th a t th e re is in te g ra l u n ity . T h e rejectio n of th e avijiiapti by the S a u tra n tik a s a n d V ijn a n a v a d in s is not so m u c h a rejection-as such , b u t th e fact th a t by th e ir conception o f th e co n tin u o u s tra n sfo rm a tio n o f th e psychic process (santatiparindma ) th e y h a d so m eth in g w hich a c c o u n te d for a gapless c o n tin u ity . H en c e th e ir co n tro v ersy w as v e rb al (an d v e rb o se ) ra th e r th a n su b sta n tia l The Interpretation o f the Perceived World As th e p re c e d in g analy sis has show n th e tech n ic al term rupa com prises a v ariety o f concepts such as th e o bjective consti tu e n t o f a p e rc e p tu a l situ a tio n , the specific e x tern al reference o f a situ a tio n , th e fact th a t im m ed iate experiences com e o rg a nized as w holes, the o rg an ized stru c tu re o f th e senses, a n d th a t th e re is c o n tin u ity a n d n o t ran d o m n ess. O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e fact th a t th is rupa is said to possess lightness (lahuta ), w hereby th e ra p id ch an g e o f all th a t is term ed rupa becom es m anifest, p lia b ility (muduta ), w h e re b y in all o p e ra tio n s no obstacles are e n c o u n te re d , a n d w o rk a b ility (kammannatd ) , w h ereb y a certain stre n g th is m an ifest ,1 a n d above a ll th a t it has a life o f its ow n (jiv ita )2 in th e sense o f th e k in e tic energy o f the rupaprocess, m akes it a b u n d a n tly clear th a t w e have n o t to d eal w ith b o d ies or th in g s as such, b u t th a t rupa is a co n cept for d y n a m ic flux. I t is n o t m e a n t to e x p la in th e basis of all th in g s, it -only m eans th a t even in th e w orld o f objects w hich w e believ e to b e r a th e r sta tic , th e re is a n incessant flux an d stru c tu ra l! c e .3
1. Atthasalini I V 77-78. Although these three qualities are alway! together, we can distinguish them, as the author says. But then to set them up as separate categories is to revert to dogmaticism claiming a certair numerical set, rather than to raise to the level of philosophical thought. 2. Atthasalini I V 67. 3. A similar conception in Western psychology is reached by Floyd H, Allport, Theories of Perception and the Concept of Structure, pp. 665 sqq.

H o w e v e r , th is w 'id e f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e o f t h e te r m rupa o f n e c e s s ity w e a k e n s its u s e fu ln e s s in p h ilo s o p h ic a l d is c u s s io n s . I t is h e r e t h a t B u d d h is ts s p l it u p i n t o a c o n s e r v a tiv e g r o u p w h o d is p l a y e d a s in g u l a r la c k o f p h i l o s o p h ic a l i n t e r e s t a n d c o n t i n u e d to u s e th e t e r m i n a l l its a m b i g u i t y w i t h o u t e v e r a t t e m p t i n g t o c l a r i f y its p o s i t i o n , 1 a n d a n o t h e r g r o u p w h o fe lt c o m p e lle d to r e -a s s e s s t h e a n c i e n t t e n e ts a n d t r ie d to g iv e th e m a n e w o rd e rin g . I t th u s h a p p e n s t h a t th e T h e r a v a d i n s lis t a s r u p a c e r t a i n to p ic s w h ic h th e V a i b h a s i k a s a n d V i j n a n a v a d i n s c la ssify a s cittaviprayukt'a ( sam skara - ) dharm a to p ic s o f d y n a m ic im p o r t n o t d e p e n d e n t o n o u r a t t i t u d e . I n th e d is c u s s io n o f t h e lo g ic a l n a t u r e o f th o s e to p ic s lis te d in a n e w w a y b e c a u s e o f a s tr o n g p h il o s o p h i c a l i n t e r e s t , t h e t e m p e r a m e n t o f t h e p h ilo s o p h e r s w as o f u tm o s t im p o rta n c e . A s a m a t t e r o f f a c t, B u d d h is t p h i l o s o p h y r e m a i n s fo r e v e r a s e a le d b o o k i f t h e p s y c h o lo g ic a l b a c k g r o u n d o f th e a u t h o r s is n o t t a k e n i n to a c c o u n t . T h e w 'id e .f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e o f th e t e r m ru p a , w e s p o k e a b o u t a b o v e , is p a t e n t i n t h e d is c u s s io n o f se x . T h e a u t h o r o f t h e A t t h a s a l i n i b e g in s h is a n a ly s is fro m th e p e r i p h e r y . H e p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e s h a p e o f t h e h a n d s , fe e t, n e c k , b r e a s t a n d o t h e r p a r t s o f th e b o d y in w o m e n is d if f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f m e n , t h e p e lv is i n w o m e n is b r o a d e r t h a n in m e n , w h ile th e u p p e r b o d y is n a r r o w e r . H e t h e n r e f e r s to th e s o c a lle d s e c o n d a r y sex m a r k s , s u c h a s o p u le n c e o f th e f e m a le b r e a s t, b e a r d le s s f a c e , a n d a ls o c o u n ts s u c h m a r k s a s th e d if f e r e n c e in h a ir - s ty le . A f t e r t h a t h e p o in ts o u t th e d if f e r e n c e in in t e r e s t , b u t fa ils to se e s o c ia l c o n d i ti o n i n g : g irls lik e to p l a y w i t h s m a ll b a sk e ts^ p e s tle a n d m o r t a r , a t d o lls , a n d to m a k e c lo th e s , w h ile b o y s p r e f e r to p l a y w i t h c a r ts a n d p l o u g h s , to b u ild s a n d - d a m s a n d d i g p o o ls .2 T h e n h e d is c u ss e s th o s e f a c to rs d if f e r e n tia tin g th e sex es w h ic h i t is d if f ic u lt to c o n s id e r e i t h e r a s p h y s ic a l o r m e n t a l , n a m e ly , g a i t a n d m o v e m e n t, th e d if f e r e n c e in th e w a y o f e a t i n g , s i tt i n g , w a lk in g , ly in g . B u t a ll th is is d u e to th e /
I. A n unsatisfactory attem pt has been m ade in A b h id h am m atth asangaha V I 4 sq. N o t less'than eleven types o f rupa h ave been established, none o f them contributing to the elucidation o f rtlpa itself. 2.. A tth asalin i I V 6 i ; 63.

s t r u c t u r a l i z i n g and controlling pow er o f fem ininity (itthindriya) o r of m asculinity (purisindriya), respectively .1 Fem ininity and m asculinity are like the seed out o f w hich a tree grows and spreads w ith branches and twigs filling the whole sky. This structuralizing pow er, how ever, is n o t perceived by the eye, it is an in terp retatio n o f th a t w hich has been perceived, though this does n o t m ean th a t fem ininity has b een abstracted from the d a ta of sense. I t is a G estalt thro u g h w hich we perceive and u nderstan d , hence sex is listed w ith th e T h eravadins as rupa. As the a u th o r o f the A tthasalini in this connexion points out, the features o f m en an d wom en (lihga-santhana) are perceived b o th by th e eye and th e m ind (itlhilingadim cakkhuvinneyyani p i manovinneyani pi);

A lthough there are m an y structuralizing processes in m an w hich are common to both m en a n d women, as for instance th e structures o f th e sense organs of sight, h earin g and so on, the structuralizing pow ers o f fem ininity and m asculinity form separate entities .2 Y et this does n o t exclude th e fact th a t there m ay be fluctuation betw een m asculinity and fem ini nity in the sense th a t w om en show m asculine traits a n d men fem inine tra its .3 T h e G estalt-ch aracter o f fem ininity and m asculinity respectively is a p p a re n t also from the statem en t th a t fem ininity and m asculinity are th e cause o f fem ale o r m asculine features an d interests, b u t not the cause o f the sex o rgans .4
1.
2.

Atthasalini. IV 61563.
ib id .

3. ibid. IV 64. The bisexuality of human beings has found its full recognition on a purely psychological level in the Tantras. See my Yuganaddha. The Tantric View of Life. 4. Atthasalini IV 64 : itthi (purisa) linga-nimitta-kuttakappimam karanabhava-paccupafthdnam, and I V 66 : na tassa indriyam vyaHjanakaranam Cp. Tikapatthanavaniiana, p. 50. The author of the Atthasalini substantiates his statement by referring to hermaphroditism. It is, however, apparent from his exposition that he is thinking of homosexuality also. He seems to have had very strange ideas about this topic. He declares that in these sexual border cases there is only one structuralizing power, either (predominantly) male or female. He then states that when such a female border case becomes enamoured of

T h e V a ib h a s ik a s d id n o t s e p a r a te fe m in in ity a n d m a s c u lin ity fro m th e g e n e r a l b o d ily s tr u c t u r e ( kdyendriya ), as d id t h e T h e r a v a d in s . T h e y e x p re ssly s ta te d t h a t th e s tr u c tu r a liz in g p o w e r te rm e d fe m in in ity o r m a s c u lin ity is b y n a tu r e th e b o d y , b e c a u s e it c o g n iz e s to u c h .1 I t is s p o k e n o f as a p o w e r b e c a u s e i t lo rd s o v e r th e d is tr ib u tio n o f s e n tie n t b e in g s w h ic h fa ll u n d e r th e tw o c a te g o rie s o f m a le a n d fe m a le (sattvabheda ) , a n d a lso b e c a u s e i t lo rd s o v e r th e specific d iff e re n tia tio n s f o u n d in m e n a n d w o m e n as to s h a p e , v o ice, a n d b e h a v io r 3 (sattoavikalpabheda ) . B u t h o w e v e r d iffe re n t m e n a n d w o m e n m a y b e fro m e a c h o th e r , th e re is s im ila r ity a m o n g e a c h g r o u p . T h is s im ila r ity w h ic h exists a m o n g th e m e m b e r s o f e a c h g r o u p , e ith e r a m o n g w o m e n o r a m o n g m e n , is te rm e d nikayasabhaga. T h e V a ib h a s ik a s c o n s id e re d it a s a n e te r n a l s u b s ta n c e ( dravya ) h a v in g a d o u b le a sp e r^ . a u n iv e r s a l o n e (abhinna^ a n d a p a r t i c u la r o n e (bhinna). T h e u n iv e rs a l a s p e c t is f o u n d in a ll s e n tie n t b e in g s , th e p a r t ic u l a r o n e v a rie s a c c o r d in g to th e levels o f e x is te n c e (d h a tu ), w h e th e r th is b e th e w o r ld o f s e n s u a lity ( kam adhatu)
another female, her own female sex organ recedes and a male organ appears. T h is is independent of the structuralizing power o f fem ininity or masculinity, because otherwise both organs had to be present all the tim e. T h e appea rance o f the male organ in a female as our author conceives it, is due to sensual tendencies (ragacitta). W hile his description in this case may refer to herma phroditism proper, his statement that such a female border case m ay becom e herself pregnant and make other females pregnant is certainly an insufficient analysis o f homosexuality w hich does not always exclude heterosexual inter course. See A tthasalini I V 66. 1. Abhidharmakosa II 2 and Bhasya. V yakhya : kdyendriyattdbhavam stripurufendriyam spraftavyainjridnajanakatvdt. ' Throughout the analysis o f rupa we have seen that the objective consti tuent of aperceptual situation is very often not distinguished from the external reference o f the situation. This nondistinction gave rise to the controversy whether the deities in the rupavacara, the realm o f Gestalt-experiences, h id femininity or masculinity or not. T h e classical texts state that the beings there have all indriyas and that would include also strindriya and purufendriya. T h e Vaibhasikas, however, contended that these indriyas are absent, not because, as some people believed, there was no use for them, since sexual intercourse does not obtain there, but because the desire to make use o f them is absent and also because it is with the re-inforcement o f the external refe rence that femininity and masculinity begin to operate. See Bhasya ad Abhidharm akosa I 30. 2. Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa II I.

o r th e w o rld o f G e sta lte n (rupdvacara), a c c o rd in g to th e p a r ti c u la r form s o f existence (g a ti ), such as m e n , gods, an im als, and th e like, a c c o rd in g to th e form s o f b irth (y o n i ) such as b o rn from a n u te ru s o r from a n egg, ac c o rd in g to th e social sta tu s ( j a t i } w hich d e te rm in e s w h e th e r one is a B ra h m in o r belongs to any o th e r class o f society .1 T h e c o n cep tio n o f nikdyasabhdgata b y th e V a ib h a sik a s h as been su b je c te d to a severe criticism b y th e S a u tra n tik a s on. th e g ro u n d th a t it is b u t a n a d o p tio n o f th e V a ix s ik a do ctrin e. T h is d o c trin e p o stu lates as a n e te rn a l u n iv e rsa l (padartha ) th e samanya o r g e n e ra lity o f th in g s as a u n i ta ry (eka ) e te rn a l (nitya) p rin c ip le u n d e rly in g a n d in fo rm in g a m u ltitu d e o f in d iv id u a l things a n d beings. I t fu rth e r claim ed th a t this g e n e ra lity w as a n o b je c tiv e e n tity o f p e rc e p tio n .2 I t is p a te n t th a t n o th in g o f this is tru e . G e n e ra lity as w ell as th e o th e r universals w hich th e V aisesikas c laim ed to be e te rn a l e n titie s, a re categories defined b y p o stu la te s; th e y a re b est d e sc rib e d as p rin cip les o f in te rp re ta tio n w h ich w e a p p ly to th e d a ta o f sense-p ercep tio n . T h e c o n te n tio n of th e V a ib h a sik a s th a t th ey do n o t assum e one single c a te g o ry as d o th e V aisesik as, b u t a n u m b e r o f sabhagatas does n o t m eet th e criticism b u t o n ly reveals th e inconsis tency a n d artific ia lity o f th e V a ib h a s ik a system . T h u s, for in stan ce, th e y recognize th e class c o n c e p t o rd in a ry m a n ( prthagjanasabhagata ), ackn o w led g e in a d d itio n a q u a lity o f bein g a n o rd in a ry m a n (prth.agjan.atva.') w h ic h is th e non-posses sion o f those q u a litie s a n d v irtu es w h ic h a re c h a ra c te ristic o f a sp iritu a lly a d v a n c e d a n d e th ic a lly e d u c a te d p erso n ( arya), b u t th e n th e y ackn o w led g e th e class c o n c e p t m a n (manuasabhagata ) , w hile failin g to reco g n ize th e q u a lity o f b ein g m a n {manufyatva ) .3 A n o th e r o b jectio n raised a g a in st th e ir co n c e p tio n is th a t we n e v e r p erceiv e th e g e n e ra lity o f th in g s d irec tly . T h e claim o f th e V a ib h a sik a s th a t th e sabhagata exists p e r s e (dravya), b ecau se in a S u tr a it is sta te d th a t if a m u rd e re r sh o u ld be re b o rn am o n g h u m a n beings in stead o f in
1 . Abhidharmakosa I I 41 and Bhasya. 2. Siddhantamuktavali, 8. For a fuller discussion of this problem see Satkari Mookerjee. The Buddhist Philosophy o f Universal Flux, pp.
87 sqq.

3.

Bh 3 ?ya ad Abhidh.-kosa II 41.

o n e o f th e h e lls p r o v id e d f o r s u c h c rim e s , h e w ill a t t a i n th e sabhagata o f m e n ( manusyanarh sabh a g a ta m ), is a lu c id e x a m p le o f h o w la n g u a g e c r e a te s s p u r io u s m e ta p h y s ic a l p r o b le m s .1 F o llo w in g th e S a u tr a n t i k a a r g u m e n t, th e V ijn a n a v a d in s re c o g n iz e th e sabhagata o n ly as b e in g a m e r e w o r d (p ra jn a p ti), h a v in g te m p o r a r y v a lid ity , a s j u s t a p r in c ip le o f i n t e r p r e ta tio n which s ta te s t h a t s u c h a n d s u c h s e n tie n t b e in g s in s u c h a n d s u c h g r o u p s a r e s im ila r to e a c h o t h e r as re g a r d s th e ir p s y c h o p h y s ic a l e x is te n c e .2 N o t o n ly is th e im p o r ta n c e o f sex fo u n d in th e d iv isio n o f s e n t i e n t b e in g s in t o m a le s a n d fe m a le s, b u t o f m u c h g r e a te r im p o r t a n c e is th e r o le sex p la y s in th e s p ir itu a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f m a n k in d . S e x fo rm s a n in te g r a l p a r t o f m a h ; to d e n y i t is a s m o r b i d as to e x a g g e r a te it. T h e a r g u m e n t t h a t sex is d iffe r e n t fro m o th e r e x p re s s io n s o f life , b e c a u s e m a n is s u p p o s e d to b e a b le to g e t a lo n g w i th o u t s e x u a l a c tiv ity , w h ile h e c a n n o t d o so w i th o u t fo o d , n o t o n ly o v e rlo o k s th e g r a v e p s y c h o lo g ic a l d a m a g e s t h a t d e v e lo p in th e c o u rs e o f rig o r o u s re p re s s io n , b u t als o a n d th is m a k e s i t a w o rth le s s a r g u m e n t h o p e le ssly m u d d le s u p id e a s b e lo n g in g to d if f e r e n t s t r a ta . T h is a r g u m e n t s ta r t s w ith th e t a c i t a s s u m p tio n t h a t sex is alw ays lic e n tio u sn e ss a n d fo o d never m o r e t h a n s u s te n a n c e o f life. C e r ta in ly , th e re is n o d iffe re n c e , e th ic a l o r o th e r w is e , b e tw e e n s e x u a l lic e n tio u s n e ss a n d g lu tto n y , o n th e o n e h a n d , o r b e tw e e n sex p h a n ta s ie s a n d v isio n s o f s u m p tu o u s m e a ls b e c a u s e o f sex a n d fo o d s ta r v a t i o n , o n th e o th e r . S e x is a d r iv in g p o w e r t h a t m a y e n a b le m a n to a c h ie v e th e h ig h e s t a n d m o s t s u b lim e , j u s t as it m a y d e s tr o y h im c o m p le te ly . T h e r e f o r e th e a n c ie n t te a c h e rs ( purvacarya ) , w h o in m a n y re s p e c ts h a d a b e t t e r k n o w le d g e o f h u m a n n a t u r e t h a n m a n y o f th e c o n te m p o r a r y a d m ire rs a n d fo llo w e rs w h o h a v e s w a llo w e d a c o n s id e r a b le d o se o f th e p o is o n o f p r u d e r y a n d h y p o c r is y , fu lly e n d o rs e d th e im p o rta n c e o f se x b y d e c la r in g t h a t i t lo rd s o v e r ( a d h ip a ti ) a ll t h a t w h ic h m a k e s m a n e m o tio n a lly u n s ta b le a n d th ro w s h im o u t o f his c o u r s e ( sarhklesa ) a n d a lso o v e r a il t h a t se ts h im r ig h t a n d lib e r a te s h im fro m th e s e lf-im p o s e d sh a c k le s (vyavadana ) .!
1. 2. 3. B h a sy a ad A bhidh.-kosa I I . 41. Abhidharm asam uccaya, p. 11. Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa I I I.

S ex u al b o rd e r cases, such as those w h o a re sexless or h e rm a p h ro d ite (Santha ) o r those w h o h av e b e e n c a stra te d , w h o fail to achieve ere c tio n o f th e p en is o r a re u n a b le to e ja c u la te (pandaka), a n d h a v e n o t th e c a p a c ity to in d u lg e in u n re s tra in t ( asathvara),1 because o f th e ir in c a p a c ity for h a v in g stro n g em otions are u nlikely to com m it p a tric id e or m a tric id e (checking th e m u rd e r ous in stin c t o f h u m a n n a tu re is im p o rta n t in sp iritu a l deve lo p m e n t ),* a n d are also u n a b le to u n d e rm in e or to destroy th e fo u n d a tio n o f all th a t is good a n d w holesom e 3 (this being reserved for m en a n d w om en w ith stro n g opinions, o p in i ons b ein g alw ays su p p o rte d by em otions a n d such em otions b ein g v ery m u c h linked w ith sex ). O n th e o th e r h a n d , such sexual b o rd e r cases a re also u n a b le to a p p ly activ e re stra in t (samvara ),4 to e n te r th e p a th w hich w ill p acify th e passionate n a tu re o f m a n o r u tilize th e em otions fo r h ig h e r goals so th a t they b ecom e e q u ilib ra te d ,5 o r ever to a tta in th e u ltim a te by tu rn in g aw ay from a ll th a t m akes u p th e w o rld .6 I n this connex io n it m a y be n o te d th a t M a h a y a n a ethics in c lu d ed in its fold also these u n fo rtu n a te cases, b y d e c la rin g th a t, th o u g h they a re h a n d ic a p p e d to fulfil th a t w h ich is necessary in th e o rd in a ry w ay o f life, th ey a re c a p a b le o f fu lfilling the B o dhisattva id eal w h ich transcen d s all b a rrie rs .7 T h is ethics does not know o f b ein g s b ein g co n d em n ed forever for no fau lt o f th eir ow n, n o r o f beings selected for no v irtu e o f th e ir ow n. T h e a n c ie n t tex ts h a d sta te d m o re th a n once th a t all th a t is co n d itio n e d h as th re e ch aracteristics o f this c o n d itio n e d ness. T h e y a re b irth ( utpada, Pali uppdda), d e a th (vyaya, P ali vaya), a n d m o d ificatio n o f th e existing (sthityanyathatva , P ali thitassa annathattam ).6 T h is term in o lo g y h as b e en in te r p re te d in such a w ay th a t o rig in a tio n ( utp a ia ) w as synony m ous w ith b ir th (ja ti), e n d (vyaya) w ith im p e rm an e n ce (amtyata), a n d m o d ificatio n of th e ex istin g (sthityanyathatva )
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Abhidharmakosa I V 13. ibid. I V 103. ibid. I V 80. ibid. I V 13. ibid. V I 51. ibid. I V 45. See Dvags.po. lha. rje, loc. cit., foil. 46a sq. Anguttaranikaya I 152

w i t h a g i n g ( j a r d ) .1 A p a r t fro m th is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n it w as su g g e s te d t h a t th e f o r m u la o f th e th r e e c h a r a c te r is tic s o f a ll t h a t is c o n d itio n e d , w a s in c o m p le te in a s m u c h a s it d id n o t m e n tio n d u r a t i o n . B u t b y a n a ly s in g th e te r m m o d ific a tio n o f t h e e x is tin g ( sthityanyathdtva ) i n to tw o in d e p e n d e n t c o m p o n e n ts , o n e fo u n d th e d e s ir e d d u r a t i o n (s tk i t i ). T h e re s u lt o f th is a n a ly s is w a s t h a t th e A b h i d h a r m a 2 c o u n te d fo u r c h a r a c te r is tic s , a n d a c c o r d in g to t h e sc h o o l to w h ic h th e a u th o r s b e lo n g e d , i n t e r p r e t e d th e m e i t h e r a s f o u r to p ic s o r a s th r e e . B i r t h (j a t i ) w a s d e fin e d b y t h e V a ib h a s ik a s a s t h a t e n tity w h ic h b r in g s a b o u t t h a t w h ic h is c o n d itio n e d , w h ile th e S a u t r a n tik a s a n d th e V ijn a n a v a d in s d e fin e d i t as th e b e g in n in g o f a s e r ie s w h ic h h a d n o t e x is te d p r e v io u s ly (abhutva bhava ) . a T h e S a r v a s tiv a d in s o b je c te d a g a in s t th is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h ic h is p u r e l y p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l, o n th e b a sis o f th e ir s u b s ta n tia l e x is te n tia lis m a n d as h a s h a p p e n e d tim e a n d tim e a g a in in p h ilo s o p h y , fell a p r e y to th e la w o f p r o je c tio n in h e r e n t in la n g u a g e . T h e y in t e r p r e t e d th e s ta t e m e n t a b o u t t h e c o n d i tio n e d c h a r a c t e r o f a l l t h a t is c o n d i t i o n e d 4 in t h e se n se th a i t h e c o n d itio n e d c h a r a c t e r m e a n t o n e t h in g a n d a ll t h a t is c o n d it i o n e d a n o t h e r , w h ic h le d th e m to a s s u m e b i r t h o f b i r t h d u r a t i o n o f d u r a t i o n , a g in g o f a g i n g , a n d im p e r m a n e n c e o: im p e r m a n e n c e .5 R e s tr ic tin g t h e i r a n a ly s is o f t h e i r entities ( d ra vya ) a r b i t r a r i l y in th is w a y a n d n o t a llo w in g d u r a t i o n 01 b i r t h o r a g in g o f b i r t h o r o th e r p o s s ib le c o m b in a tio n s , th e y b e lie v e d th e y h a d a v o id e d th e regressus ad in fin itu m . I n a s im ila r w a y th e V a ib h a s ik a s d e fin e d d u r a t i o n (,s th iti ) a s t h a t e n ti t y w h ic h s ta b iliz e s a n d m a k e s th e c o n d itio n e d la s t. T h e S a u tr a n tik a s a n d V i j n a n a v a d in s c o n s id e re d d u r a t i o n to b e a te r m fo r th e f a c t t h a t th e s e rie s h a s n o t y e t c o m e to a n e n d a n d b e c o m e in e x is te n t. A g in g ( j a r d ) w a s fo r th e V a i b h a sik a s t h a t f a c to r w h ic h b rin g s a b o u t th e d e te r io r a tio n o f th e
1. Bhasya ad A b h id h .-k osa I I 45. 2. T h e statement b y L . de Ja V alle e Poussin, n. 1 on p. 223 is not co rrect. 3 . Abhidharm asam uccaya, p. 1 1. Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa II 43. T h is formula is found in M ajjh im an ikaya I I I 25, it has h igh authority, but is rejected b y the author o f M ilin d ap an h a, p . 52. 4. A n gu ttaran ikaya I 152. 5 . Abhidharm akosa I I 46. A tth asalini I V 1 13 -11 7 rejects this view.

c o n d itio n e d , w h ile for th e S a u tra n tik a s a n d V ijn a n a v a d in s it wasa term for th e fact th a t in a g iv en series e a c h successive m o m en t o f this c o n tin u o u s flow is slig h tly d ifferen t fro m the p re c e d in g one. F i n a l l y ,im p e rm a n e n c e (anityata ) w as for th e V a ib h a sik a s th a t e n tity w h ic h destroys th e c o n d itio n e d , w h ile for th e S a u tra n tikas a n d V ijn a n a v a d in s it w as a s ta te m e n t a b o u t th e fact th a t th e series h as com e to a n e n d .1 T h e m a in difference w as th a t th e V a ib h a sik a s a ttrib u te d th e c h a ra c teristic s to a single e n tity , w hile th e o th e r schools a ttr ib u te d th em to a series. T h is differ ence o f co n c e p tio n is in tim a te ly lin k ed w ith th e B u d d h ist id e a o f m o m e n ta rin e ss (kfana ). T h e p ro b le m is : w h a t is th e n a tu r e o f a m o m e n t. Is it a single in d iv isib le u n it or c a n it b e su b d iv id e d in to sm aller u n its ? T h e V a ib h a sik a s h e ld th e la tte r view . F o r th e m a m o m e n t w as th e a m o u n t o f tim e d u rin g w h ich a c e rta in c h a ra c te ristic achieves its full o p e ra tio n .2 T h e o th e r schools in clin ed to th e in d iv isib ility o f a m o m en t. I t d isa p p e a rs im m e d ia te ly o n th e spot, as so o n as it has a p p e a re d .a T h e a rg u m e n t, also a d v a n c e d b y th e M ad h y am ik a s, is th a t, if a m o m e n t co u ld b e su b d iv id e d , it w o u ld lose its c h a ra c te r o f m o m en tarin ess. T h e a u th o r o f th e A tth a sa lin i a tte m p ts to keep u p th e o rig in a l tria d ic co n cep tio n a b o u t a ll th a t is co n d itio n ed , b y tak in g o rig in a tio n a n d .d u r a tio n ( upacayasantati) as re fe rrin g to one co n cep tio n . H e u n d e rsta n d s b y b o th term s a th o ro u g h ly d y n am ic process, w h ich in m o d e rn term s w e m ig h t c o m p are w ith th e in itia l a n d g ra d u a lly in creasin g en erg y charges need ed to sta rt a n d k eep a b o d y m o v in g . I n th is w ay he states th a t th e in itia l c h a rg e (.acaya) is o rig in a tio n , w h ile every successive c h a rg e (upacaya) is th e g ro w th o f th a t w h ic h has received th e in itia l c h a rg e , g ro w th b e in g b u t a n o th e r te rm for d u ra tio n . H e illu stra te s his p o in t b y th e follow ing sim ile : T h e in itia l ch arg e , like th e m o m e n t w h en w a te r b eg in s to rise in a w ell d u g n e a r th e b a n k o f a riv e r, is o rig in a tio n ; the a d d itio n a l ch a rg e , like th e m o m e n t w h en th e w ell h as becom e full, is g ro w th ; d u ra tio n , like th e m o m e n t w h e n th e w a te r overflows,
1. 11. 2. 3. Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa II 45, 46. Abhidharmasamuccaya

p.

Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa II 46. Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa I V 2-3.

is c o n tin u ity .1 T h is sim ile is p a r ti c u la r ly s u ite d to e lu c i d a t i n g th e u n d e r ly in g id e a b e c a u s e in a s tr e a m o f w a te r th e re is c o n tin u ity a n d h o m o g e n e ity , a lth o u g h n o in s ta n t is th e sam e . T h e a u th o r th e n m a k e s th e s ig n ific a n t s ta te m e n t t h a t th e in iti a l c h a r g e (acaya ) re fe rs to th e o b je c t c h a r g e d ( ayatana ), j u s t a s th e o b je c t c h a r g e d re fe rs to th e in itia l c h a r g e . I n o t h e r w o rd s , a lth o u g h w e m a y s p e a k o f th e o r ig in a tio n o f a sen se fie ld w e n u s t n o t a llo w o u rse lv e s to b e tr ic k e d b y th is l i n e a r a r r a n g e m e n t o f w o rd s in to th e a s s u m p tio n t h a t o r ig in a t i o n is o n e th in g a n d th e sen se fie ld is a n o th e r . T h is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is e x a c tly th e o n e o ffe re d b y th e S a u tr a n tik a s a n d th r o u g h th e m b y th e V ijn a n a v a d in s .2 I n m o d e m te rm s th is m e a n s t h a t rupa ( th e a b o v e c h a r a c te r is tic s a r e d e a lt w ith in c o n n e x io n w ith th e c o n c e p tio n o f rijp a ) h a s e s s e n tia lly a fie ld c h a r a c t e r t h a t re a c h e s a n d ' te n d s to m a in ta in a s te a d y s ta te . S u c h a field is o rg a n iz e d b y fo rces a n d b e in g a field it is c a p a b le o f fle x ib ility a n d tr a n s f o r m a tio n .3 I t is in te re s tin g to n o te t h a t th e se a r e p re c ise ly th e s a m e fe a tu re s th a t a r e b a s ic to th e G e s t a lt sy ste m in m o d e r n p s y c h o lo g y .4 A g in g ( ja r a ) , to o , is fo r th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i n o e n tity p e r se, b u t a n i n te r p r e ta tiv e c o n c e p t u s e d to d e s c rib e c e r t a i n p h e n o m e n a a s s o c ia te d w it h o ld a g e , as fo r in s ta n c e th e b r o k e n s ta te o f te e th , g re y n e s s o f h a ir , a n d w rin k le s o n th e f a c e . N o n e o f th e s e a r e a g e , fo r j u s t as th e p a t h ta k e n b y flo o d s o r c o n fla g ra tio n s is c le a r ly v is ib le fro m th e b r o k e n a n d s c a tte r e d s ta te a n d c h a r r e d lo o k o f g ass, tre e s, a n d o th e r p la n ts th e p a t h itself, h o w e v e r, is n o t th e flo o d o r th e c o n f la g r a tio n so a lso th e p a t h ta k e n b y a g in g is c le a r ly v isib le fro m th e b r o k e n s t a t e o f te e th a n d s im ila r fe a tu r e s , it is p e rc e iv e d b y th e n a k e d e y e , b u t b ro k e n n e s s o f te e th a n d th e o th e r fe a tu r e s m e n tio n e d a r e n o t a g in g .5
1 . Atthasalini I V 80. cpr. uttaritaram pavattikale w ith uttarottaraksanantibandha in Bhasya an d Abhidh.-kosa I I 46. 2. Atthasalini I V 81. Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa I I 46. 3. In this respect the Buddhist conception o f the pliability and work ab ility o f rupa is most relevant. See above, p . 163. 4. Floyd H . Allport, Theories o f Perception and the Concept of Structure, pp. 113 sgq. 5 . Atthasalini I V 82.

W h e n th e a u th o r speaks o f ag in g o f rupa as m ean in g th a t th e n a tu r e o f rupa (sabhava ) is n o t lost, b u t th a t its newness (navabhdva ) h as gone, this sta te m e n t w ill be u n d e rsto o d only from th e v ie w p o in t o f m o m e n ta rin e ss. T h a t is to say, a c e rta ir o bjectiv e c o n s titu e n t (rupa) o f a p a r tic u la r p e rc e p tu a l situatior. does n o t lose th e q u a lity w h ic h it seem s to h a v e on in sp e ctio n , o th erw ise i t w o u ld n o t b e possible to c a ll it th e o b je ctiv e c o n sti tu e n t o f th e p a r tic u la r situ a tio n . B u t rupa is n o t o n ly the o b je ctiv e c o n stitu e n t o f a p e rc e p tu a l s itu a tio n , it also stands fo r w h a t w e believe to b e a p h y sic a l o b je c t. B ecause o f th e m o m e n ta rin e ss o f rupa as a n o b jectiv e c o n s titu e n t d u e to the e v e n t-c h a ra c te r o f th e ex p e rie n c e o f it, th e p h y sica l o b je c t 1 (rupa) is essen tially a h o m o g en o u s series o f m o m en ts. T h o u g h sim ila r w ith in th e fram ew o rk o f th e series, ea ch successive m o m e n t is d iffe re n t fro m th e p re c e d in g one. T h u s, whileeac h m o m e n t does n o t c h a n g e its n a tu r e o f b e in g a m o m e n t, w ith in th e series o f m o m e n ts, d u e to th e ir n a tu r e o f im m ediately d isa p p e a rin g o n th e sp o t a fte r h a v in g a p p e a re d , e a c h m o m en t loses its c h a ra c te r o f b e in g new (from th e serial p o in t o f v ie w ), a n d th is is c a lle d th e a g in g o f a th in g .1 Im p e rm a n e n c e (anityata, P a li aniccatd), w h ich is in ti m a te ly lin k e d w ith th e o th e r c o n cep ts o f b ir th , d u ra tio n , a n d a g in g , is th e e n d a n d d is a p p e a ra n c e o f a ll th a t h as com e in to existence. I t is the re tu r n to n o n -ex isten ce (hutvd abhdvattkena)2. I t is n o t re stric te d to th a t w h ich is listed as rupa, b u t encom passes th e w hole o f existence, th e m e n ta l as w ell as th e m a te ria l, to use these c o n v e n tio n a l th o u g h in a p p ro p ria te term s. B irth , ag in g a n d d e a th a re th e o u ts ta n d in g c h a ra c te ristic s we e n c o u n te r in th e w o rld a ro u n d us. I t is th e in te rp re ta tio n as to th e ir lo g ical n a tu r e th a t varies. A lth o u g h th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i favors th e S a u tra n tik a in te rp re ta tio n a g a in st th e V a ib h a s ik a d o c trin e , h e illu stra te s th e n a tu r e o f these th re e enem ies o f m a n k in d in such a w ay, th a t i f w e h a d n o evidence to th e c o n tra ry , w e sh o u ld b e forced to in c lu d e h im a m o n g th e a d h e re n ts o f th e S a rv a stiv a d in s a n d th e V a ib h a sikas in p a r tic u la r. H e d e c la re s: T h re e enem ies o f a m a n ro a m a b o u t seeking a n
1. ibid. I V 84. See also Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa II 46. 2. Atthasalini I V 85. This is precisely the position of the Sautran tika who declared: bhutva abhavah. See Bhaya ad Abhidh.-kosa 11*46.

o p p o r t u n i t y to p o u n c e u p o n h im . O f th e s e e n e m ie s o n e m a y b e s u p p o s e d to sa y : L e t it b e m y ta s k to ta k e h im o u t a n d to b r i n g h im in to a j u n g l e . A n o th e r m i g h t s a y : L e t i t b e m y ta s k to s trik e h im to th e g r o u n d , o n c e h e h a s b e e n b r o u g h t in to t h e j u n g l e . A n d th e t h i r d w ill s a y : L e t i t b e m y ta s k to c u t o f f h is h e a d w ith m y s w o rd , o n c e h e h a s f a lle n to t h e g r o u n d . S u c h a r e b i r t h a n d th e o t h e r e v e n ts in life. B ir th is lik e a n e n e m y w h o ta k e s m a n o u t a n d b r in g s h im i n to a j u n g l e , b e c a u s e t h e n a t u r e o f b i r t h is to b r i n g a b o u t e x is te n c e i n th is o r t h a t s itu a t i o n . A g in g is lik e a n e n e m y w h o strik e s a m a n to th e g r o u n d a f te r h e h a s b e e n b r o u g h t in t o th e j u n g le , b e c a u s e i t is th e n a t u r e o f a g in g to m a k e th e p s y c h o - p h y s ic a l c o n s titu e n ts o f m a n w e a k a n d d e p e n d e n t, a n d to b r i n g h im to a s ta te w h e re h e is ly in g o n a b e d . D e a t h is lik e a n e n e m y w h o c u ts th e m a n s h e a d o f f a f te r h e h a s f a lle n to t h e g r o u n d , b e c a u s e it is th e n a t u r e o f d e a t h to b r i n g a b o u t t h e e n d o f th e life o f t h e p s y c h o p h y s ic a l c o n s titu e n ts o f m a n s tr u c k b y o ld a g e .1 N o t o n ly is th is s im ile f o u n d in th e V i b h a s a ,2 b u t th e d e f in itio n o f th e te c h n ic a l te rm s is i n e v e ry r e s p e c t id e n tic a l w it h t h e V a ib h a s ik a i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .3 T h e r e is s till a n o th e r in s ta n c e w h e r e th e a u t h o r o f th e A t t h a s a lin i se e m s to h a v e in c lin e d to a v ie w s im ila r to t h a t o f th e V a ib h a s ik a s . T h is is w h e r e h e s ta te s t h a t th e d e s c r ip tiv e p h r a s e s h r in k a g e o f th e s p a n o f life, d e b ility o f se n so ry f u n c tio n s is a m e ta p h o r , b y w h ic h th e e ffe c t, i.e ., th e s h r in k a g e o f th e s p a n o f life, as r e f e r r in g to th e p a s s in g o f tim e , a n d th e d e b i li t y o f th e s e n s o ry fu n c tio n s , a s r e f e r r in g to th e n a t u r e o f th e o r g a n is m , is u s e d in th e sense o f th e c a u s e , i.e ., a g i n g .4 B u t th e s e in s ta n c e s f a d e in to th e b a c k g r o u n d a g a in s t th e o v e r w h e lm in g m a jo r ity o f c ases w h e re h e is in fa v o r o f th e S a u t r a n t i k a a n d V i j n a n a v a d a v ie w . I t m a y n o t b e a m iss to s u rm is e t h a t h is in te n tio n w a s to g iv e a
1. Atth asalini I V 86. T h e translation o f the Pali T e x t Society com pletely misses the im port o f this passage, because the translator fails to recog nize the causative aspects o f th e definitions. 2. Bhasya ad Abhidh.-koSa I I 45. 3 . In particular, reference m ay be m ade to the definition /ara h i kevalarii dharmat'rt durbalikaroti in V y a k h y a ad A b hid h.-kosa I I 45 : A g in g exclusively weakens an en tity . G p. the term durbalikaroti w ith d u b b a la....... karanato in A tth asalini I V 86. 4. A tth asalini I V 43.

sy nop tic view o f the T h e ra v a d in s ideas in th e m a n n e r as d id V a su b a n d h u for the V aib h asik as. As th e last item in th e ir categ o ry o f rupa (i.e. secondary q u a litie s ), th e T h e ra v a d in s list fo o d (ahara ).* I t m ay seem stra n g e to us on first sig h t th a t am o n g those topics w hich w e should describe as a b s tra c ta , a ll o f a su d d en is in clu d ed so m eth in g v ery con crete solid food.. W h a t lies b eh in d th e inclusion o f this topic in rupa, is the fact th a t sense p ercep tio n s p la y a n im p o rta n t role, n o t on ly those w h en food is sw allow ed, b u t in p a rtic u la r th e sensations o f the c o n tra c tio n o f th e stom achw alls, w h ic h give rise to a rtic u la tio n s such as I a m h u n g ry , give m e som e food. I t w ill b e rem em b ered th a t h u n g e r a n d th irs t h a d b een listed as o b jectiv e c o n stitu e n ts o f ta c tu a l situ atio n s b y th e V aib h asik as a n d V ijn a n a v a d in s, w h ile th e T h e ra v a d in s w ere p re v e n te d from d o in g th e sam e becau se o f th e ir co n cep tio n th a t seco n d ary q u a litie s (upadaya rupa) a re n o t o b jective consti tu e n ts o f such situ a tio n s .2 T h e a u th o r o f th e A tth a sa lin i describes th e m o rp h o lo g y o f h u n g e r as a cycle o f a c tiv ity , b e g in n in g w ith a n e e d or p h y sio lo g ical ten sio n re su ltin g from d iseq u ili b riu m set u p b y in te rn a l stim u li a n d passin g th ro u g h th e p re p a r a to r y effort o f fin d in g th e situ a tio n w h ich w ill satisfy the n e e d , to th e sense o f satisfactio n , the release o f tension o r state o f e q u ilib riu m resu ltin g from th e a tta in m e n t o f the goal. T h e n a tu re o f food he describes as co m p risin g o f m ass ( vatthu ) a n d n u tritiv e v a lu e (ajd), b o th o f th em serv in g to rem ove d a n g e r from the o rg an ism a n d to p reserv e th e liv in g o rg an ism . H e says : W h a t is th e fu n c tio n o f m ass a n d w h a t o f n u tritio n ? T o rem o v e d an g ers a n d to p reserv e. M ass is a b le to rem ove d an g e rs b u t u n a b le to p re s e rv e ; n u tritio n p reserves b u t is u n a b le to rem ove dan g ers. B oth to g e th e r a re a b le to preserve a n d to rem ov e d an g ers. W h a t is this d a n g e r ? I t is physiological h e a t. F o r w h en inside th e stom ach th e re is n o m ass o f boiled rice o r o th e r food, physiological h e a t rises a n d seizes the stom achw alls a n d m akes the person cry o u t : I a m h u n g ry , give m e food. W h en th e p erso n has ta k e n in food, th e h e a t leaves th e stom ach
I. 2* Dhammasangani 646; Atthasalini I V 87; Abhidhammatthasarigaha See above pp. 173 sq.

w a lls a n d se iz e s th e fo o d m a s s . T h e n th e p e r s o n b e c o m e s q u ie te d . 11 is j u s t lik e a d e m o n lu r k in g in th e s h a d e w h o a tta c k s h im w h o e n te r s t h e s h a d e , f e tte r s h im w ith d e m o n ia c c h a in s a n d e n jo y in g h im s e lf in h is h id in g - p la c e b ite s h im in th e h e a d w h e n h e feels h u n g r y . B e c a u se o f b e in g b itte n th is p e rs o n c rie s o u t a lo u d . H a v in g h e a r d h is c rie s , p e o p le c o m e fro m a ll sid e s th in k in g t h a t th e r e is s o m e o n e in d istre ss. T h e d e m o n seizes a l l w h o c o m e , d e v o u rs th e m a n d e n jo y s h im s e lf in h is h id in g - p la c e . I n th is w a y th is c o m p a r is o n s h o u ld b e u n d e r s to o d : T h e p h y s io lo g ic a l h e a t is lik e th e d e m o n lu r k in g in th e s h a d e ; th e s to m a c h - w a ll is lik e th e p e r s o n fe tte r e d w ith d e m o n ia c c h a i n s ; th e fo o d m a ss is lik e th e p e rs o n s w h o h a v e c o m e fro m a ll s id e s ; th e se iz in g o f th e s to m a c h - w a lls e m p tie d fro m fo o d b y th e d ig e s tiv e p ro c e ss o f p h y s io lo g ic a l h e a t is lik e th e p o u n c in g o f th e d e m o n w h o e n jo y e d h im s e lf in h is h id in g - p la c e u n til th e tim e o f fe e lin g h u n g r y , o n th e p e r s o n a n d b itin g h im o n th e h e a d ; s a y in g g iv e m e f o o d is lik e th e c rie s o f th e b i t t e n m a n ; th e c o n te n t m e n t r e s u ltin g fro m th e d ig e s tiv e p ro c e ss le a v in g th e s to m a c h - w a lls a n d s e iz in g th e fo o d m a s s is lik e th e tim e w h e n th e d e m o n e n jo y s h im s e lf in h is h id in g - p la c e a f te r h e h a s seized a n d e a t e n th o s e w h o o n a c c o u n t o f th e c rie s h a v e c o m e .1 W i t h a d is c u s s io n o f th e n u t r i t i v e v a lu e o f v a r io u s k in d s o f fo o d , th e c o a rs e r th e fo o d th e less v a lu a b le , a n d o f a r r a n g in g a ll s e n tie n t b e in g s a c c o r d in g to th e g r a d a t i o n in th e n u tr itiv e v a lu e o f fo o d th e y p a r t a k e o f, th e a u t h o r c o n c lu d e s h is a n a ly s is o f fo o d .2 I t w ill b e r e a d i l y a d m i t t e d t h a t a s tr ic tly n u m e r ic a l sy ste m is n o t o n ly a n a r tif ic ia l a n d a r b i t r a r y - lim ita tio n to f u r th e r in v e s tig a tio n , b u t a lso le n d s its e lf to b e in t e r p r e t e d in su c h a m a n n e r t h a t e a c h n u m e r ic a l ite m is a n e n t i t y p er se, w h ic h s in c e i t in v o lv e s p e rs is te n c e th r o u g h a la p s e o f tim e , c o m m o n sen se w o u ld b e in c lin e d to c o n s id e r a s a s u b s ta n c e . T h is is e x a c tly w h a t h a p p e n e d in th e c a se o f t h e S a r v a s tiv a d in s - V a ib h a sik a s w h o d e v e lo p e d a sy ste m c o m p r is in g q u ite a n u m b e r o f s u b s ta n c e s ( dravya ). A lth o u g h e n u m e r a tio n w a s a n in te g r a l f e a tu r e o f th e e a r lie r s t r a t a o f B u d d h is m , it m a y b e r e a s o n a b ly
1. 2. A tth asalin i I V 88-8g. ib id . I V 90-91.

d o u b te d w h e th e r this e n u m e ra tio n w as e v e r m e a n t in th e w ay in w h ic h th e a u th o rs o f th e A b h id h a rm a lite r a tu r e to o k it, v iz., to be c o n c e iv e d as a rig id ly d efin ed system . I t is m u c h m o re c o n siste n t w ith th e s p irit o f B u d d h ism as a d isc ip lin e o f v ita l im p o rta n c e fo r th e s p iritu a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e in d iv id u a l, to co n sid e r th e e n u m e ra tio n s sc a tte re d o v e r th e v ast re a lm o f tex ts as a n a id to m em o ry . T h e w id e ra n g e o f m e a n in g o f th e te rm rupa, e x te n d in g fro m a n o b je c tiv e c o n s titu e n t o f a p e r c e p tu a l s itu a tio n to a n in te rp re ta tiv e c o n c e p t, m a d e it p a r tic u la r ly u n su ite d as a n a id to c le a r th in k in g , a n d as a co n seq u en ce to th e c o m m u n ic a tio n o f th o u g h t. F o r if th e field o f referen ce is to o la rg e , its c o n te n t becom es v a g u e a n d m a y la y us o p e n to th e c h a rg e th a t w e d o n o t know e x a c tly w h a t it is w e a r e th in k in g o f o r sp ea k in g a b o u t. Success in th in k in g m o re c le a rly w ill be a c h ie v ed w h en w e d o define th e w o rd s b y m ean s o f w h ic h w e a re a tte m p tin g to express o u r th o u g h ts. T h e re fo re , th ro u g h o u t th e h isto ry o f B u d d h ist th o u g h t d e fin itio n o f term s has receiv ed th e g re a te st a tte n tio n a n d th e q u a r r e l b etw een th e v a rio u s schools w as o ften n o th in g m p re th a n a w ra n g lin g a b o u t c o rre c t d e fin itio n s .1 I n c la ri fying th e p o sitio n tak en u p b y th e v ario u s schools, by d e fin itio n a n d re -d e fin itio n it h a p p e n e d th a t th e te rm rupa b e cam e re stric te d to m e a n th e o b jectiv e c o n s titu e n t o f p e rc e p tu a l situ a tio n , a n d in a w id e r sense, th e ep istem o lo g ical o b je c t o f o u r p e rc e p tio n . T h e re a liz a tio n o f th e c h a ra c te r o f w holeness o f a n e x p e rie n c e a n d o f th e fa c t th a t th e o b se rv e r is p a r t o f his o b ser v a tio n , n a tu r a lly in c lu d e d th e sensory o rg a n iz a tio n by w h ich w e perceiv e. B u t th e re a re also o th e r topics th a n p e rc e p tio n s. O u r in te re sts a re c e n te re d on ev en ts, cau sal co n n e c tio n s, a ctiv itie s, tim e, a n d a b o v e a ll o n re la tio n sh ip s, w h ic h w e w a n t to co n ceive a n d to c o m m u n ic a te . C e rta in ly , re la tio n sh ip s c a n n o t be classi fied as e p istem o lo g ical o b jects o r as c e rta in sta te s o f m in d . T h is
i. Definition and classification go hand in hand, and any ordered arrangement affords a good conspectus of what is known about a certain subject matter. Classification has been the hobby of the Theravadins to an unbelievable extent. The principle of classification has been division. In such bulky works as the Yamaka, Patthana, and to a lesser exten t, Dhatukatha, hardly anything but classification on the basis of division is found.

t h e n m a d e i t n e c e s s a r y to s e t u p a n e w c a te g o r y w h ic h w a s d e s ig n e d to c o m p r is e a ll th o s e to p ic s o n w h ic h in t e r e s t c e n te r e d a n d w h ic h c o u ld n o t b e p r o p e r l y lis te d a s e i t h e r ru p a o r c itta . T h i s n e w c a te g o r y , s e t u p b y t h e S a r v a s tiv a d in s - V a ib h a s ik a s a n d t a k e n o v e r b y th e V i j n a n a v a d i n s , w a s te r m e d titta v ip ra y u k ta -sa m sk d ra d y n a m ic f a c to r s a p a r t f ro m o u r a t t i t u d e .1 W h e n w e e x p re s s e v e n ts in la n g u a g e a n d t u r n th e m i n t o p r o p o s it i o n s s o m e th in g v e ry c u r io u s h a p p e n s . T h e e v e n ts b e c o m e tr a n s f o r m e d in s u c h a w a y t h a t th e r e la tio n s t h a t e x is t b e tw e e n th e m e m b e r s o f th e p r o p o s i ti o n a r e t u r n e d in to s o m e t h i n g lik e o b je c ts . A p e r s o n w h o is n o t a w a r e o f t h is f a c t is a t o n c e le d i n t o r e a d i n g th e p r e s e n te d fa c ts in th e o b v io u s b u t w ro n g w a y .2 T h i s p e c u l i a r i t y in c o m b i n a tio n w i t h th e in te r e s t in t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f m a n to s p i r i t u a l m a t u r i t y r e s u lte d in t h e p o s t u l a t i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r to p i c c a lle d p ra p ti a t t a i n m e n t , p o s s e s s io n 3 a n d its o p p o s ite a p rd p ti n o n - a t t a i n m e n t , n o n p o s s e s s io n .4 T h a t is to s a y , a p e r s o n w h o h a s u n d e r g o n e a s p i r i t u a l t r a i n i n g is k n o w n to h a v e a t t a i n e d a n d t o p o ssess s o m e t h i n g w h ic h o th e r s la c k w h o h a v e n o t d o n e so . T h u s A p o ssesses B te lls o f a w a y in w h ic h A a n d B a r e c o m b in e d . I n o u r e x p r e s s in g th is w a y w e n a m e i t a n d in n a m in g i t a n e w e n tity , p o s s e s s in g , se e m s to h a v e a d d e d i t s e lf to th e c o m p le x o f A a n d B . S im ila r ly i t m a y h a p p e n t h a t A d o e s n o t possess B w h ic h a ls o te lls a b o u t a w a y in w h ic h A a n d B a r e s e p a r a te d . B o th th e s e r e la tio n s , t h e p o s itiv e a n d th e n e g a tiv e o n e s, th e V a ib h a s i k a s c o n s id e r e d to b e r e a l e n titie s (dravya ), w h ic h n ic e ly i l l u s tr a t e s t h e i r w r o n g r e a d i n g o f f a c t . T h e c r i t i q u e b y th e S a u t r a n t i k a s m a d e i t a b u n d a n t l y c le a r t h a t th e e v e n t w h ic h w a s t u r n e d in to th e p r o p o s itio n A p ossesses B d i d in v o lv e a c e r t a i n s u c c e s s io n o f a c ts b y A a n d B , b u t n o t i n th e m a n n e r w h ic h t h e p r o p o s itio n se e m s to e x h ib i t first A , th e n p o ssesses, t h e n B . C e r t a i n l y A a n d B a r e s im u lta n e o u s w i t h e a c h o th e r a n d w it h p o sse ssin g . T h is th e V a i b h a s ik a s th e m s e lv e s w e re f o r c e d to a d m i t ,5 b u t i n t h e i r e a g e rn e s s to s u b s ta n tia liz e
1. 2. B o o k ). 3. 4. 5. Abhidharm akosa I I 35; Abhidharm asam uccaya, p p . 10 sq. See Susanne K . Langer, Philosophy in a N ew K e y , p. 64 (M entor Abhidharm akosa I I 36-40. ibid. I I 39-40. Bhasya ad A b h id h .-k osa I I 36 : sahajapraptihetuka.

a ll an d every th in g they closed th eir ears to a p e rtin e n t critiq u e a n d held to th e ir concep tio n o f possession b eing a substance, because it was prescribed by th e ir system (siddhanta)-1 T h e V ijn an av ad in s took up th e c ritiq u e by th e S au tran tik as. included possession as a co ncept (prajnapti) in th e ir system an d d ro p p ed non-possession com pletely .2 T his difference in conceiving o f the logical n a tu re of o th e r topics is also evident in the re m a in ing categories m entioned as dynam ic factors a p a rt from an a ttitu d e , as for instance, ind u ced unconsciousness (dsamjnika), the p ractice and a tta in m e n t o f in d u ced unconsciousness (asarfijnisamapatti), w hich o rd in a ry and u n tra in e d people (prthagja n a ) m istake for em an cip atio n from th e tu rm o il o f w orldly existence, w hile the spiritually-m inded people (drya) consider it as a dangerous p itfa ll ,3 the a tta in m e n t o f the suspension o f a ttitu d in a l an d fun ctio n al o p eratio n s (niredhasamdpatti), w ords (namakdya), sentences (padakdya ), a n d letters ( vyanjanakaya).1 In d ealin g w ith the w orld aro u n d us a n d also w ith ourselves, w e believe th a t there are d ep en d ab le regularities w ithin the m u ltifo rm ity o f our experiences. T hese regularities w e ever a n d ag ain try to find a n d th e im plicit b e lie f in such orderly sequence or causation is a d o m in a n t p rin c ip le in our in d iv id u al m inds. I t'is u p o n this b elief th a t we base o u r hopes an d fears, plan s a n d techniques o f actio n . B ut cau sation is a tricky problem a n d th e discussions of philosophers have done little, if an y th in g , to clarify it. I t is w ith the advance, o f science th a t th e idea o f cause as exerting com pulsion, as a n agent im pelling som ething to a c t in some w ay, though still being present, no lo n g er finds serious consideration an d th a t em phasis is placed on relatio n sh ip s ra th e r th a n on term s .5 R elationships have alw ays a ttracted , the m ain in terest o f th e B uddhists o f all schools, and the V ijnanavadins; listed in th eir category o f topics, a p a rt from an a ttitu d e and a n epistem ological object, several term s
1. Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa II 36. 2. Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 10. 3. Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa II 42. 4. Abhidharmakosa II 47; Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 11. All these entities are substances (dravya) for the Vaibhasikas, while they are concepts, terms, signs (prajHapti) for the Vijnanavadins. 5. See L. S. Stebbing, A Modern Introduction to Logic, p. 261.

d e s c r ip tiv e o f c a u s a l re la tio n s h ip s . T h e y a re r e g u la r s e q u e n c e (p ra v rtti), d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n c a u s e a n d e ffe c t (pratiniyam a), c o rre s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n c a u se a n d e ffe c t (y o g a ), ra p id su c c e ssio n b e tw e e n c a u s e a n d e ffe c t (Java) o r d e r ly s e q u e n c e (anukram a), te m p o r a l r e la tio n s h ip ( k a la ), s p a tia l r e la tio n s h ip (deSa), a n d m o s t i m p o r ta n t o f a ll, sin c e it is e x tre m e ly d iffic u lt, i f n o t im p o ssib le to fin d , a n y one e v e n t w h ic h c a n b e r e g a r d e d as the c a u se o f a g iv e n e v e n t, th e c o llo c a tio n o f c a u s a l fa c to r s (sam agri ) . 1 T h is la tt e r te r m c le a rly show s th a t th e B u d d h is ts n e v e r a d m itte d th e r u le A cau ses B , e x c e p t as a c r u d e s u g g e stio n in n o n -p h ilo s o p h ic a l p a rla n c e . A s a m a tte r o f fa c t, th e B u d d h is t c o n c e p tio n o f c a u s a tio n , is i f w e w a n t to c o m p a r e it w ith o th e r th e o rie s a b o u t c a u s a tio n , m o re in lin e w ith H u m e s v ie w t h a t in c a u s a tio n th e re is n o in d e fin a b le r e la tio n , e x c e p t c o n ju n c tio n a n d su ccessio n a n d t h a t o u r te n d e n c y to a c c e p t su c h p ro p o s itio n s as th is c a u se s t h a t is to b e e x p la in e d b y th e law s o f h a b it a n d a s s o c ia tio n . A fru itfu l u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e B u d d h is t c o n c e p tio n o f c a u s a tio n w ill b e g a in e d o n c e th e o u ts ta n d in g lo g ic ia n s su ch as D in n a g a a n d D h a r m a k lr ti a r e sy s te m a tic a lly s tu d ie d , th e la tte r in p a r tic u la r c le a r ly f o r m u la tin g a n d m a k in g u se o f th e la w o f fu n c tio n a l dependence. O f a ll sch o o ls th e V ijn a n a v a d in s w e re th e o n ly o n es w h o g a v e n u m b e r (sarhkhya) a s ta tu s o f its o w n in th e ir classific atio n o f to p ic s o f in te r e s t .2
1. In course o f tim e two distinct sets have become developed: hetv and pratyaya. T h e Theravadins recognized three hetus which could be counted as nine, according to their character, as Wholesome, unwholesome, 01 undefined. T h e y also accepted twenty-four pratyayas, most of- them owing their existence to the profuseness o f linguistic expression. According to Abhidhammattha-sangaha V I I I 29 this large number can be reduced to four topics, but w ith the exception of alamhanapratyaya (Pali drammartapaccaya) none are found in the other schools of Buddhism. T h e Sarvastivadins recognized six hetus yielding five results, and four pratyayas, which are identical with those recognized by the Vijnanavadins. T h e Vijnanavadins recognized ten hetus which were essentially subdivisions o f two hetus, and four pratyayas. A good synopsis of the various hetus and pratyayas is found in Louis de la Vallfee Poissin, Theorie des douze causes, pp. 51 sqq. 2. Abhidharmasatnuccaya, p. n . T h e Vaibhasikas included number o f calculus in mental activity. Abhidharm akosa I V 126.

Atoms and Structure A p re se n ta tio n o f th e ideas a b o u t o u r p hysical w orld w ould be in co m p lete if the a to m ic th eo ry o f th e Sarvastivadins w as n o t referred to. H ow ever, it m u st n o t b e assum ed th a t in this th eo ry we h av e a n y th in g like th e a to m ic theory w hich o b ta in e d a t th e begin n in g o f m o d e rn physics, th e philosophical consequence o f w hich was th a t a th re e -te rm re latio n obtains in w hich th e atom s in p u b lic m a th e m a tic a l space a n d tim e are o n e term , th e sensed q u alities in sensed space a n d tim e the th ird term , a n d th e observer th e m e d ia tin g second term . N o r do w e find in it a n eq u iv alen t to th e early G reek d istin ctio n b etw een th e w orld as im m ed iately sensed w hich is n o t the real w orld, a n d the w orld as d esignated b y the m a th e m a tic a lly a n d experi m en tally confirm ed theories o f science. F o r th e Sarvastivadins a n d also for th e S au tran tik as, w ho h eld a n ato m ic view, atom s a re not discontinuous b u t alw ays form a con g lom eration, a stru c tu ra l u n it. A t th e m in im u m eight ato m s in the p ro p er sense o f th e w o rd as in d iv isib le entities, form one stru c tu ra l u n it w h ic h , how ever, is u n a b le to exist alone a n d m u st be com bin ed w ith a n d su p p o rted by a t least seven sim ilar units. T h e eight substances (dravya), in th e term inology o f the S arv asti v adins, w hich b u ild up one u n it a re the four g re a t elem entary q u alities (mahabhuta ) to g e th e r w ith four secondary qualities (iupadaya), viz., color-shape (rupa), o d o r, taste, a n d the tangible. I f these atom s, in the loose sense o f th e te rm as a cluster of atom s p ro p e r, (sanghataparamam) are found in an organism th ey in a d d itio n com prise th e tan g ib ility o f th e body o rg a n i z atio n , a n d in th e case o f the p a rtic u la r sensory capacities, they in a d d itio n com prise th e sensibility o f th e p a rtic u la r sense o rg a n iz a tio n w hich is in se p a ra b ly linked w ith th e general body o rg a n iz a tio n .2 A lth o u g h w e speak o f th e sensory c ap acity o f a n o rg an it should be n o te d th a t in B u d d h ist conception the sensory c ap acity is the o rg an , th e o f belongs only to th e proje c tib ility o f language. B etw een th e S arvastiv ad in s a n d S a u tra n tik a s a dispute h a d arisen as to th e n a tu re o f th e co n g lo m eration o f atom s : W h e th e r th e ato m s touch each o th e r o r w h eth er there are in te r

v a ls betw een, th e m . O r w h e th e r th e re a r e no in te rv a ls betw een, th e m a n d y e t th e y d o not to u c h e a c h o th e r. T h e S a rv a s tiv a d in s -V a ib h a s ik a s h e ld th e view th a t th e r e a r e in te rv a ls b e tw e e n th e a to m s o f th e c o n g lo m e ra tio n , w h ile th e S a u tra n tik a s d e c la re d t h a t th e re a r e n o . in te rv a ls a n d y e t th e ato m s d o n o t to u c h e a c h o th e r. T h e u n d e r ly in g id e a o f th e a to m ic th e o ry h a s c e r ta in ly b e e n o n e o f s tr u c tu r a n c e , as m a y b e g le a n e d fro m th e a s se rtio n t h a t th e a r r a n g e m e n t o f th e c lu ste rs o f a to m s is d iffe re n t w ith th e d iffe re n t o rg a n s . T h u s th e eye a to m s a r e sh a p e d lik e th e c u m m in flow ers, th e e a r a to m s lik e a b ir c h - tr e e leaf, th e n o se a to m s like a c o ro n e t, th e to n g u e a to m s lik e a h a lf-m o o n , th e b o d y a to m s like th e b o d y itself, th e a to m s o f th e fem ale sex o rg a n s lik e a d ru m , a n d th o se o f th e m a le sex o rg a n s like a t h u m b .1 O w in g to th e ir te n d e n c y to re d u c e e v e ry th in g to , a n d to d e a l e sse n tia lly w ith , q u a n tita tiv e c o n c e p ts a n d law s (dravya ) as th e sole a n d su fficien t c o n d itio n o f s tr u c tu r e , th e S a rv a stiv a d in s -V a ib h a s ik a s o v e rlo o k e d th e fa c t th a t q u a n tita tiv e law s a lo n e , th o u g h a lw a y s a s s ig n a b le to th e p a tte r n in g o r s tr u c tu r in g o f ev en ts, c a n n e v e r d e s c rib e th e e v e n t a n d its s tru c tu rin g . Q u a n tita tiv e law s d o n o t e v e n a c c o u n t fo r o n e o f th e m o st sig n ific a n t a sp e c ts o f s tru c tu re , v iz., w holeness. W h o len ess itse lf is th e o u tc o m e o f s tr u c tu rin g a n d s tr u c tu rin g tak es p la c e a t ev ery lev el o f o rg a n ism ic life. T h e c r itiq u e o f th e a to m ic th e o ry o f th e S a r v a s tiv a d in s b y th e V ijn a n a v a d in s a n d M a d h y a m ik a s w a s th e re fo re d ir e c te d a g a in s t th e re d u c tio n o f a liv in g p ro cess to q u a n t it a t i v e law s a n d , m o re o v e r, p o in te d o u t a n in h e r e n t c o n tr a d ic tio n in te rm s o f th e a to m ic th e o ry . A s u m m a r y o f th e a to m ic th e o ry a n d its c r itiq u e is fo u n d in s G a m .p o . p a s L a m .r im a n d is g iv e n h e re in tr a n s la tio n :z T h e V a ib h a s ik a s sa y : T h e n a tu r e o f a to m s is su c h th a t a n a to m is s p h e ric a l, h a s n o p a r ts , is sin g le , a n d exists m a te ria lly . T h e c o n g lo m e ra tio n o f a to m s fo rm s o b jects (o f p e rc e p tio n ) su c h as c o lo r-sh a p e a n d o th e r o b je c ts. B etw een th e ato m s in a n a to m c o n g lo m e ra tio n th e re a r e in te rv a ls. T h a t th e se a to m s
i. Abhidharmakosa I J3-44ab and Bhasya. Students of psychoana lysis w ill be reminded o f the relationship between the thumb and sex. a. Dam . chos. yid. bzhin. gyi. nor. bu. thar. pa. rin. po. chrgyan. zhes, b ya. ba. theg. pa. chen. poi. Iam. tim. gyi. bsad. pa. fol.fp6*.

a p p ea r to b e in one place is like the u n ity o f ap p earance of a y a k s tail in the pasture. T h a t the atom s do n o t fall asu n d er is due to the fact th a t they a re held to g eth er by the K a rm a n of sentient beings. T h e S au tran tik as assert : T h e atom s conglom erate an d though th ere are no in terv als in betw een them , they do n o t to u ch each o th e r. A lth o u g h the ad h e re n ts o f an ato m ic th eo ry m ake such a claim n o th in g o f w h a t th ey say is proved. A tom s m ust be single o r p lu ra l. I f they a re single it m ust be questioned w h eth er they have several sides or n o t. I f they possess various sides, they extend in to an E astern , W estern, S o u th ern , N o rth ern , u p p er a n d low er direction. Since in such a case they h av e six sides (an d a re divisible) the claim o f th eir singleness collapses. I f they do n o t possess d ifferent sides, all m a te ria l things ought to be o f the n a tu re o f a single atom . B ut th is is n o t th e case, as is p lain ly evident. In th e V irhsatika is s ta te d :1 O n e a to m jo in e d w ith six others M u st have six p arts. I f six are in one a n d th e sam e place, T h e aggregate m u st be as one ato m only. I f you suggest th a t th ere is a m u ltitu d e o f atom s as aggregates, th e answ er is th a t if one atom w ere found to exist it w ould be possible to assum e an aggregate o f single atom s, b u t since a single atom is n o t proved, an aggregate due to a com bin atio n o f single atom s is n o t p ro v e d . A sim ilar theory, th o u g h in im p o rta n t respects different an d superior to it was evolved b y th e T h erav ad in s. A p a rt from th e fact th a t they do n o t recognize atom s as q u a n tita tiv e elem ents in stru ctu re an d refer to the q u a n tita tiv e aspect by such term s as octad , n o n ad , d ecad an d a few m ore, the highest n u m b e r bein g th irteen , the q u a n tita tiv e aspect rem ains en tirely su b o rd in ate to the dynam ic o r kinetic one. As the term s im ply, the m in im u m o f q u a n tita tiv e requirem en ts for stru ctu rin g a re eig h t forces, viz., the four g re a t elem en tary qualities (maha bhuta) o f solidification (patkavidkatu), cohesion (dpodhdlu),

t e m p e r a t u r e ( tejodhatu ) , m o tio n ( vayod.ha.tu) a n d f o u r s e c o n d a r y q u a l i t ie s ( u padaya ), v iz ., c o lo r (v a rn a ), o d o r ( g a n d h a ), ta s te (r a sa ), a n d f o r c e o r v ig o r (o ja ) , b y w h ic h l a t t e r te r m is i n d i c a t e d t h a t a firm a r t i c u l a t i o n a n d o r g a n iz a tio n o f s u c h a c o m p o u n d o r s t r u c t u r e o b ta in s . T h e s e e ig h t fo rc e s w h ic h a r e n e v e r f o u n d a p a r t f r o m e a c h o t h e r a r e te r m e d a n in s e p a r a b le o r g a n i z a t i o n ( avinibbhogarupa) o r a p u r e o c t a d (su d d h a tth a k a ) x T h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n o w e s its e x is te n c e to v a r io u s s t r u c t u r a liz in g la w s , t h a t is to s a y , a n y s u c h o r g a n iz a tio n is t h e m a n i fe s te d f o r m o f th e s t r u c t u r a l i z i n g la w a n d is th e e m p ir ic a l, f a c t u a l , p h y s ic a l, a n d p h y s io lo g ic a l c h a r a c t e r o f n a t u r e a n d m a n . T h e la w s t h a t o p e r a te a t d if f e r e n t le v e ls a r e a b o v e a ll K a r m a n o r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e w h o le c-f r e a l i t y is a d y n a m ic p ro c e s s .2 T h e n t h e r e is c itta w h ic h a s w e h a v e s e e n in th e n a r r o w e r sen se o f t h e w o r d , is a t e r m fo r o u r a t t i t u d e s in d e a lin g w ith th e w o r ld a n d o u rs e lv e s ; b u t s in c e a n a t t i t u d e in v o lv e s th e w h o le o r g a n is m , th e i n s e p a r a b le o r g a n i z a t i o n w h ic h e x p re sse s th e s t r u c t u r a l i z i n g la w o f citta (cittasam utthana ) , 3 r e p r e s e n ts a b e h a v io r is tic p a t t e r n i n g , i n a s m u c h a s p o p u la r ly s p e a k in g , a b o d y n o t a n i m a t e d b y a m in d ( c itta ) , w o u ld n o t b e h a v e in su c h a n d s u c h a w a y , a n d i t is th e r e f o r e c o r r e c t to sa y t h a t th e p a r t i c u l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n a s s t r u c t u r a li z e d b y citta is t h e p a r t i c u l a r m i n d o r liv in g b e in g . N e x t t h e r e is th e th e r m o d y n a m ic b e h a v i o r o f o r g a n is m ic life (u tu sa m u tth a n a ) .4 A c c o r d in g to b i o lo g y a n d th e r m o d y n a m ic s a n y liv in g o r g a n is m is n o t in t h e r m o d y n a m i c e q u ilib r iu m . T h i s o b ta in s , b e c a u s e o f th e s e c o n d la w o f t h e r m o d y n a m ic s , t h a t n o liv in g b e in g c a n e x ist u n le s s e n e r g y c o m e s in t o i t f r o m w ith o u t. S u c h e n e r g y is s u p p l i e d b y fo o d . I t a ls o r e p r e s e n ts a s t r u c t u r a l i z i n g fo rc e a n d is m e n t i o n e d as t h e la s t f a c to r i n c o n t r i b u t i n g to s tr u c tu r e f o r m a t i o n . I t m a y b e s a id t o b e t h e p h y s io - c h e m ic a l n a t u r e o f m a n (a harasam u\thana ). A n o t h e r f a c t w e f in d is t h a t u n le s s a b o d y is a t re s t, it l i a s k in e t i c e n e r g y . K i n e t i c e n e r g y is te r m e d lif e ( jirite n d riy a )
1. Abhidham m atthasan gaha VI 10.

2.
3.

ib id . V I 10 ; 18.
ib id . VI 10; 19.

4.
5.

ib id . V I
ib id . V I

10; 20.
10; a 1.

w hich, as has been pointed o u t above, is considered to be a c erta in am o u n t of pow er, by w hich an organism is capable o f doin g w ork, i.e., in the language o f physics, to overcom e resis tance. In b ein g active kinetic energy is lost or, in term s o f biology, organism ic life g radually loses its life. Since th e n um b er o f constituents can be counted (q u an titativ e aspect) life together w ith th e p u re o ctad forms a n o n a d .1 In its fu rth er stru ctu ralizatio n in to a sensory a p p ara tu s we arrive a t th e sense-decads com prising of th e p u re octads, life (kinetic en e rg y ), an d the sensory cap acity w hich is th e sense organiza tion itself. N am in g them after the d o m in an t sensory org an i zatio n we have an eye-decad, an ear-decad, a nose-decad, a tongue-decad, an d a body-decad. Since th e body is either m ale o r fem ale an d since sex is as im p o rta n t as the oth er sensory functions, an d found a t all levels of body o rg an izatio n w e h av e a sex-decad also, w hich is eith er m ale o r fem ale. O n e other decad is m entioned an d th a t is the h e a rt-d e ca d .2 I t was counted as a p a rtic u la r decad th a t was essential for achieving harm o n y as far as the psychological processes o f perception w ere concerned. All o th er senses h ad a basis o f th eir ow n, only m in d as in terp retativ e o peration h a d no corresponding physiological basis. As m ost suited the h e a rt was selected, because all o u r in tellectual processes are su p p o rted by em otional flux. M oreover, everybody is fam iliar w ith the fact th a t the em ergency reactions o f fear, an g er, jo y an d the like do affect the h eart. As a m a tte r o f fact, fear a n d sexuality, the d o m in an t em otions in m ost people, increase or low er th e p alp itatio n o f the h eart. I f w e are now --days convinced th a t th e higher skills o f life belong to the cerebro-cortical level a n d not to the vege tativ e system o f w hich the h e a rt is a suitable sym bol, we should no t forget th a t the A b hidharm ikas did n o t w ant to give an account o f the physiological levels o f o rgan ization according to postulated an d deductively a n d experim entally verified theories. T h e greatest stru ctu re o r the un iq u e event in w hich stru ctu ran ce continues to o p erate, is the organized hum an body. T his body is divided in to three sections : a lower one extending from the navel to the feet, a m iddle portion extending
1. 2. Abhidhammatthasarigaha V I 18. ibid.

fro m th e n a v e l to th e w in d -p ip e , a n d a n u p p e r p a r t fro m th e w in d - p ip e to th e c ro w n o f th e h e a d .1 I n a ll th e se p a r ts w e fin d o rg a n is m ic a c tiv ity in a w a y t h a t th e o rg a n is m b e h a v e s in s u c h a n d su c h w a y (cittasam utth& na), t h a t it follow s th e r m o d y n a m ic law s (utusam utthana), e x h ib its p h y s io c h e m ic a l processes (ahdrasam utthana), is c a p a b le o f f e e lin g p re s s u re (kayadasaka), a n d c o m p rise s sex (bhavadasaka ). T h e m id d le p o r tio n in a d d i tio n h a s h e a r t a c tiv ity , a n d th e u p p e r p o r tio n se n so ry a c ti v itie s .2 W h a te v e r th e d e fe c ts o f n u m e r ic a l lim ita tio n s m a y b e, sin c e th e y so e a sily in d u c e us to b e lie v e t h a t a sta tic -m e c h a n is tic m o d e l a n d q u a n tita tiv e a sp e c ts w ill suffice to a c c o u n t fo r all o rg a n is m ic a c tiv ity , th e y s h o u ld n o t b e a llo w e d to m a k e us fo rg e t th e B u d d h is t c o n c e p tio n o f u n iv e rs a l flux w h ic h d e fin i te ly sh o w s t h a t th e o c ta d s , n o n a d s , a n d d e c a d s c a n b e b u t ev en ts w ith in th e to ta l s tr u c tu r e m a n a n d t h a t th e re is a lso a n in c e ssa n t s tr u c tu r in g o f e v e n ts. F u r th e r , w ith in th e to ta l s tr u c tu r e th e re is c o n s ta n t d is p la c e m e n t o f e n e rg y a n d th e re a r e c e r ta in regions w h e r e s u c h c h a n g e s in th e e n e rg ic s ta te o c c u r; k n o w n as th e h o m e o s ta tic lev el o f th e e n e rg ic b a la n c e o f th e s tr u c tu r a l m a n i fo ld in a n o rg a n is m . T h e s e re g io n s A llp o r t a p tly c a lls e v e n tre g io n s . 3 I n tim a te ly c o n n e c te d w ith e n e rg y d is p la c e m e n ts ,
. A tthasalini I V 51. 2. ib id . T h e distribution is as follows : Lower body : feeling decad C kayadasaka ) 10 sex decad (bhavadasaka) 10 organismic activity (cittasamntthana) 8 thermo Jynamics (utusamutthana ) 8 physiochemistry (ahdrasamutthana ) 8 T o ta l : 4 4 components. M id d le body : the same increased by heart { vatthudasaka) T o ta l : 54 components. U pper body : the same as the lower body increased by eye-decad {'cakkhudasaka ) 10 ear-decad (sotadasaka ) 10 nose-decad (ghanadasaka ) 10 tongue-decad (jivhadasaka) 10 T o ta l : 84 components. A ll over total 182 components. 3. Floyd H . Allport, Theories o f Perception and the Concept o f Structure, p . 653.

d u e to s tim u la tio n ra isin g th e e n e rg ic s ta te o f a p a r tic u la r e v e n t re g io n a b o v e th e h o m e o sta tic o r a u to n o m o u s level, a n d th e n c o m m u n ic a tin g it th ro u g h o u t th e w h o le s tru c tu re , a re sets o r d y n a m ic p a tte r n s w h ic h te n d to d e te rm in e w h a t is to b e p e r ceiv ed . S u c h se ts a re k n o w n as e x p e c ta n c y a n d in te n tio n . I n th e first case a n in d iv id u a l e x p e c ts a c e rta in stim u lu s to a p p e a r a n d g ets re a d y for it, w h ile in th e seco n d case th e in d iv i d u a l re sp o n d s. As A llp o rt p o in ts o u t e x p e c ta n c y a n d in te n tio n w ith in th e s e t go to g e th e r a n d th e em p h asis u p o n th e o n e o r th e o th e r does n o t im p ly tw o d iffe re n t aspects b u t o n ly tw o ph ases o f th e sam e to ta l p ro cess .1 B o th topics, e n e rg y d isp la c e m e n t ( ussada) a n d set (abhujita) , th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i h a s a d m ira b ly e la b o ra te d . H e says : I n th e case o f e x p e c ta n c y -in te n tio n (abhujitavasena), w h e n a b o w l filled w ith food is b ro u g h t, h e w h o takes a m o rse l o f it a n d ex a m in e s it as to w h e th e r it is h a r d o r soft, is s e t fo r th e p rim a r y q u a lity o f so lid ity (paphavidhatum evapana abhujati), a lth o u g h in th is m o rsel th e re is also te m p e r a tu r e a n d m o b ility . I f h e p u ts h is h a n d in to h o t w a te r fo r e x a m in a tio n , h e is s e t fo r te m p e ra tu re (tejodhatum), a lth o u g h th e re is also so lid ity a n d m o b ility . I f in th e h o t season h e o p en s a w in d o w a n d lets th e w in d o w strike his b o d y , w h ile th e w in d g e n tly strik es his b o d y , h e i s . se t for m o b ility (vayodhatwn) , a lth o u g h th e re is also so lid ity a n d te m p e ra tu re . I n th is w a y th e s e t d e te r m ines th e o b je c t of p e rc e p tio n ( evam abhujcmavasena arammanam karoti natna.) 2 H e w h o stu m b les o r d a sh e s h is h e a d a g a in s t a tre e o r w h ile e a tin g b ite s u p o n a sto n e , tak es so lid ity as th e o b je c tiv e c o n stitu e n t o f his p e rc e p tio n d u e to its p r e p o n d e ra n c e (ussa davasena), a lth o u g h th e re is also te m p e r a tu r e a n d m o b ility . H e w ho tre a d s o n fire, tak es te m p e ra tu re as th e o b je ctiv e co n sti tu e n t o f p e rc e p tio n b ecau se o f its p re p o n d e ra n c e , a lth o u g h th e re is also so lid ity a n d m o b ility . W h e n a s tro n g w in d blow s so as to m a k e us d e a f as it w ere, h e tak es m o b ility as th e o b je c tiv e c o n stitu e n t o f p e rc e p tio n b e c a u se o f its p re p o n d e ra n c e , a lth o u g h th e re is a lso so lid ity a n d te m p e ra tu re .
1. Floyd H . Allport, Theories o f Perception and the Concept o f Structure, p. 216 2. lit. : thus because of the set the perceiving individual determines the objective constituent o f his perception .

 T a c t i l e c o g n itio n d o e s n o t r is e a l l a t o n c e i n h im w h o m a k e s a n y o n e o f t h e p r i m a r y q u a l i t i e s t h e o b je c tiv e c o n s ti t u e n t o f p e r c e p tio n s . S ti m u la t io n ( a n d s e n s a tio n ) a r e im m e d i a t e l y (ekappah arena k a y e ) s e n s e d b y h im w h o is p r ic k e d b y a b u n c h o f n e e d le s . ( O th e r w is e ) , w h e r e v e r th e p r e s s u r e se n se o r g a n i z a t i o n (kayappasado ) a t t a i n s a h i g h e r e n e r g e tic s ta te (:ussanno ) , th e r e ris e s ta c t i l e c o g n itio n . A n d i t a r is e s firs t w h e r e v e r s ti m u l a t i o n is s tr o n g e s t. A ls o w h e n a w o u n d is c le a n e d w ith a f e a t h e r , t h e f ila m e n ts s tim u la te t h e p re s s u r e s e n s e o r g a n i z a t i o n ( kayappasadarh g h a tte ti) , a n d w h e r e v e r th e o r g a n i z a t i o n h a s a h i g h e r e n e r g ic le v e l th e r e t a c t i l e c o g n itio n a r is e s . I n th is w a y , d u e to e n e r g y d is p la c e m e n ts t h e o b je c tiv e c o n s ti t u e n ts o f ta c t il e p e r c e p tio n s a r e d e t e r m i n e d .1 A s th e a u t h o r o f t h e A t t h a s a l i n i p la in ly s ta te s : se ts a n d s ti m u li a r e r e s p o n s ib le f o r o u r p a s s in g fro m o b je c t to o b je c t .2 T h u s a d y n a m ic v ie w h o ld s t h r o u g h o u t fo r m a n a n d t h e w o r ld a r o u n d h i m , e v e n w h e n a d is tin c t io n is m a d e to t h e e ffe c t t h a t t h e w o r ld a r o u n d u s is s a id to b e u n o r g a n iz e d ( an u p a d in n a ) a n d o n ly o u r o w n e x is te n c e is o r g a n i z e d (u p a d in n a ). T h i s d o es n o t m e a n a d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n u n o r g a n i c m a t t e r a n d liv e m a t t e r b u t o n l y p o in ts o u t th e g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e o f o u rs e lv e s a s p e r c e iv in g s u b je c ts , a l th o u g h g r e a t e r h e r e im p lie s n o v a lu e j u d g m e n t. C o n s id e r in g a ll t h a t h a s b e e n s a id a b o u t th e s t r u c t u r a n c e g o in g o n in m a n , w e c a n n o t b e b u t s u r p r is e d a t t h e c o m p r e h e n s iv e c o n c e p tio n o f m a n th e B u d d h is ts h a d f ro m e a r lie s t tim e s . I n s p ite o f t h e i r p r e d o m i n a n t in t e r e s t i n s p i r i t u a l d e v e lo p m e n t a n d g r o w th t h e y n e v e r m a d e th e m i s t a k e o f r e d u c i n g m a n to a m e n t a l s u b s ta n c e ( L o c k e ) o r to a n a s s o c ia tio n o f s e n s e d d a t a ( H u m e ) o r to in s p e c te d w a n ts ( M i l l, B e n t h a m ) . I f t h e id e a o f s p i r i t u a l g r o w th a n d d e v e lo p m e n t h a s a n y raison d etre a n d th e B u d d h is ts a ffirm i t t h e n i t m u s t ta k e i n t o a c c o u n t th e w h o le m a n a n d n o t a f r a g m e n t. B u d d h is t d is c ip lin e s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e a c t u a l m a n a lw a y s in s is te d o n w h o le n e s s .

1. 2.

A tth asalin i I V 96-97. ib id . I V 98 : ajjhasayato ta visayadhimattato va.

Conclusion K now ledge o f the w orld aro u n d us a n d o f ourselves begins w ith perception. P erceptual phen o m en a a re experienced as ce rtain q u alities w hich in vision we call hue o r color. O th e r exam ples are th e sound we h e a r, the odors we sm ell, taste, a n d an experience of pressure, w a rm th , an d cold. But th ere is a n o th e r class w hich is m ain ly concerned w ith the form al p ro perties o f things, we perceive, such as shap e, o u tline, size, volum e a n d in a w ider aspect, grouping. I t is m ost significant th a t we do n o t experience these qualities, dim ensions, as such a n d in isolation b u t as things an d events p resen tin g a w hole c h a ra c te r. E xperience comes in G estalten w hich m oreover m ay be organ ized in to strong a n d firm ly a rtic u la te d forms o r in to w eak a n d poorly a rtic u la te d ones. T h e G estalten w e are experiencing are term ed rupa. In using th e term G estalten a n d speaking o f th e holistic c h a ra c ter o f o u r experiences w e m u st m ake one im p o rta n t d istinction. T h e B uddhists did n o t assum e or believe th a t th e w h o le was som ething m ore th a n , or a t least differen t from th e p arts, possessing laws o f its own acco rd in g to w hich it selects a n d organizes the parts. T h e u n iq u e w h o le-ch aracter is by n o m eans d enied, it is even firm ly insisted u p o n , b u t a n in d e p e n d e n t w hole is rejected. T his distinguishes th e B uddhist conception o f rupa as G estalt from th e G estalt o f the gestalt psychologists .1 T a k in g in to account th e dyn am ic conception so ch aracteristic o f B uddhism , rupa ca n be said to be a g en eric term for stru ctu red events. W hile for p resen tatio n al purposes it is perfectly correct to speak o f rupa as th e objective constituent o f p e rc ep tu a l situ a tions, a n d in extension o f the term due to th e ex ternal reference o f the situ atio n , as the epistem ological object, th e to ta l som ething
I. See Sthiramatis Vrtti on Vasubandhus Trimsika, p. 16. The whole is not something different from its parts in their operation together, because we do not perceive a whole after having abstracted in parts (na ca
samcitam avayavasamhitamatrad anyad vidyate tadavayavan apohya samcitdkaravijnanabhavat).

The same critique is found in Floyd H. Allport, Theories of Perception

3 nd the Concept of Structure,-pp. 141 sqq.

It is a remarkable fact that Sthiramatis important work like many others, has not yet found an English translation .

o f o u r p e r c e p tio n , th e q u e s tio n r e m a in s w h e th e r th e som ething c a n a c tu a lly b e s e p a ra te d fro m th e som ehow . T h e S a rv a stiv a d in s -V a ib h a s ik a s a ssu m e d t h a t i t w as p o ssib le a n d fo rth w ith d e v e lo p e d a sy stem o f su b sta n c e s (dravya ) as th e som ething fo rm in g th e b asis o f th e som ehow o f o u r p e rc e p tio n s . T h e V ijn a n a v a d in s c o n te n te d t h a t th e so m e thing is b u t a tra n s fo r m a t i o n , a p r o je c tio n , as i t w e re , o f th e som ehow . T h e T h e r a v a d in s a v o id e d c o m m ittin g th e m se lv e s in e ith e r w a y . A n d th e M a d h y a m ik a s p o in te d o u t t h a t in d ir e c t im m e d ia te e x p e rie n c e, th e p r o b le m o f th e som ething a n d th e som ehow d o e s n o t o b ta in a t a ll, s u b s ta n tia lis m (dravya ) a n d m e n ta lis m (vijn a n a ) a re m o d e s o f in te r p r e ta tio n , n o th in g m o re .

(marga ) T h e way out T h e an aly sis o f t h a t w h ic h w e a r e a c c u sto m e d to c a ll m in d a n d its sta te s o r, fro m a d y n a m ic a n g le , o u r a ttitu d e s a n d th e fu n c tio n -e v e n ts th a t o p e ra te in th e m a n d b u ild th e m u p (citta-caitta), as w ell as th e in v e stig a tio n o f p e rc e p tu a l s itu a tio n s in w h ic h w e c la im to b e in c o g n itiv e c o n ta c t w ith th in g s b e lie v e d to m a k e u p o u r p h y s ic a l w o rld (ru p a ), a ll o f w h ic h is o u r w o rld , S a m sa ra , is a n ecessary m e a n s to e n a b le us to evolve th e P a th b y w h ich w e m a y a tta in n o t o n ly p e a c e o f m in d a m id tra n s ito ry , d e a th -d o o m e d , d e te rm in a te o b jects in n a tu re a n d e q u a lly tra n sito ry in sp e c te d selves, b u t also s p iritu a l c o n te n tm e n t a n d a jo y o u s a c c e p ta n c e o f facts, w h ic h as a lastin g possession w ill free us fro m b o n d a g e . T h e P a th , th e re fo re , o ccu p ies a v e ry im p o r ta n t a n d p ro m in e n t p la c e w ith in B u d d h ist th o u g h t .1 T h e n a tu r e o f a n y p a th is su c h th a t i t lead s fro m o n e p la c e to a n o th e r. I n B u d d h ism , T h e P a th lead s from S a m sa ra to N irv a n a . T o w a lk a p a th n a tu r a lly involves th e p ro b le m o f th e n a tu re o f S a rh sa ra a n d N ir v a n a as th e s ta rtin g i. The Path has been the subject-matter of a particular class o f literature in Tibet. Two sections can be distinguished, known as lam, rim and lam zab respectively. The former is based on the Sutras and to a lesser extent, on the Tantras, The latter is based on the Tantras and deals with meditative process exclusively. It is usually transmitted from teacher to disciple because certain exercises cannot be practised without the guidance o f a teacher who himself has gone through the particular discipline. There fore distinction also is made between an ordinary (thun. moh ) and extraordinary (tkun. man, m a .y in .p a ) part. Even today texts dealing with the extraordinary aspect are handled very carefully and only initiatedpersonsget access to them. Pad ma-dkar, po. giving an outline o f this aspect in his Bla. bsgrub, thun. mon. ma. yin . pai. khrid. rim. gnis.gdan.rdzogs, does not fail to say at the end of his work: While the ordinary means for attaining ultimate reality is open to everybody, this teaching o f the extraordinary means has formerly been kept very secret. M ay the Guru (,i.e. T he Buddhas and the host of Dakas (i.e., spiritual powers) pardon me for having divulged this teach ing out of a loving disposition to mankind : (fol. 14b).

p o in t, o n th e o n e h a n d , a n d th e g o a l, o n th e o th e r , th e P a th its e lf b e in g th e lin k b e tw e e n th e tw o . T h e r e a lity o f S a m s a ra h a s n e v e r b e e n d o u b te d a n d B u d d h is ts n e v e r m a d e th e fa ta l m is ta k e o f ju d g in g it as a n illu sio n (m aya). I t is tr u e , S a m s a ra m a y lose its p a te n t re a lity c h a r a c t e r a n d its h o ld o v e r us w h e n th r o u g h c e r ta in s p ir itu a l ex e rc ise s 1 w e a r r iv e a t a p o in t fro m w h ic h w e e x p e rie n c e o u r w o rld in a d iif e r e n t w a y a n d in a n e w lig h t. B u t th is n e w m a n n e r a n d n e w lig h t is a n d re m a in s a n e x p e rie n c e a n d h o w e v e r v iv id th e e x p e rie n c e m a y b e it d o es n o t ju s tify a n o n to lo g ic a l p r e d ic a tio n to th e e ffect th a t o u r w o r ld is a n illu sio n . I n c o n tr a s t w ith S a m s a ra w h ic h is c o n d itio n e d (sam skrta), N ir v a n a is sa id to b e u n c o n d itio n e d (asam skrta) , p e a c e fu l (Santa), u n b o r n (a ja ta ), u n o r i g i n a t e d ( anutpada ) ; i t i s th e c e ss a tio n (nirodha) a n d n o n -e x iste n c e (abhava) o f m is e ry a n d o f e m o tio n a lly u n b a la n c in g m o tiv a tio n s . T h e s e a r e o n ly so m e o f th e a ttr ib u te s a n d m a n y m o r e su c h d e s c rip tiv e te rm s a n d p h ra s e s c a n e a sily b e c u lle d fro m th e v a st m a ss o f te x ts b e lo n g in g to th e v a rio u s schools o f B u d d h ism . A s so o fte n h a p p e n e d a n d in th is p a r t i c u l a r c ase a lso , lin g u is tic e x p re ssio n h a s g iv e n ris e to m e ta p h y s ic a l p r o b le m s w h ic h a c tu a lly w e re n o p ro b le m s a t a ll a n d , p o s ite d as p ro b le m s , o n ly te n d e d to c o n fu se c le a r th in k in g . T h e d e s c r ip tiv e p h ra s e , T h e r e ex ists s o m e th in g u n b o r n ,2 c o n ta in s b o th a n a ffirm a tiv e a n d a n e g a tiv e e le m e n t. T h e S a r v a s tiv a d in s - V a ib h a s ik a s se le c te d th e e x is te n tia lly a ffirm a tiv e p a r t a n d i n te r p r e te d N ir v a n a in su c h a w a y t h a t it w as m e a n t to d e n o te a n e n tity in w h ic h th e r e is a b s e n c e o f m o tiv a tio n a n d w h ic h lik e a d a m sto p s th e c o n ti n u a tio n o f e m o tio n a l in s ta b ility , a c tiv e n e ss, a n d o rig in atio n . T h e S a u tr-a n tik a s c o n s id e re d N ir v a n a as n o n -e x isten c e* (abhavamatra) o f m is e ry a n d e m o tio n a l in s ta b ility a n d n o n a p p e a r a n c e (apradurbhdva) o f n e w m is e r y .4 T h e y c o m p a r e d N ir v a n a w ith th e d is a p p e a r a n c e o f a fla m e , w h ic h is a p ro c e ss
1. There is a m editation practice called mayopamasamadhi (T ib. sevu m a. Ita. bui. tin. ne. 'd z in ) . Emphasis lies on the upamd like, a c o n c e n tr a tio n in w hich we see our world as if it were an illusion . 2.
3.

U dana V I I I 3 and 2.
M adbyam akavrtti, p . 525.

4.

Abhidharmakosa II 55d-56b and Bhasya.

See also V yakhya.

a n d n o t a n e n tity in itself. I t w ill be observed th a t th e S a u tr a n tikas in no w a y d en ied N irv a n a , b u t gave it r a th e r a dyn am ic in te rp re ta tio n w hich w as ta k e n u p b y th e follow ers o f M a h a y a n a B u d d h ism , re fe rrin g to this d y n a m ic a sp ect b y th e term apratisthitanirvana.1 T h e c ritiq u e by th e S a u tra n tik a s, d irected a g ain st th e th in g a n d su b sta n c e co n cep tio n o f th e S arv a stiv a din s, clearly p o in ts o u t th a t p ro p e rtie s (such as b ein g peaceful, b e in g th e e n d o f m isery , a n d so o n ) a re n o t in d iv id u a l th in g s; a n d as a c ritiq u e , th a t w h ich th e S a u tra n tik a s h a v e to say is ab so lu tely c o rrect. B u t i f a c ritiq u e loses its c h a ra c te r o f ju s t b ein g a c ritiq u e a n d becom es so m eth in g like a n isolated system th e n N irv a n a in this c ritic a l in te rp re ta tio n tu rn s in to n o n existen ce p u re a n d sim ple, b e in g on th e sam e level as existence. T h e o n ly difference is th a t th e tw o co n stru cts existence a n d n o n -e x iste n c e a re ex iste n tia lly affirm ativ e a n d e x isten tially n eg a tiv e respectively. T h e te n d e n c y to estab lish rig id system s has b een a t w ork since e a rlie st tim es, a n d a ll schools w ith o u t ex cep tio n , w h o took u p a c e rta in p o sitio n , b e cam e sp iritu a lly sta g n a n t. T h ro u g h sy stem atizatio n it h a p p e n e d th a t the w a y o u t o f S a m sa ra b ecam e a p a th le a d in g fro m o n e form o f exis ten ce to a n o th e r form o f existence o r from existence to n o n existence. T o insist on e ith e r co n cep tio n as th e sole tr u th c e rta in ly m ilita te s a g a in st th e B u d d h ist id e a o f a M id d le P a th th a t avoids th e extrem es o f existence a n d non-existence. T h e T h e ra v a d in s d id n o th in g to solve this d ilem m a . Som e o f th e m acc e p ted th e S a rv a stiv a d a view , as d id for in sta n c e B u d d h ag h o sa , 2 others took o v e r th e S a u tra n tik a view , as d id th e a u th o r o f th e A tthasalini. I t is th e in d isp u ta b le m e rit o f th e M ad h y am ik as a n d T a n trik s th e M a d h y a m ik a s in a m o re in te lle c tu a lly u n d e r sta n d a b le w ay a n d th e T a n trik s in a m o re psychological m a n
1. apratiffhita means not to fall into the activism of Samsara and not to fall into the quietism of (static ) Nirvana. See for instance Lam. cab. kyi> rnarn. par. bSad. pa. zab. lam .gyi. site, m a .fo l. n b . 2. Visuddhimagga V III 247 : na ragdbhavamattam is a critique o f the Sautrantikas, and X V I 67 sqq. is an acceptance of the existence-theory of the Sarvastivadins. 3. In III 468 the author uses the term apdtubhava in the same sense as the Sautrantikas. Other instances where the author follows the Sautrantika view have been pointed out within the text.

n e r to h a v e p o in te d o u t th e fa lla c ie s o f th e se o n e -s id e d in t e r p r e ta tio n s a n d to h a v e s o lv e d th e p r o b le m b y r e c a p tu r in g th e liv in g s p ir it o f B u d d h is m in im m e d ia te e x p e r ie n c e w h e r e su ch p r e d ic a tio n s as e x is te n c e a n d n o n - e x is te n c e a r e w h o lly o u t o f p l a c e 1 a n d w h e r e th e c la im o f a n o n to lo g ic a l o b je c t c o rre s p o n d in g to th e e x p e r ie n c e is a sig n o f b a d re a s o n in g . S in c e p h ilo s o p h e r s , as a r u le , a r e c o n v in c e d o f t h e ir o w n in te lle c tu a l a c u m e n a n d th e v a lid ity o f th e ir th e s is, b u t d o u b t th e in te lli g e n c e o f th e i r o p p o n e n ts a n d tr y to d is p r o v e th e i r th e sis in n o u n c e r t a in te rm s , th e M a d h y a m ik a s w h o h o ld n o th e sis o f th e ir o w n 2 a n d a c c o m p lis h th e reductio ad absurdum o n p r in c ip le s a n d p r o c e d u r e fu lly a c c e p ta b le to th e h o ld e r o f a th e sis, c a n w ith a h e a r t y la u g h r e t u r n th e c o m p lim e n ts b y s a y in g : th o s e w h o a s s u m e e x is te n c e I c a ll s im ila r to c a ttle , B u t th o s e w h o b e lie v e in n o n - e x is te n c e a r e still m o re s tu p id t h a n th e s e .3 S a m s a r a a n d N i r v a n a a r e n o t tw o e n titie s , b u t e s s e n tia lly te r m s f o r d e s c r ib in g a n e x p e r ie n c e a n d o w e th e ir e x is te n c e 2 s s e p a r a te e n titie s to a r a t h e r o b je c tio n a b le a n a ly s is a n d th e h a b i t u a l te n d e n c y o f o u rs to ta k e o u r a b s tr a c tio n s a n d c o n s tr u c ts as th e w h o le t r u t h a b o u t th e w h o le o f r e a lity . S a m s a r a is in n o w a y in f e r io r to N ir v a n a , n o r is N i r v a n a in a n y w a y s u p e r io r to S a m s a r a . V a lu e j u d g m e n t s o n ly d e t r a c t u s fro m r e a lity . F r o m th e s ta n d p o i n t o f e x p e r ie n c e d r e a l i t y a n d n o t fro m s p e c u l a tio n , N i r v a n a a n d S a m s a r a a r e o n e a n d th e sa m e , a s N a g a r ju n a h a s so a p t l y e x p re ss e d i t : T h e r e is n o t th e s lig h te s t d if f e r e n c e o f S a m s a r a fro m N irv a n a , N o r is th e r e th e S a m sa ra .
1.
ucyatt.

s lig h te s t d if f e r e n c e o f N ir v a n a

fro m

M adhyam aka vrtti, p . 524

bhdvSbhavaparamaTsakfayo

ninatfam

2. A position (p a k fa ) breeds a counter-position (p ia tip a i& i), and neither o f them is real , M adhyam akavrtti, p. 359. 3. DohakoSa-upadeSa-giti by Saraha (m i.zad. pai. gter. m dyod. man. nag. gi. g lu ). bs T an . gyur, D erge edition, rgyud. vol.zhi. fol. sea . Quoted twice b y sG am . po. p a in his D am . chos. yid. bzhin. g y i, nor . bu. thar.pa. rin. po. chei. rgyan. ahes^ bya. b a. theg. pa. cben. poi. lam . rim . gyi. bsad. pa. fol. 98b.

T h a t w h ic h is th e lim it o f N irv a n a is also th e lim it of S am sara, In b etw een th em n o t th e slightest sh ad e o f difference is fo u n d .1 T h is has im p o rta n t consequences co n cern in g T h e P ath itself, for it m ean s th a t the s ta rtin g -p o in t is th e sam e as the goal. H e n c e T h e P a th can n o t be som eth in g d ifferen t either. T h e difference b etw een th e s ta rtin g p o in t (gzhi), T h e P a th (lam), a n d the goal ( bras.bu) exists only on the p a r t o f him w ho d is courses on it, in re a lity (don.la), th ere is n o reason to differen tia te b etw een th em a n d it is perm issible to say th a t sta rtin g p o in t a n d goal are indivisible o r th a t p a th a n d goal are in d iv i sible (dbyer.med) .2 T his realizatio n d em an d s th a t we accep t re a lity as it is a n d do n o t in tro d u c e a division w hich w ill only c rea te difficulties. A lth o u g h this co n cep tio n o f T h e P a th falls outside th e scope o f th e A b h id h a rm a , it has to be m e n tio n ed b ecause it is the logical ou tco m e o f th a t w hich has been foreshadow ed in the various w orks o f th e A b h id h a rm a lite ra tu re . As far as this lite ra tu re is co n cern ed , N irv a n a alone is u n c o n d i tio n ed a n d T h e P a th as b ein g evolved b y us in o u r striving for N irv a n a is som ething co n d itio n ed . / The Theravada Conception o f the Path A lth o u g h T h e P a th is basically one it m ay b e view ed from v ario u s angles. O f these 3 only tw o a re o f p rim a ry im p o r ta n ce , in asm u ch as th ey d e n o te the essence o f T h e P a th : seeing (dassana) a n d p a y in g closest a tte n tio n to th a t w hich h as been o b serv ed (bhdvana ).4 O w in g to th e ir im p o rtan c e .they h av e b e e n developed in to a darianamarga a p a th o f seeing a n d bhavandmdrga a p a th o f a tte n tio n in th e Mahayana schools o f B uddhism . Since a p a th leads from one place to a n o th e r a n d since it m a y do so b y v ario u s h a ltin g places, such h a ltin g places co rresp o n d in g to c e rta in in d iv id u a l types o f m a n , to
1. Mulamadhyamakakarika X X V 19, 20.

2. 3. 4. kosa V I

Lam. zab. kyi. rnam.par. bsad.pa. zab. lam.gyi. sne. ma. fol.8b See for instance Visuddhimagga X V I 95. On the meaning of bhavana see Atthasalini III 327; Abhidharma 1; V II 27; cp. Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 70.

s p e a k f ig u ra tiv e ly , th e o n e p a t h le a d in g fro m S a m s a r a to N ir v a n a h a s b e e n s p lit u p in to fo u r s e c tio n s c o u n te d as f o u r p a th s .1 I t is o n ly th e F ir s t P a t h le a d in g to a s ta g e te r m e d e n te r in g th e s t r e a m ( srota-apatti , P a li sota p a tti ), i.e ., th e s tre a m w h ic h fin a lly c a r r ie s a n in d iv id u a l a lo n g its c u r r e n t to d is ta n t N ir v a n a , t h a t is c o n n e c te d w ith s e e in g . T h e th r e e o th e r p a th s , le a d in g t o a s ta g e o f o n c e - r e tu r n in g (sakrd.agam.in, P a li sakadagam i), n e v e r r e t u r n i n g ( anagamin, P a li anagam i) a n d A r h a n t s h i p (arhant f P a li arahd) a r e c o n n e c te d w ith p a y in g clo se st a t te n tio n to t h a t w h ic h h a s b e e n o b s e rv e d o n th e firs t p a t h . I t is o b v io u s t h a t b e c a u s e o f th e g r a d a ti o n o f th e F o u r P a th s s e e in g o n th e F ir s t P a t h is m o re lik e c a tc h in g a g lim p s e o f r e a lity a n d b y a t t e n d i n g to its c h a r a c te r is tic s a n d b y m a k in g th e m a v iv id e x p e rie n c e m u s t b e d e v e lo p e d in to p r o p e r se e in g a n d u n d e r s ta n d in g . T h u s th e a u t h o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i s ta te s :2 T h e te r m s e e in g is u se d in r e fe re n c e to th e P a th o f E n te r in g th e S tr e a m . I t is c a lle d s e e in g , ( dassana ) b e c a u s e it c a tc h e s s ig h t o f N ir v a n a fo r th e first tim e . A lth o u g h th e c o g n itiv e m o m e n t (gotrabhu )3 g e ts a g lim p se o f N ir v a n a fo r th e first tim e , it m a y b e lik e n e d to a p e rs o n w h o h a s c o m e to a k in g o n a c e r ta i n e r r a n d a n d w h o h a s se e n th e k in g fro m a f a r r id in g o n a n e le p h a n ts b a c k b y a c e r ta in r o a d , a n d w h o o n b e in g a sk e d w h e th e r h e h a d seen th e k in g , w e re to r e p ly t h a t h e h a d n o t s e e n th e k in g b e c a u s e th e p u r p o s e o f h is e r r a n d h a d n o t b e e n a c c o m p lis h e d . S o a lso th is c o g n itiv e m o m e n t, th o u g h it h a s se e n N ir v a n a , is n o t s e e in g in th e p r o p e r sense o f th e w o r d b e c a u s e th e n e c e s s a ry w o rk , th e g e ttin g r id o f e m o tio n a l in s ta b i lity , h a s n o t b e e n a c h ie v e d . T h is c o g n itio n o n ly p e rfo rm s th e fu n c tio n o f a d v e r tin g in T h e P a t h . A t a n o th e r p la c e th e a u t h o r say s t h a t th is c o g n itiv e m o m e n t is lik e a d v e r tin g th o u g h its e lf i t is n o t a d v e r t i n g .4 T h is m e a n s t h a t th e r e a liz a tio n o f N ir v a n a , th e s e e in g o f r e a lity , is s o m e th in g lik e a p e r c e p tiv e p ro c e ss, b u t sin c e N ir v a n a is n o t a t h in g in its e lf a n d th e re fo re c a n n o t b e s p o k e n o f in te r m s o f o r d i n a r y se n se p e r c e p tio n w h e re
Visuddhim agga X X I I 2 : A tthasalin i I I I 466-539. A tthasalini II 24. See also Atthasalini I I I 508: gotrabh unanarfi nibbdnam arammanam kurnmfinam. See also V isuddhim agga I V 74; X V I I 81; X X I I 5-13. X X I I I 7. 4. A tthasalini III 5 1 1. 1. 2. 3.

a p erceiv in g su b ject a n d a p erceiv ed o b je c t a re p o stu la te d , seein g a n d a d v e rtin g a re b u t in a d e q u a te term s for th a t w hich m a y b e called a d e p th -e x p e rie n c e . As to th e th re e re m a in in g P a th s th e a u th o r o f th e A tth a sa Jin i states r1 C o n c e n tra te d a tte n tio n ( bhavana) is spoken o f w ith referen ce to th e th re e re m a in in g p a th s. T h e tria d o f th ese re m a in in g p a th s arises b y v irtu e o f p a y in g th e closest a tte n tio n to th a t w hich has b e e n p erceiv ed on th e F irst P a th . T h is tria d does n o t see a n y th in g new th a t h a s n o t been seen prev io u sly , h en ce it is called p a y in g closest a tte n tio n to th a t w h ic h has b e e n p e rc e iv e d N o n e o f th e p a th s c a n b e follow ed w ith o u t m e d ita tio n or a t least in co n n ectio n w ith m e d ita tio n T h e P a th is easy .2 M e d i ta tio n , h ow ever, has a d o u b le asp ect. I t m a y h e lp us in finding th e w ho len ess-ch aracter o f o u r experiences a n d th e re b y release us from o u r fra g m e n ta ry d e a lin g w ith th e w o rld in term s o f m e re u tilita ria n consid eratio n s. O r it m a y le a d us to a re a liz a tio n o f the m e a n in g o f 'our experiences. T h e form er, b o rn o u t o f h e a lth y a ttitu d e s, leads b a c k to a still m o re h e a lth y a t t i tu d e in d e a lin g w ith the p a rtic u la rs o f this w o rld , the la tte r le ad s over a n d b ey o n d this w o rld , th o u g h n o t in a sp a tia l sense. B ecause o f th e d ire c tio n the m e d ita tiv e processes m a y take, a d istin c tio n is m a d e betw een a w o rld ly (lokiya) a n d a superw o rld ly ( lokuttara) m e d ita tio n , th e s u p e rw o rld ly m e d ita tio n b e in g d ifferen t from th e w o rld ly one o nly b y its association w ith th e P a th s .3 . T h e a u th o r o f th e A tth a sa lin i begins his ex p lan a tio n of th e F irst P a th w ith an in v e stig a tio n o f th e m e a n in g o f th e term su p erw o rld ly ( lokuttara ). H e says th a t this ty p e o f m e d ita tio n is term e d su p e rw o rld ly , b ecau se it crosses th e w orld, crosses over th e w o rld , a n d stan d s o v erp o w erin g th e th re e w orlds after h a v in g passed b ey o n d th e m .4 I t fu rth e rm o re leads m a n o u t o f th e vicious circle o f b irth a n d d e a th ( niyyanika ), because th ro u g h th is ty p e o f m e d ita tio n m a n com es to u n d e rsta n d m isery, to sto p th e new o rig in a tio n o f m isery, to realize the
1.
2. 3.

Atthasalini II 24.

Cp. Abhidharmakosa V I 28 cd.

,

Abhidharmakosa V I 66. Atthasalini III 466.

4.

ibid.

en d o f m isery, a n d to p ra c tise th e w a y g u a ra n te e in g th e cessation o f m isery .1 I t is th e cognition a n d in c o rp o ra tio n in to o u r in d iv id u a l life o f th a t w h ic h is te rm e d th e F o u r T ru th s th a t dis tinguishes this m e d ita tio n from a ll o th e r m e d ita tio n a l p ra ctice s. W hile h e a lth y a ttitu d e s a n d m e d ita tiv e practices' ra n g in g o v er th e th re e w orlds (o f sen su ality , G e staltu n g , a n d nonco n fig u rativ en ess) b u ild u p a n d m a k e grow b irth a n d d e a th in a n e v e r-e n d in g circle a n d h en ce a re c a lle d b u ild in g -u p p ractices, it is n o t so w ith this m e d ita tio n . J u s t as if a m a n w ere to erect a w all eig h teen cu b its h ig h , w hile a n o th e r m a n w ere to tak e a h a m m e r a n d to b re a k d o w n a n d to d em o lish a n y p a r t as it gets, erected , so also this m e d ita tio n sets a b o u t to b re a k d ow n a n d to d em olish d e a th a n d re -b irth th a t h ave b een b u ilt u p b y h e a lth y a ttitu d e s a n d m e d ita tiv e p ractices ra n g in g over th e th re e w orlds, by b rin g in g a b o u t a deficiency in those conditions w h ic h te n d to p ro d u c e b irth a n d d e a th , a n d th erefo re this m e d ita tio n is also c a lle d th e te a rin g d o w n one, apacayagamV.2 T h a t w h ic h is b ro k e n d o w n is w h a te v er view s a person m ay h o ld a b o u t h im se lf (sakkayaditthi ), scepticism (vicikiccha), a n d th e clin g in g to rites a n d ritu a ls (silabbataparamasa ), on th e in te lle c tu a l side, a n d th e u nw holesom e forces o f c u p id ity (raga), a n tip a th y (dosa ), a n d b e w ild e rm e n t (moha) on th e em otional sid e .3 T h e d e stru c tio n o f these forces enables m a n to set his foot o n th e first sp iritu a l level ( bhum i ). I n p a rtic u la r it enables him to g a in th e sta te o f a person w h o has e n te re d th e stream . T h is sta te is o n e o f th e results o f S ra m a n y a [samannaphala) .4
1. Atthasalini III. 466. Cp. Abhidharmasamuccaya, p . 65. 2. Ibid. 3. Atthasalini III 467. According to Abhidharmakosa V I 53 this belongs to the path o f once-returning. 4. Atfhasalini III 468. According to Abhidharmakosa V I 51, Sramavya is the immaculate way and according to V I 54 it is Brahmanya, the brahmacakra. This terminology is already found in the ancient Sutras, but here it has special implications. The Buddha is Brahmahood (brahtnabhuta, Dighanikaya III 84 ), so Brahmahood cannot be separated from Brahma expressive ness (brahmavih&ra) which comprises benevolence (maitri ), compassion (karuna)> joy in the good and wholesome performed by others (mudita), and equanimity (upekfa). As will be seen later on, the Theravadins excluded the positive qualities of compassion and jo y from their ideal o f Buddhahood. In t':uS respect they stand alone, none of the other schools accepted such a negative

In realiz in g th is state th e -sa m e difficulties o b ta in as in th e case o f o rd in a ry w o rld ly m e d ita tio n s, w h ich gives rise to v arious types o f persons, such as tho se w h o p ro ceed w ith difficulties o r those w ho rem o v e obstacles easily. T h e in te re st in how m a n a p p e a rs to h im self a n d w h ich a re th e fu n ctio n s th a t o p e ra te a t various levels a n d in various a ttitu d e s, h as alw ays been p a ra m o u n t. So also th e a tta in m e n t o f c e rta in su p e rw o rld ly stages does n o t m e a n th a t su p e rw o rld ly is som e tra n sc e n d e n ta l hocus-pocus b re a k in g in to o u r lives from som ew here a n d in som e m a n n e r w h ich w e c a n n ev er u n d e r sta n d . T h e a u th o r o f th e A tth a sa lin i leaves n o d o u b t th a t th e su p e rw o rld ly is a n a ttitu d e , sim ila r to a h e a lth y a ttitu d e in o rd in a ry life, b u t w ith th e d ifferen ce, th a t it is c o n tro lle d by th e con v ictio n th a t I shall com e to know th a t w hich h ith e rto h as been u n k n o w n (anajndtamajn Tsjidmitindriya, P ali anannatannassamitindriya)} A g ain , th e u n k n o w n is n o t so m eth in g u n k n o w ab le, b u t is a resu lt o f the fact th a t th ro u g h a c h an g e o f a ttitu d e from a m ere w o rld ly u tilita ria n a ttitu d e to a superw o rld ly u n d e rsta n d in g a ttitu d e , o u r eyes beco m e o p en ed to th a t w h ich w as alw ays p re se n t b u t w h ich w e d id n o t observe because w e w ere o ccu p ied o th erw ise, a n d w h ich we d id n o t c a re to observe an d to be a w a re o f becau se o f o u r p re o c c u p a tions. As a m a n h a v in g com e to a v ih a ra w h ere he has n ev er b een before, a n d b ein g seated in th e m id st o f it m ig h t say w ith reference to his n o t h a v in g g o n e th e re before, I h av e com e to a p la c e w h ere I h a v e n ev er b e e n b efo re, a n d b e in g d e co ra te d w ith g a rlan d s h e h a s n ever b een d e c o ra te d w ith b efore, b ein g dressed
view . T h e positive conception o f B uddhahood is best expressed in L am . zab. kyi, rn am . p a r. bad. pa. zab. lam . gyi. sfie. m a. fol. 29a : The boundless forces (tshad. med-apramdna-maitri, karuna, mudita, upekfa) are the sole cause o f attaining the basic meditation stages (i.e . four riipavacara and four arupavacara ) Because due to this they extend to the worlds, they are termed brahmavihara (tshans.pai. gnas. p a ). In the ultimate sense brahma C tshans.pa) is unveiled Buddhahood . 1. Atthasalini III 471 : In the cycle of Samsara which knows no beginning I shall come to know the unknown, the place of immortality of the nature oftheFour Truths . According to Abhidharma-kosa 119 thestage o f one who has entered the stream also contains the djfiaendriya knowledge of attainment, while according to Atthasalini III 657 this belongs to the three higher levels.

in a g a r m e n t h e h a s n e v e r w o rn b e fo re , a n d h a v in g e a te n a m e a l h e h a s n e v e r ta s te d b e fo re , m ig h t say w ith re fe re n c e to th e s e e x p e rie n c e s, I h a v e e a te n a m e a l n e v e r ta s te d b e fo re , so also it is w ith re fe re n c e to th e te r m s o f th e d e s c rip tio n : u n s e e n ( a d ittk a ), b e c a u se n o t seen b e fo re b y th e ey e o f dis c r im in a tio n (paiiiiacakkhu); u n a tta in e d (appatta), b e c a u se n o t re a c h e d b e fo re ; u n k n o w n (avidita), b e c a u se n o t m a d e c le a r b y k n o w le d g e o f e x p e rie n c e ( fiana ) ; a n d u n r e a liz e d ( asacchik d ta ) , b e c a u s e n o t seen d ir e c tly (apaccakkha) .1 A n a t t it u d e a lw a y s expresses its e lf in m a n s b e h a v io r. S o also a s u p e rw o rld ly a ttitu d e w ill fin d its e x p re ssio n in th e b e h a v io r o f h im w h o h a s g ro w n u p to it. As v e ry c h a ra c te r is tic o f su ch a n a ttitu d e is th e fa c t th a t in d is tin c tio n fro m a w o rld ly h e a lth y a ttitu d e , h e re k in d w o rd s (sammdvaca ) , a c tio n b ey o n d re p r o a c h {sammdkammanta ), a n d p r o p e r liv in g (sam m ajw a ) a re p re s e n t. W h ile a h e a lth y a tti t u d e h a d five p a th -fu n c tio n s ,2 th e in c o r p o r a tio n o f th ese th re e fo rm s o f expressiveness e m p h a sizes th e im p o rta n c e o f th e P a th in s u p e rw o rld ly a ttitu d e s . T h e m a in d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n a w o r ld ly a n d a su p e rw o rld ly a t t i t u d e lies in th e fa c t t h a t th ese th r e e form s o f expressiveness b e lo n g as a n in te g ra l p a r t o f a s u p e rw o rld ly a ttitu d e , w h ile th e sam e th re e form s m a y b e o c c a s io n a lly p re s e n t in h e a lth y a tt i t u d e s ,3 b u t n e v e r a t th e sa m e tim e .4 I t is h e re a g a in th a t th e a r tif ic ia lity o f a n u m e r ic a l system b e c o m e s p a te n t. T h e a n c ie n t te x ts h a d sp o k en o f a n E ig h t fo ld P a th . A s lo n g as it w as m e a n t as a su g g e stio n , n o o b je c tio n s c o u ld b e ra is e d a g a in s t su c h a n u m e ric a l p re se n t a tio n , b u t w h e n th e im p o r t o f th e v a rio u s m e m b e rs o f th e p a t h (anga ) w ere a n a ly z e d it b e c a m e a p p a r e n t th a t th e n u m b e r e ig h t c o u ld n o t b e k e p t u p , a lth o u g h th is n u m b e r h a d b e e n h a llo w e d b y its a sso c ia tio n w ith T h e B u d d h a s w ords. T h e a u t h o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i a n d h e does n o t s ta n d a lo n e p o in ts o u t th a t liv e lih o o d (a jtv a ) is n e v e r a n e n tity p e r se, b u t
1. Atthasalini II I 475. T h e last term, paccakkha, Skt. pratyqksa is im portant in the Buddhist theory o f cognition. It is pure perception devoid o f any judgm ents. 2. See above pp. 74 sq. 3. Atthasalini III 472 : 252. 4. ib id . I l l 481 .

o n ly a generic term for o u r expressions in w ords an d deeds. L ivelihood as such only owes its existence to th e fact th a t we d e p e n d in o u r lives on so m a n y things w h ich we p rocure by w ords a n d deeds. T h u s livelihood has n o fu n ction o f its own a n d n a tu ra lly fails to establish the v alid ity o f the eightfoldness o f th e E ightfold P a th . B ut since T h e P a th dem an ds the n u m b er eig h t, some m ean in g m ust b e fo u n d for livelihood so th a t it m a y be in clu d ed in T h e P a th as p ro p e r livelihood (sammaj iv a ) .1 T h e a u th o r of the A tth a sa lin i begins his a tte m p t to solve this difficult p ro b lem by p o in tin g o u t the m u d d leh ead ed con ceptions a b o u t ethical b eh av io r w h ich we h av e in o rd in ary life w h ere w e condone a c e rta in ac tio n in one case, a n d frankly d isap p ro v e o f it in a n o th e r case, a lth o u g h th e actio n is one a n d th e sam e. H e says : T ransgression a t th e level o f overt b e h a v io r is d one for reasons o f o n es livelihood a n d also w ith o u t these reasons. T h e sam e holds good for transgressions a t th e com m unicative level. In this la tte r case, w hen kings a n d govern m en t officials w ho a re a d d ic te d to sports set o u t for h u n t ing, for h ighw ay ro b b ery , a n d for a d u lte ry ju s t in o rd e r to show off, th eir b e h av io r receives th e n am e o f unw holesom e a c tio n a t the level o f o v ert b eh av io r. R efrain in g therefrom is called p ro p e r o v ert behavior. W h atev er m isd em ean o r people show in the fourfold ways of speech, if it is d o n e fo r no reasons o f g ain in g ones livelihood, is te rm e d unw holesom e actio'n a t th e level o f com m unication. T o refrain from it is term ed p ro p e r speech. W hen hunters, fisherm en, a n d o th e r professionals kill, steal, a n d m isbehave them selves in sexual m atters, this is know n as w ro n g livelihood. A b stain in g therefrom is term ed p ro p e r livelihood. W hen peo p le, after h av in g taken a b rib e, tell lies, u tte r calum nies, h arsh w ords, engage in fruitless talk, this is know n as w rong livelihood. A b stain in g from this is p ro p e r liv elih o o d .2 T h e v ery fact th a t in a su perw orldly a ttitu d e there is n o th in g o f th a t w hich we d isap p ro v e o f as a n evil actio n , b e it
i. Atthasalini III 47p. For the Vaibhasikaswrong livelihood is a category of its own. Abhidharmakosa I V 86. a. Atthasalini III 480. In 481 the author cites a view which is also found in Abhidharmakosa I V 86 ; 77.

b y b o d y o r b y s p e e c h , a n d a lso n o t h i n g o f t h a t w h ic h w e c o n d o n e as a b a d w a y o f liv in g , sh o w s th e d e p t h o f u n d e r s ta n d in g o f e th ic a l p r o b le m s a n d th e h e ig h t o f B u d d h is t e th ic s . T o p u t it in to m o d e r n te r m s : a n a c t in its e lf is a b s o lu te ly n e u t r a l a n d i t re c e iv e s its e v a lu a tio n a s e i t h e r g o o d o r e v il a c c o r d in g to th e p a r t i c u l a r d is c ip lin e t h a t is ta k e n u p . W ith in th e fra m e -w o r k o f a d is c ip lin e , a n a c t is th e n e ith e r g o o d o r b a d a n d in th is r e la tiv e ly is o la te d sy s te m i t is a b s o lu te ly g o o d o r b a d . T h u s , in ta k i n g u p o n o u rs e lv e s a d is c ip lin e t h a t is n e c e s s a ry fo r a t t a i n in g a s o -c a lle d s u p e r w o r ld ly a t t i t u d e , k i l li n g is e v il a n d i t re m a in s e v il w h e t h e r i t is a w a n t o n a c t o f k illin g a s in h u n t i n g fo r s p o rt o r a p ro fe s s io n a l a c t a s in s la u g h te r h o u se s. B u t th is e v a lu a tio n is v a l i d o n ly fo r th e d is c ip lin e o f T h e P a t h a n d d o e s n o t e x te n d to o t h e r d is c ip lin e s . T h e r e a r e o t h e r d is c ip lin e s in w h ic h k illin g a n d th e t r a i n in g fo r in d is c r im in a te k illin g is a v ir tu e , a s is e x e m p lifie d b y m i l it a r y s e rv ic e , w h e r e d is o b e y a n c e o f th e a rtic le s o f w a r a t o n c e e n ta ils a c o u r t - m a r t i a l .1 W h ile in th is w a y T h e P a t h is r e la te d to o u r o u tw a r d b e h a v io r i t a ls o h a s a p s y c h o lo g ic a l c o u n t e r p a r t in th e so -c a lle d m e m b e r s o f e n l ig h t e n m e n t 5 ( bod.hyaf.ga, P a li bojjhanga) o f w h ic h th e r e a r e s e v e n : in s p e c tio n (sm rti, P a li s a ti ), d is c r im in a tio n o f e n titie s a s to th e ir in tr in s ic v a lu e in p u r s u in g th e p a t h to e n lig h t e n m e n t ( dharmapravicaya, P a li d ham m avicaya), a s s id u o u s s tr iv in g (virya, P a li v iriy a ), te n s io n re le a s e (prasrabdhi, P a li p a ssa d d h i), c o n c e n t r a t e d a b s o r p tio n (sam adhi) a n d e q u a n im ity (upekfd, P a li u p ekkh d ) .a T h e s e a c t as a n tid o te s a g a in s t m e n t a l in e r tia , f r iv o lity , f ix a tio n , s tr u g g le , in d u lg e n c e in s e n s u a l p le a s u re s a n d s e lf-m o r tif ic a tio n , a n d a d d i c t io n to w ild s p e c u la tio n s , s u c h as e te r n a lis m a n d n ih ilis m . F o r e n l i g h t e n m e n t m e a n s to 'a w a k e n fr o m th e s le e p o f e m o tio n a l in s ta b ility , to p e n e t r a t e to th e m e a n in g o f th e F o u r T r u t h s , a n d to r e a liz e N i r v a n a .3 A lth o u g h th e a t t a i n m e n t o f e n lig h te n m e n t, th e p ro g re ss t o w a r d s u p e r w o r ld ly a t t i t u d e s , is s t a t e d to b e a p o s itiv e id e a l, th e s t a t e m e n t b y th e a u t h o r o f th e A t t h a s a l i n i a n d b y A n u r u d d h a t h a t in a s u p e r w o r ld ly a t t i t u d e t h e r e is* n o c o m p a s s io n a n d n o
r. o f killing 2. 3. W orse than b y m aking A tthasalini Atthasalini this, modern states tend to adopt an absolutive ethics m ilitary service com pulsory for everybody. I I I 475. A bhidharm akosa V I 66-71 an d Bhasya. I I I 4 7 3 -4 7 4 -

jo y a t the good an d wholesome perform ed by others ,1 is all the m ore surprising. T h e arg u m en t th a t com passion extends to sentient beings, while the functions in a superw orldly a ttitu d e are d irected tow ard N irv a n a ,2 is a hopeless argum ent an d only falls in w ith th e negative c h a ra c ter o f N irv a n a as m ere n o n existence even if the non-existence o f em otions is some kind of existence. T o exclude com passion from th e ideal o f enlighten m en t laid th e T herav ad in s o pen to th e charge of a com plete lack o f altruistic feeling. A ctually, in th i? respect they stand alone. N o o th er school o f B uddhism accepted this conception. T h e V aibhasikas introduced a distinction betw een compassion p lain and sim ple and G reat Com passion (mahdkaruna). I t is true, com passion extends to sentient beings, it m ay be a senti m en tality , some kind o f p h ilan th ro p y w hich because o f its lack o f discrim ination, often does m ore h arm th a n good, b u t G reat Com passion does not know o f an y distinction betw een sentient beings, it is the expression o f th e highest m ed itative concentra tion , it is realized w hen one actu ally succeeds in rising above the w orld .3 M oreover, considering the h a b itu a l indolence o f m an k in d and the ingrained aversion to a tte n d to anything th a t does not follow an accustom ed p a tte rn to teach such people an d to m ake teaching a life-tim e jo b as w as done by T h e B uddha needs G reat Com passion (capital letters !).4 T h e early texts o f B uddhism h ad spoken o f three delive rances (vimokfa , Pali vimokkha)6 w hich, on th e one hand, rep re sented certain types o f co n cen trated absorption (samadhi)* an d according to the division into a w orldly a n d a superw orldly aspect were term ed p u re (suddha )7 o r im m aculate (andsrava).
1. Atthasalini m 4.72. Abhidhammatthasangaha II ai.

2.

Atthasalini III 472 : karundmuditdpana

sattdrammana, ima dhammd

nibbdndrammana ti ta p ettha na gahita.

3. See the long discussion about the difference between ordinary compassion and Great Compassion in Bha?ya ad Abhidharmakosa V II 33. 4. When in Abhidhammatthasangaha II 15 it is stated that certain people believe that in those attitudes in which equanimity (upekfhd ) prevails, there is neither compassion nor joy, it seems that they mistook indifference (I couldnt care less) for equanimity, which certainly does not exclude compas sion. 5. Patisambhidamagga II 35. 6. Abhidharmakosa V II 23 cd. (Bhdfya ) ; 24. 7 . ibid. V II 25.

I n t h e i r l a t t e r a s p e c t a s i m m a c u l a t e th e d e liv e ra n c e s w e re t e r m e d g a te w a y s to lib e r a t i o n ( vim okfam ukka1 a n d r e p re s e n te d s u p e r w o r ld ly P a th p r o p e r . E s s e n tia lly th e s e th r e e ty p e s o f c o n c e n tr a tio n a r e r e la te d to c e r t a i n a s p e c ts o f th e c o n te m p la te d o b je c t. T o u n d e r s ta n d th e s e a s p e c ts le a d s to e n lig h te n m e n t. T h e n a m e s o f th e th re e d e liv e r a n c e s a r e 3 unyatd (P a li su n n a ta ), apranihita ( P a li appan ih ita ), a n d anim itta ( P a li a n im itta ). B y sunya th e fa c t is re a liz e d t h a t e v e r y th in g c o n d itio n e d , b e it n a t u r a l o b je c ts o r p o s tu la te d selves, h a s n o in d iv id u a lity o f its o w n p e rs is tin g o v e r a n d b e y o n d th e c o n d itio n s t h a t b r o u g h t th e s e e n titie s a b o u t. B y apranihita th e f a c t is r e a liz e d t h a t e v e r y th in g c o n d itio n e d is u n a b l e to y ie ld la s tin g h a p p in e s s a n d h e n c e is m is e ry , a n d b y a n im itta is u n d e r s to o d t h a t e v e r y th in g is tr a n s ito r y . T h e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e d e liv e ra n c e s a n d th e a sp e c ts o f th e w h o le o f r e a lity is as fo llo w s : iu nyatavim okfa apranihitavim okfa dnim ittavim okfa anatman du}ikha anitya

H o w e v e r, as f a r as T h e P a t h is c o n c e rn e d o n ly tw o o f th e th r e e d e liv e ra n c e s a r e a b le to g iv e th e ir n a m e to T h e P a th . T h is is b e c a u s e o f th e d iff e r e n t a p p r o a c h in th e A b h id h a r m a . I n th e S iitra s th e d e liv e ra n c e s h a d b e e n te r m e d so b y v ir tu e o f t h e q u a l i t y (sagunalo), o f th e o b je c tiv e re fe re n c e (drammana to ) , a n d o f th e a p p r o a c h (dgam anato) to r e a lity a n d i t w a s th e n a tu r e o f r e a lity w h ic h re fle c te d o n T h e P a t h . T h u s b y v i r t u e o f th e g o a l to b e a p p r o a c h e d w h ic h is Sunyata T h e P a th its e lf'is te rm e d S unyatd.2 H o w e v e r, th is te r m h a s fo r th e T h e r a v a d in s n o p h ilo s o p h ic a l im p lic a tio n s . I t is a m e re a t t r i b u t e d e s c rib in g th e a b s e n c e o f s o m e th in g , v iz . th e a b s e n c e o f th e e m o tio n s o f c u p id ity , a v e rs io n , a n d b e w ild e r m e n t, w h ic h is N ir v a n a . S im i l a r ly ta k in g th is a b s e n c e a n d n o n -e x is te n c e o f e m o tio n s as th e o b je c tiv e re fe re n c e , T h e P a t h m a y b e d e s ig n a te d b y it. T h e A b h i d h a r m a c o n c e p tio n is c o n c e rn e d o n ly w ith th e a p p r o a c h

to N irv an a w hich m ay be view ed from tw o angles: insight ( vipassandgamana) an d p a th (maggagamana) so th a t w ith respect to th e p a th insight is o f prim ary im portance, w hile w ith respect to the goal to b e achieved th e p a th being w alked Is of p rim ary im po rtan ce .1 T h e same explanation is given w ith reference to the unbiased, apranihita, w hich as a term for th e goal extends its nam e to T h e P ath . I t also is related to insight. By virtue o f its quality T h e P ath is term ed so, because there do n ot exist an y leanings tow ard cupidity, aversion, a n d bew ilderm ent, hence being w ithout an y lea n in g u n b iased , (appmnhita ) . Because o f the absence o f such leanings N irv an a is also called w ithout any leanings an d T h e P a th hav in g N irv an a as its objective reference is then term ed in the sam e w a y .2 T he reason th a t th e im ageless, animitta, does n ot give its nam e to T h e P a th is th at though the insight in to it stands w here th e goal is to be found, in its ap p licatio n it deals w ith the des tructio n o f such ideologies as eternafism (niccdnimitta) , theory o f persistence (dhuvanimitta ) , hedonism (sukhanimitta ), an d P ure Ego theories (attanimitta ), so th a t it is w ithout ideological images (animitta ) only w here the goal is found, otherw ise it is busy w ith ideological images (sanimitta ).8 A no th er reason for the fact th a t there is no animittamagga (imageless p a th ) is the n a tu re o f the p a th as accepted as having eight definite m em bers or definite functions. T h e imageless deliverance is seeing th e w hole o f reality as im perm anent (aniccanupassaniya hi vasena animittavimokkho kathito). T h ro u g h this deliverance confidence gains a controlling position w ithin our m en tal life. Confidence (saddhd, saddhindriya), as has been explained above ,4 is th a t elem ent in our attitu d es w hich gives us assurance a n d certitu d e a b o u t fu rth er progress, because it purifies a n d brings lucidity into our conceptions ab o u t th a t w ith w hich we are dealing, unlike m ere belief w hich obfuscates o u r m inds. Such confidence effectively destroys th e unw arranted assum ption, so often m et w ith in ou r o rd in ary dealings w ith
1. Atthasalini III. 484. 2. ibid. I l l 486. 3. ibid. I l l 487. 4. See above p. 63.

th e w o r ld , t h a t w h a te v e r w e c h e ris h fo r th e m o m e n t w ill p e rsist u n c h a n g e d , w h e th e r th is b e th e o b je c t o f o u r p e r c e p tio n o r o f o u r o w n in d iv id u a litie s . B u t c o n fid e n c e is n o t a m e m b e r o f T h e P a t h in its e ig h tfo ld a s p e c t, n o r is it a m e m b e r o f th o se e le m e n ts w h ic h le a d to e n lig h te n m e n t. H e n c e t h a t w h ic h is n o t a m e m b e r o f T h e P a t h c a n n o t g iv e its n a m e to T h e P a th itself. O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e sunyatavim oksa w h ic h re a liz e s t h a t th e r e d o e s n o t e x ist a n y in d iv id u a lity a p a r t fro m th e c o n d i tio n s w h ic h fo r a c e r ta in tim e p r o d u c e i t o r, to p u t it in a m o re p h ilo s o p h ic a l la n g u a g e , t h a t th e r e is n o P u r e E g o ( andtm an) e ith e r as a s u b s tr a tu m o f o u r m e n ta l life o r as a tr a n s c e n d e n ta l e n tity , is e q u a l to a h ig h ly d e v e lo p e d sense o f d is c r im in a tio n , o f a n a ly tic a l a p p r e c ia tiv e u n d e r s ta n d in g (pauiiindriya ). S im i la r ly t h e apranihitavim okfa, th r o u g h w h ic h w e c a n p u r s u e o u r w a y to w a r d N ir v a n a w ith o u t e v e r s id e - tr a c k in g in to th e m a n i fo ld fo rm s o f e m o tio n a l in s ta b ility , w h ic h is th e r e a liz a tio n o f th e m is e r y o f a ll c o n d itio n e d e x is te n c e , a n d w h ic h t h r o u g h th is re a liz a tio n lib e r a te s u s fro m a d d ic tio n to c o n d itio n e d e x iste n c e , is a h ig h ly d e v e lo p e d s ta te o f c o n c e n tr a tiv e a b s o r p tio n (samadhindriya ). B o th a n a ly tic a l a p p r e c ia tiv e u n d e r s ta n d in g a n d c o n c e n tr a tiv e a b s o r p tio n a r e m e m b e r s o f T h e P a t h a n d c a n e x te n d t h e i r n a m e s to T h e P a th its e lf .1 T h e r e is o n e o th e r re a s o n g iv e n fo r th e fa c t t h a t in th e A b h i d h a r m a w e d o n o t s p e a k o f a n anim ittam agga. T h e P a th , so w e a r e to ld , re c e iv e s its n a m e b y e ssen ce a n d o p p o s itio n (sarasato ca paccanikato), t h a t is to s a y , b y its in tr in s ic n a tu r e (sabhavato) a n d b y its f u n c tio n o f o p p o s in g a n d a b o lis h in g c e r ta in o b s ta c le s (p a tip a kkh a to ) .* S in c e T h e P a t h a s sunyata a n d a s apranihita re fe rs to th e fa c t t h a t lik e N ir v a n a it is th e a b s e n c e o f e m o tio n a l in s ta b ility (ragadihi su n n a ) a n d th e n o n le a n in g to w a r d a n y fo rm o f e m o tio n a l in s ta b ility ( ragappanidhia d ih i ) a n d th u s re v e a ls its e ssen ce (sarasato), th e o n e re a s o n for its r e c e iv in g th is n a m e h a s b e e n fu lfille d . T h e o th e r re a s o n is t h a t $ unyatd o p p o se s a n d d e s tro y s th e a d d ic te d n e s s to a n y fo rm o f S e lf (attabhinivesassa p a tip a k k h o ), j u s t a s apranihita o p p o ses a n d d e s tr o y s a n y le a n in g (p a n id h issa ). T h u s its f u n c tio n as o p p o s itio n is p o in te d o u t as th e s e c o n d re a s o n fo r n a m in g T h e
I. AtjhasSlin! I I I 488.

s.

ib id . I l l 489.

P a th . B ut a lth o u g h in essence T h e P a th is im ageless (anim itta ), since th e re is absence a n d n o n -ex isten ce o f such concepts as em o tio n al in sta b ility or such ideo lo g ical co n cep ts as ete rn alism , a n d th u s m ig h t receive its n a m e from this essence o f T h e P a th , "yet th e animitta does n o t oppose a n y th in g . I t does n o t oppose th e view of tra n sito rin e ss w h ich h as as its objective co n stitu e n t th e elem ents o f o u r existence (samkhdranimittdrammanaya aniccanupassandya) a n d sees them as tra n sito ry . Because o f its being in h a rm o n y w ith (anulomabhave) th e re a l n a tu re o f th in g s, a n d th erefo re n o t serving as an o p p o sitio n, th e animitta c a n n o t extend its n am e to T h e P a t h .1 T h e a u th o r o f th e A tth a sa lin i, re p re se n tin g th e T h e ra v a d a view , u n w ittin g ly raises a p ro b le m , w h ich i f it h a d been p u r sued to its lo g ical consequences, w ould h av e led to th e a cce p ta n c e o f th e M a d h y a m ik a view th a t T h e P a th a n d the goal c a n by rig h ts n o t be se p a ra te d . F o r w h en N irv a n a is Sunyatd a n d apranihita as is T h e P a th , n o log ical reaso n exists to m ake a d istin c tio n b etw een p a th a n d g o al. A n d also the fact th a t Sunyata serves to destroy th e id e a o f a p ersistin g in d iv id u a l n a tu re (anatman) co rresponds to th e M a d h y a m ik a view w hich states th a t Sunyatd is n o end in itself, b u t is only m e a n t to crush th e b e lie f in c o n crete existence. In d e e d , those w h o h o ld th e view o f S u n y a ta as a goal a re in c u ra b ly stu p id . As has b een ex pressed by N a g a rju n a : T h o se w ho h o ld a view o f S u n y a ta A re said to be in c u r a b le .2

T h e th re e p ro p erties o f b e in g im p e rm a n e n t (anitya ), b ein g n o t w o rth -w h ile to clin g to (duhkha), a n d bein g n o t such th a t th e assu m p tio n o f a S elf o r P u re E go w o u ld be ju stified {anatman), a re so in tim a te ly re la te d th a t a n y o ne o f th e th re e en tails th e o th e r tw o, so th a t it seem s as if a ll th re e a re presen ted to th e p erceiv in g a n d o bserving in d iv id u a l in o n e a n d th e sam e m o m e n t o f a d v e rte n c e, th o u g h a c tu a lly th e th re e a re n o t to g eth er a t th e sam e tim e as fa r as T h e P a th is c o n c e rn e d .8 T h u s to
1. Atthasalini III 489.

2.
3.

Mulamadhyamakarika X X I V 11.
Atthasalini III 490.

see th in g s a s im p e r m a n e n t e n a b le s u s a ls o to see th e m as n o t w o r th - w h ile to c iin g to a n d a s n o t r e p r e s e n tin g so m e in d iv id u a l n a t u r e a b o v e a n d b e y o n d th e ir c o n d itio n e d e x is te n c e . In. th is w a y , th e p e n e tr a t in g in s ig h t in t o th e n a tu r e o f th in g s a n d selv es, w h ic h a s a p e r c e p tu a l a c t p e rc e iv e s c e r ta in p ro p e r tie s , le a d s to k n o w le d g e b y e x p e rie n c e (ndna) o f th e f u tility o f th in g s . F o r h im w 'ho p e rc e iv e s th e th r e e p r o p e r tie s o f im p e r m a n e n c e , n o n -w o rth -w h jle -n e s s , a n d n o -S e lf-o r-P u re -E g o -n e s s , th e five p s y c h o -p h y s ic a l c o n s titu e n ts o f h is e x is te n c e a r e lik e a c o rp se tie d to a p e r s o n s n e c k . K n o w le d g e b y e x p e rie n c e w h ic h h a s as its o b je c tiv e c o n s titu e n t th e e le m e n ts o f e x iste n c e , rises w ith re fe re n c e to th e s e e le m e n ts . I t is j u s t as i f a B h ik su w h o w a n te d to b u y a b o w l, w e re to see o n e b r o u g h t b y a b o w l- v e n d o r a n d , t h in k in g h ig h ly p le a s e d , I w ill ta k e th is o n e , w e re to f in d th r e e h o le s in th e b o w l o n e x a m in a t i o n ; h e w o u ld n o t b e c o m e d is in te re s te d in th e h o le s, b u t in th e b o w l. S o a lso p e r c e iv in g th e a b o v e m e n tio n e d th r e e p r o p e r tie s , o n e b e c o m e s d is in te re s te d a n d u n a t t a c h e d to th e e le m e n ts o f e x is te n c e .1 W h ile th e e s s e n tia l f e a tu r e o f th e F ir s t P a th is th e se e in g o f r e a lity ( dassana , vipassand), in p a r t i c u l a r th e se e in g o f th e F ir s t T r u t h w h ic h s ta te s th e fa c t t h a t in th e w h o le o f r e a lity th e r e is n o t h in g to w h ic h i t is w o r th - w h ile to b e c o m e a d d ic te d , b e c a u s e e v e r y th in g is i m p e r m a n e n t, u n a b le to y ie ld la s tin g h a p p in e s s , a n d h a s n o c h a r a c t e r o f its o w n . T h is t r u t h e n a b le s us a ls o to see th e o th e r T r u t h s . T h e S e c o n d , T h i r d , a n d F o u r t h P a th s a r e th e e m b o d im e n t o f t r u th s p e r c e iv e d in o u r liv es b y c o n tin u o u s a n d clo sest a t t e n ti o n to t h a t w h ic h h a s b e e n p e r c e iv e d (ibhdvana ). T h e d e e p e r th e r e a liz a tio n g ro w s t h a t e v e r y th in g is im p e r m a n e n t a n d t h a t th e d e s ire fo r its im m o r ta lity is a. s o u rc e o f s u ffe rin g , b e c a u s e b y v ir tu e o f its tra n s ito r in e s s i t b re a k s in o u r h a n d s as so o n as w e a t t e m p t to la y h a n d s o n it,, th e fe e b le r b e c o m e s o u r a d d ic tio n to th e se n su o u sly a n d se n su a lly s tim u la tin g o b je c ts t h a t s u r r o u n d us a n d o f w h ic h w e p a r ta k e a s d e te r m in a te p e rs o n a litie s . B u t n o t o n ly d<3es th is a d d ic tio n g ro w less, ill-w ill a ls o d e c re a s e s , b e c a u s e a d d ic te d n e s s a n d ill-w ill a r e r e la te d to e a c h o t h e r in s u c h a w a y t h a t th e o n e e n h a n c e s th e o th e r . I f I a m a d d ic t e d to a p a r t i c u l a r th in g I w a n t to possess i t a lo n e a n d I s h a ll t r y to h in d e r a n y b o d y else

fro m sh a rin g t h a t w h ich I co v et a n d I sh a ll n o t re frain from sc h e m in g ev en a g a in st his life. T h e a g g ra n d ise m e n t o f th e sense o f self w h ic h h a s its ro o t in possessiveness, is co u p led w ith ill-w ill to w a rd s o th ers. I t is a n in se p a ra b le u n io n . T h ere fo re possessiveness a n d ill-w ill a re m e n tio n e d as g ro w in g feebler to g e th e r on th e S econd P a th .1 I t c a n n o t b e ex p ected t h a t w e w ill g e t rid o f these enem ies to a h u m a n e w a y o f life w ith o u t c o n s ta n t v ig ila n c e a n d a c o n ti n u a l aw areness o f th e im p e rm a n e n c e o f o u r c h erish ed selves. B u t th e effectiveness o f p a y in g th e closest a tte n tio n to th e T ru th s p erce iv e d , is e v id e n t from th e fa c t th a t covetousness a n d ill-w ill m a k e them selves felt o n ly o ccasio n ally (adhiccuppattiya ) a n d th a t th e y rise slow ly (pariyutthanamandataya). I n a S a k rd a g a m in (O n c e -re tu m e r) e m o tio n a l in s ta b ility does n o t com e a b o u t as often as in th e case o f th e m a jo rity o f p e o p le w h o follow th e cy cle o f b irth s ; it com es a b o u t o n ly o ccasio n ally , a n d if it com es a b o u t it does so, sp o ra d ic a lly like shoots in a sp arsely sown field. M o reo v e r, if it arises, it does n o t do so as is th e case w ith th e m a jo rity o f p e o p le follow ing th e cycle o f b irth s , in a cru sh in g , sp re a d in g , c o v erin g m a n n e r a n d p ro d u c in g darkness. I t arises v e ry feeb ly b ecau se its p o w e r h as b e e n e x h a u ste d by th e T w o P ath s. I t arises in a th in fo rm , like a film o f clo u d or lik e fly s w in g .2 T h e w e a k e n in g o f e m o tio n a l o u tb u rsts a n d th e r a r e r occasions o f su ch m an ifestatio n s is by n o m e a n s in c o m p a tib le w ith o u r e v e ry d a y life in w h ic h w e w o rk , e a t a n d d rin k , a n d h a v e c h ild re n . H o w ev er, th e re h a v e b e e n p e o p le w h o claim ed to h a v e a d v a n c e d to this stag e o r second lev el o f sp iritu a l d e v e lo p m e n t a n d w ho a sse rte d th a t th e em o tio n s in th e m a re ju s t as v io le n t as w ith o rd in a ry p e o p le w h o do n o t a tte m p t to grow sp iritu a lly . T h e o n ly d ifferen ce is th a t su ch e m o tio n al o u t b u rsts o c c u rre d w ith g re a te r in te rv a ls. S u c h a view is n o t w ell g ro u n d e d . C e rta in ly , it c a n n o t b e e x p e c te d th a t from th e v e ry b e g in n in g o f o u r s triv in g o u r e m o tio n a l n a tu re w ill b e c o m e a u to m a tic a lly g en tle, fo r em o tio n s a re v ery d eep -ro o ted a n d it is n o easy ta sk even to w eak en th e m . B u t this does not m e a n th a t th e y re m a in as th e y w ere b efo re. E v ery a tte m p t
1. Atthasalini III 525. 2 . ibid. I l l 525.

a t d is c ip lin e h a s its effe c ts, h o w e v e r s lig h t th e y m a y b e . T h e a r g u m e n t fo r th e v io le n t n a t u r e o f e m o tio n s o n th is le v e l, n a m e ly , t h a t s u c h p e o p le h a v e so n s a n d d a u g h te r s , is a h o p e le s s ly b a d a r g u m e n t a n d i t o n ly re fle c ts th e a t t i t u d e o f a m o r a lis t w h o d o e s n o t see a n d is u n a b le to u n d e r s ta n d t h a t e m o tio n a lity is n o t m e r e ly sex a n d t h a t sex is n o t o n ly v io le n c e . S p ir itu a lity is a s s u r e d ly n o t s te r ility , m e n ta lly o r p h y s ic a lly . T h e a u th o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i, r e je c tin g th is v ie w o f v io le n t e m o tio n s b e c a u s e o f th e f a c t t h a t th e r e a r e sons a n d d a u g h te r s , s im p ly s t a t e s : S o n s a n d d a u g h te r s a ls o c o m e b y t h e r u b b in g to g e th e r o f lim b s .1 . T h e r e is o n e o t h e r f e a tu r e c h a r a c te r is tic o f th e S e c o n d P a t h a n d a ls o o f th e r e m a in in g p a th s . T h is is th e fa c t th a t th e r e is n o t h in g m o r e to b e le a r n e d . A p e rs o n w h o h a s a d v a n c e d to th is s ta g e a n d is w a lk in g T h e P a t h is a k n o w e r ( a jn a ). B u t in o r d e r to su c c e e d in w e a k e n in g a n d in fin a lly g e ttin g r id o f a ll p o ss ib ilitie s o f e v e r fa llin g a g a in i n t o e m o tio n a l u n b a la n c e , h e o v e r a n d a g a in re -c o g n iz e s th e T r u t h s p e rc e iv e d o n th e F irs t P a th . T h e c o n tin u o u s r e - c o g n itio n w h ic h is a d o m in a tin g f e a tu r e in h is o u tlo o k a n d m e n ta l m a k e - u p is te c h n ic a lly k n o w n a s ajnendriya (P a li a n n in d riya ) .2 T h e T h i r d P a t h w h ic h le a d s to a sta g e o f A n a g a m in ( N e v e r - r e t u r n e r ) is p r a c tis e d in o r d e r to g e t c o m p le te ly rid o f th o s e f e tte rs w h ic h o n th e S e c o n d P a t h h a v e a lr e a d y b e c o m e w e a k a n d lo o s e .3 T h e r e a r e five fe tte rs k n o w n as fe tte r s w h ic h tie m a n d o w n (avarabhdgiya, P a li oram bhagiya). O f th e se s e n s u a lity a n d th e d e s ire fo r s e n su o u s a n d s e n su a l r e la tio n (kamacchanda) as w e ll as ill-w ill ( vyapada ) a r e s u c h t h a t th e y s to p m a n f ro m g e ttin g o u t o f th e c lu tc h e s o f th is o r d in a r y w o rld o f s e n s u a lity ( K a m a d h a t u ) , w h ile th e v ie w t h a t o u r p h y sic a l e x is te n c e is th e w h o le t r u t h (satkayadrf t i ), s c e p tic is m ( vicikitsa), a n d th e o b s e rv a n c e o f rite s a n d r i t u a l s (silavrataparam arsa )
1. Atthasalini III 526. 2. ibid. I l l 526. Bhasya ad A bhidh.-kosa I I <)ab. It comprises ine function-events: manas, sukha, sanmanasya, upeksa, Sraddha, bala, sm rti,
samadhi, prajn d .

3.

Atthasalini I I I 527

: sakalagamimaggena tanubhutanam

samyojana-

nam nissesafoajahanatthSya.

m a k e m a n re tu rn to this w o rld o f sen su ality .1 A ctu ally , th e th re e la tte r fetters a re sh ak en o ff on th e F irst P a th , th e p a th o f see in g th e T ru th s. I t is th e fetters o f sen su ality a n d ill-w ill, those w h ich e n h a n c e th e sense o f ego a n d possessiveness to g eth er w ith g ru d g in g others w h a t th e y h av e, th a t a re sh ak en o ff on th e S ec o n d a n d T h ird P a th , w h ich a re p a th s o f p ra c tisin g th e T ru th s. T h is d istin c tio n is o f u tm o st im p o rta n c e . I t shows th a t it is a fa irly sim ple task to g et rid o f in te lle c tu a l fetters. I t is easy to a cc e p t th e findings o f science, to use m o d e rn exam ples, to d is c a rd th e g h o st-in -a -m a c h in e th e o ry o f th e re la tio n b etw een b o d y a n d soul, to a tte n d to a p ro b le m seriously in ste a d o f ta lk in g h a z ily a b o u t it a n d in o rd e r to conceal o n es ig n o ran c e a b o u t it, re so rtin g to sophistry a n d m isap p lied scepticism , to d iscard m e re ritu a lism because in all h o n esty in m ost cases it has tu rn e d in to a m eaningless fo rm alism ;2 b u t it is a g ig a n tic task to ta m e o r to su b lim a te o u r d e e p -ro o ted em otions. I m a y believe a n y th in g a b o u t m yself, w h e th e r it m akes sense o r n o t, b u t a n y th in g th a t a tte m p ts to e n c ro a c h u p o n m y p recio u s ego w ill m ee t w ith U ndisguised hostility . E m o tio n s a re n o t su b lim a ted by reco g n iz in g th e v a lid ity o f a p ro p o sitio n o r by seeing things by o u r selves, b u t o n ly b y p a y in g th e closest a tte n tio n to th a t w hich is the n a tu re o f a n y liv in g process, b y w o rk in g h a rd on ourselves. H e n c e th e em otions a re refin ed b y a p a th o f p ra c tic e ( bhavanamarga). W h e n , therefo re, th e texts speak o f th re e p a th s th a t h av e to b e w alked to th e en d , viz., th e S econd, T h ir d , a n d F o u rth P a th , th ey im p ly th e difficulty o f refin in g o u r em o tio n a l n a tu re . T h e F o u rth P a th le a d in g to th e sta te o f A rh a n tsh ip is p ra c tise d in o rd e r to shake o ff th e re m a in in g fetters, th e fetters b elo n g in g to th e h ig h e r levels o f h u m a n life ( urdhvabhagiya, P a li uddhambhagiya.), since w ith o u t h a v in g g o t rid o f th e m co m p letely m a n ca n n o t ach iev e his g o al a n d fin d his ow n d ig n ity .3
1. Dlghanikaya III 246; Visuddhimagga I V 155; Atthasalini III 348; Abhidharmakosa V +3 be, and Bhaya. 2. A distinction must be made between ritual as a symbolic transfor mation of experiences and formalism. The former is something very much alive, the latter is dead stuff. I f it is kept up, formalism becomes an euphe mism for hypocrisy. 3. Atthasalini III 528; Abhidharmakosa V . 45 and Bhasya.

T h e r e a r e a lso fiv e s u c h f e tte rs : a t t a c h m e n t to th e w o rld o f G e s ta lte n ( ruparaga), a t t a c h m e n t to n o n - G e s ta ltu n g ( arupara g a ), c o n c e it (m d n a ), f r iv o lity (auddhatya , P a li uddhacca), and. ig n o r a n c e ( avidya, P a li a v ijja ) n o t in th e sen se o f n o t k n o w in g s o m e th in g b u t in th e se n se o f n o t h a v in g a c le a r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f r e a l i t y .1 S in c e th e d iv is io n o f th e p a th s is s u c h t h a t o n T h e P a th o f S e e in g ( darianam arga ) t h e v a r io u s v ie w s w e h o ld a b o u t o u r selv es a r e s h o w n to h a v e n o f o u n d a tio n w h a ts o e v e r a n d c o n se q u e n tly a r e e x p e lle d , w h ile o n th e p a t h s o f a tt e n t i v e p r a c tic e ( bhavanam arga ) th e d e e p - r o o te d e m o tio n s o f o u r n a t u r e a r e s u b lim a te d , th e q u e s tio n h a s b e e n r a is e d w h e th e r to in c lu d e th e first to p ic o f th e E ig h tf o ld P a th , v iz ., c o r r e c t v ie w (samyagdrf ti, P a li sa m m a d itth i) is n o t c o n tr a r y to th e n a t u r e o f th e p a th s o f a tt e n t iv e p r a c tic e . O n e a r g u m e n t o ffe re d w a s t h a t w e s p e a k o f a n a n ti- p o is o n o u s d r u g r e g a rd le s s o f th e f a c t w h e t h e r th e r e is p o is o n p r e s e n t o r n o t, a n d so a lso w e m i g h t s p e a k a b o u t c o r r e c t v ie w w h e th e r th e r e is s till w r o n g v ie w o r n o t. T h i s w o u ld m a k e c o r r e c t v ie w a m e re n a m e a n d d e p r iv i n g it o f a n y fu n ctio n . A t th e b o tto m o f th is v ie w lies th e c o n c e p tio n o f th e in te r p la y b e tw e e n th e s is (pakpa) a n d a n tith e s is (p ra tip a k fa ), w h ic h d o es n o t le a d to a sy n th e s is as is a s s u m e d a n d p o s tu la te d in th e A b so lu tis m o f F ic h te a n d H e g e l, b u t to a m u t u a l c a n c e llin g .3 F o r w h e n w r o n g v ie w (m ithyddrf ti) h a s b e e n e x p e lle d b y its a n tith e s is r ig h t v ie w (sa m ya g d rfii), r ig h t v ie w its e lf b e c o m e s m e a n in g le s s b e c a u s e it h a s m e a n in g o n ly so lo n g as it c a n b e a r o n w ro n g v ie w . H o w e v e r , e v e n i f o n e a llo w s a n o m in a l e x is te n c e o f r ig h t v ie w in o r d e r to k e e p u p th e v a lid ity o f th e n u m e r ic a l c h a r a c te r o f th e P a t h , th e a r g u m e n t fo r its e x is te n c e in th is fo rm fails to ta k e in to a c c o u n t th e f a c tu a l, as th e a u t h o r o f th e A tth a s a lin i p o in ts o u t. W h e n e v e r m a n a t t e m p t s to g ro w b e y o n d th e
1. Atthasalini II I 528. 2. ibid. I l l 529. 3. T .R .V . M urti, T h e Central Philosophy o f Buddhism, makes the unhappy attem pt to interpret the M adhyam aka and V ijiianavada philoso phies as absolutistic systems and to com pare them w ith K an tian andH egelian systems. Unfortunately the author is unaw are o f the fact that only subjects standing on a same level can be com pared and no t those w h ich have a different view-point. T h e result is th at he does not do ju stice to any topic.

s ta n d a r d o f th e m ass-m an v a lu e , w h en ev er h e beg ins to qu estio n in s te a d o f b lin d ly acc e p tin g , h e becom es a u to m a tic a lly se p a ra te d fro m th e m ass. A t th is m o m e n t th e re is th e g ra v e d a n g e r th a t ju s t becau se o f his b eco m in g se p a ra te a n d d ifferen t from th e a m o rp h o u s m ass, b e develops a feeling o f su p erio rity , puffs h im s e lf u p b y a n o v erw eeningly fa v o ra b le o p in io n o f his pow ers a n d a c c o m p lish m en ts; in sh o rt, h e becom es co n ceited . C o n c e it (mdna) is th e w orst a n d d e a d lie st en em y to tru e sp iritu a lity . I t is a view , th o u g h hollow a n d stu p id , w h ic h w e h o ld a b o u t ourselves, th e view (drf f i ) th a t w e b elo n g to a n in n e r c irc le o r to th e e le c t w h a te v e r th e y m a y b e. I t is o n ly rig h t view , v iz ., th e view th a t a n E go, p u re , im p u re , tra n sc e n d e n tal o r w h a t n o t, is a m y th , th a t can cope effectively w ith conceit. I t is rig h t view th a t expels th is c o n c e it .1 C o n c e it w hich is a t th e basis o f all u n h e a lth y a ttitu d e s lingers o n u n til th e goal h a s been a tta in e d a n d it h as to b e k ille d (vajjha) over a n d o v e r a g a in on each p a th w e tra v e l. H e w ho is in th e stre a m (srota-apanna) still h a rb o rs a k in d o f co n ceit w h ic h ca n only b e k ille d b y th e p a th o f O n c e -re tu rn in g , a n d h e w h o h as a tta in e d th e stag e o f a O n c e -re tu rn e r h a rb o rs a ty p e o f co n ceit w h ich o n ly th e p a th o f n o n -re tu rn in g c a n kill, a n d h e w h o has a tta in e d th e stage o f a N e v e r-re tu rn e r still h a rb o rs a ty p e o f co n ceit w h ic h on ly th e p a th o f A rh a n ts h ip c a n effectively destroy. I n th is w ay e ach m e m b e r o f th e E ig h tfo ld P a th serves a definite p u rp o se a n d does n o t h a v e a m e re ly n o m in a l existence .2 T h e P a th in its fo u r stages is essentially m e a n t to over c o m e u n h e a lth y a ttitu d e s a n d to p ro d u c e a c e rta in ty p e o f m a n in w h o m u n h e a lth y a ttitu d e s c a n n o lo n g er o p e ra te . T w elve u n h e a lth y a ttitu d e s w ere e n u m e ra te d , o f w h ic h eig h t h a d th e ir b asis in c u p id ity ( lobha) a n d e ith e r re p re se n te d a jo y fu l o r indif fe re n t m o o d to g e th e r w ith c e rta in views o r w ith o u t th em a n d h a d com e a b o u t e ith e r by a n a tu r a l d isp o sitio n o f th e in d iv id u a l o r b y follow ing th e exam ple o f those w ho suffered from u n h e a lth y a ttitu d e s . T w o fu rth e r u n h e a lth y a ttitu d e s w ere ro o te d in a n tip a th y (dosa) a n d a su llen m o o d , also b ro u g h t a b o u t by th e n a tu r a l dispo sitio n o f th e in d iv id u a l o r b y follow ing b a d ex am p les. T h e last tw o u n h e a lth y a ttitu d e s h a d th eir roots
1. A tthasalini I I I 530: sa iam manam pajahati ti sammaditthi. 2 . ibid. I l l 530.

in d e lu s io n - b e w ild e r m e n t ( m oha ) a n d s in c e d e lu s io n - b e w ild e r m e n t n e e d n o t n e c e s s a r ily b e in t h e w a k e o f e i t h e r c u p i d i t y o r a n t i p a t h y b u t c a n o p e r a t e o f its o w n , th e s e u n h e a l t h y a tt i t u d e s w e r e m a r k e d b y a n e m o t io n a l l y in d i f f e r e n t m o o d a n d d is tin g u is h e d o n ly b y s c e p tic is m , t h e i n a b i l i t y to g r a s p t h e r e a l n a t u r e o f th in g s , a n d b y f r iv o lity , a t t e n d i n g to a l l a n d e v e r y th in g w ith o u t e v e r a t t e m p t i n g to u n d e r s t a n d w h a t is b e in g a t t e n d e d to . S in c e th e P a t h o f S e e in g o r t h e p a t h o f e n t e r i n g th e s t r e a m to w a r d N i r v a n a d e s tr o y s w r o n g v ie w s , b e c a u s e th e T r u t h s h a v e b e e n c a u g h t s ig h t of, t h e r e s u l t is t h a t a p e r s o n w h o h a s a t t a i n e d t h e s t a t e o f b e in g in t h e s t r e a m (srota-apanna), t h o u g h still p o s se ss in g u n h e a l t h y a t t i t u d e s , h a s g o t r i d o f a t le a s t th o s e fiv e u n h e a l t h y a t t i t u d e s w h i c h c o m p r is e w r o n g v ie w s , i .e ., o n e r o o t e d in c u p i d i t y w h ic h e i t h e r h a s a h a p p y o r i n d if f e r e n t m o o d , o n e w h ic h is d u e to t h e n a t u r a l d is p o s itio n o f th e i n d i v i d u a l o r to h is fo llo w in g a c e r t a i n e x a m p le , o n e u n h e a l t h y a t t i t u d e r o o t e d in d e lu s io n - b e w ild e r m e n t, a s w e ll as a n in d if f e r e n t m o o d , a n d s c e p tic is m . W h ile i t is c o m p a r a t i v e ly e a s y t o s h u n t h e m o r e i n t e l l e c t u a l u n h e a l t h y a tt i t u d e s , to s u b lim a te o r to m a k e in e f f e c tiv e th e d e e p e r - ly in g e m o tio n s , th e p a t h o f o n c e - r e t u r n in g w h ic h is a p a t h o f p r a c ti c e , se rv e s to w e a k e n t h e tw o r e m a i n in g u n h e a l t h y a t t i t u d e s r o o t e d i n c u p i d i t y a n d o f a jo y o u s m o o d . I t is t h e p a t h o f n o n - r e t u r n i n g w h ic h a lo n e is a b le to m a k e th e s e tw o u n h e a l t h y a t t i t u d e s in e ffe c tiv e . T h e p a t h o f A r h a n t s h i p , th e la s t s ta g e o f t h e p a t h o f p r a c t i c e , m a k e s t h e r e m a i n i n g fiv e ty p e s o f u n h e a l t h y a t t i t u d e s in e f f e c tiv e 1. T h is g r a d a t i o n sh o w s th e d if f ic u lty i n o v e r c o m in g o u r d e e p - r o o te d e m o tio n s : it is e a s ie r to o v e r c o m e c u p i d i t y t h a n to c o n q u e r a v e r s io n a n d a ll t h a t i t e n ta ils . A n d a v e r s io n c a n b e o v e r c o m e o n ly w h e n th e s lig h te s t t r a c e o f c u p i d i t y n o lo n g e r o b ta in s , b e c a u s e o n ly t h e n h a v e a v e r s io n a n d a n t i p a t h y b e c o m e m e a n in g le s s . T h e r e f o r e , its c o n q u e s t c o m e s la s t a f t e r c u p i d i t y h a s b e e n o v e r p o w e r e d b y tw o p a t h s , th e o n e b e i n g a b l e o n ly to w e a k e n c u p i d i t y a n d t h e o t h e r t o d o a w a y w it h a w e a k e n e d e n e m y . T h e v a r io u s ty p e s t h a t r e s u l t f r o m tr a v e r s in g t h e p a th s a r e b y n o m e a n s u n if o r m b u t v a r y a c c o r d in g to t h e d e g r e e of a t t a i n m e n t in o v e r c o m in g th e d e e p e r la y e r s o f e m o tio n a l i n s ta b ility . W i t h o n ly m i n o r d iv e r g e n c e s t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e m
i. Atth asalini. I l l 5 37; cp. I l l 530.

tallies w ith th e one given by the Sarvastivadins-V aibhasikas. I t will suffice to refer to these types in th e discussion of th e V aib h asik a conception o f th e P a th .1 The Vaibhasika Conception o f the Path T h e V aibhasikas recognize a v ariety o f aspects o f T h e P a th , w h eth er it is a w orldly or a superw orldly p a th (laukikamarga, lokottaramarga), w hether it is seeing th e tru th s ( darsanamarga) or p ractisin g in o nes life th a t w hich has been perceived (bhavanamarga) w hich is also a p a th of getting rid o f the im pedi m ents to the a tta in m e n t o f N irv a n a (prahanamarga), or w hether i t is a p a th on w hich no th in g m o re is to be lea rn ed , everythinghav in g b een accom plished before . (asaikfamarga). All these aspects, w hich m ay be spoken o f as distil ct p ath s, are subsum ed u n d e r four headings, each referrin g to the salient features o f th e path s : p a th o f p re p a ra tio n (prayogamarga), th e successful travers ing o f w hich gives rise to the p a th w ith o u t obstacles (anantaryamarga), after w hich comes the p a th of d eliverance (vimuktimdrga), an d th e special p a th (vihfamarga) different from allp receding p a th s .2 I n o rd er to be able to set o u t on the p a th to w in the goal,, it is necessary to p rep are ourselves for this g igantic task. P re p a ra tio n is o f tw o types, a rem ote p re p a ra tio n a n d a proxim ate one. T h e p ro x im ate p re p a ra tio n forms p a r t o f the p a th o f p re p a ra tio n itself. T h e rem ote p rep aratio n , w hich certainly can n o t be dispensed w ith, im plies th a t above all, for th a t w hich is necessary for the task a h e a d o f us, m ore th a n one existence is needed. In d eed , the shortest perio d in w hich we m ay hope to succeed in w inning the goal, com prises o f th ree existences as h u m a n beings .3 T h e first existence will be n eeded ju s t to lay
1. The Theravada description of these types of individuals is given, by Buddhaghosa in his Visuddhimagga X X III 55 sqq. 2. Abhidharmakosa V I 65 and Bhasya. 3. This does not mean that there is transmigration of a permanent soul. As a matter of fact, Buddhism does not recognize transmigration, bat only incarnation. The stream of existence flows on like a river which may appear to preserve its course, though this often changes, and in which the water rushes on never remaining the same. In other words, the elements and events in a structure change ceaselessly, and though the structure seems to persist even this is gradually changed by the changing structuralizing events.

th e f o u n d a tio n o f a ll t h a t is g o o d a n d w h o le s o m e ( k ttfa la m u la ) o u t o f w h ic h , a s a r ip e f r u it, s p ir i tu a l m a t u r i t y m a y c o m e a b o u t i n t h e c o u rs e o f o u r s u b s e q u e n t e x is te n c e s . T h is f o u n d a tio n o f th e g o o d a n d w h o le so m e is q u a lif ie d a s c o n d u c iv e to a n d f o r m in g p a r t o f th e p ro c e s s o f l i b e r a t i o n (m okfabhagiya ) a n d c o m p ris e s o f lis te n in g to (sru ta ) a n d p o n d e r in g o v e r ( cinta) t h e m e s s a g e o f T h e B u d d h a a n d o f m a k in g th e r e s o lu tio n (fira n id h i ) to fo llo w th e B u d d h is t d o c tr in e a n d d is c ip lin e , th is re s o lu t i o n o v e rs h a d o w in g a ll o u r b e h a v io r in w o rd s a n d d e e d s x. A f te r th e f o u n d a tio n h a s b e e n la id , w h ic h is n o s im p le ta s k b e c a u s e o f its d e m a n d in g th e m o s t d iffic u lt fr o m u s, v iz ., to b e a w a r e o f a ll o u r a c tiv itie s a n d o f t h e i r re s u lts oq, o u r e n v i r o n m e n t w h e th e r a n im a te o r i n a n i m a t e , a n d a c t u a l l y c a n b e s a id to b e a life -tim e s tr iv in g , w e h a v e a g u a r a n te e t h a t n o t o n ly t h e s tr e a m o f o u r e x is te n c e w ill c o n tin u e in a h u m a n f o r m , as for u s a s h u m a n b e in g s th is is th e b e s t p o s s ib le s ta te a n d m e a n s o f e x e r tin g o u rse lv e s, b u t w e a lso s h a ll h a v e a c q u ir e d th e p o w e r to p r o d u c e th o se q u a litie s w h ic h f o r m p a r t o f a n d le a d to a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r e a lity as n e v e r u n d e r s to o d b e fo re ( nirvedhabhd g iya ).* T o g e th e r w ith p r o d u c in g th e q u a litie s c o n d u c iv e to a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r e a l i ty th e d e s ire to see th e T r u t h s w ith o u r o w n ey es a n d to e x p e rie n c e th e m in o u r lives g ro w s a n d w e b e g in to s tu d y , to p o n d e r o v e r t h a t w h ic h w e h a v e s tu d ie d , a n d to m e d it a t e o n t h a t w h ic h w e h a v e p o n d e r e d o v e r fo r a lo n g -tim e 3. A s a m a t t e r o f f a c t, th e q u a litie s w h ic h le a d to a n u n d e r
1. Abhidharm akosa V I 24-25. T h is step forms part o f the bodhicittotpada in M a h ayan a works. See for instance Bodhicaryavatara I 15. T h is attitude directed toward enlightenm ent is, in brief, o f two types: A n attitude o f resolution to w in enlightenm ent and an attitude engaged in w inning enlightenment . 2. Abhidharm akosa V I 20. nirvedha is interpreted as niscita vedha decidedly true penetration o f the aim . I t is the P ath w h ich pierces and destroys doubt. See Bhasya ad V I s o . 3. A bhidharm akosa V I 5. T h e V aibhasikas contended that discri m ination born from hearing (srutamajiiprajna ) deals w ith the nam e, discrimi nation born from pondering (cintamayrl fira jn d ) deals w ith the nam e and the subject matter, sometimes selecting t h e nam e, sometimes selecting the s u b je c tmatter, and discrimination born from m editation ( bhavanamayi prajna) deals w ith the subject-matter. T h is view is criticized b y V asubandhu, b e c a u s e i t makes the prajna cintamayi superfluous. H is explanation is that huU.tn'syi

sta n d in g o f reality resu lt from m e d ita tio n , a n d n o t from a m ere hearin g o f c e rta in topics a n d th e p o n d erin g o v er them a n d in p a rtic u la r they a re connected w ith th e m ed itativ e stages discussed (dhyana) elsew here1. H ow ever, to acq u ire th e qu alities co nducive to u n d e r s ta n d in g is n o t an easy task a n d in o rd e r to be successful it is necessary to overcom e those passions w hich resu lt in cupidity a n d sensual a tta c h m e n t (raga) a n d also to develop the capacity to co n cen trate b y learn in g n o t to a tte n d to a ll a n d everything w ith o u t d o in g an y th in g p ro p e rly . F o r those w ho b y n a tu re a re liable to g e t involved in sensual a tta c h m e n t (ragacarita) th e co n tem p latio n o f the im p u re (aJubha), i.e., the g ra d u a l decom position o f a corpse, is recom m ended, w hile those w ho a re u n a b le to a tte n d to one topic, a re told to practise b re a th c o n tro l, w hich has a definitely q u ietin g effect .2 W hen th ro u g h these practices th e necessary calm a n d d e ta c h m en t has been ach ie v e d , we ca n set o u t to try to learn m o re a b o u t the n a tu re o f th e object o f o u r co n tem p latio n . T h is is d one by applying in spectio n (smrtyupasthdna),3 In sp ectio n is understood here in a w ider sense th a n m erely professing to describe th e a p p a re n t characteristics o f the objective constituent o f th e inspective
prajna is a certitude which derives from that which is termed an instrument o f valid knowledge (pmmana) as applied by a reliable and qualified person (aptavacana). prajna cwtamayi is certitude arrived at by rational investigation. prajfid bhavanamayi is certitude brought about bv meditative absorption. These three types of discrimination are also mentioned by Buddhaghosa in Visuddhimagga X I V 8 as cinta-suta-bhavanamaya and explained in X I V 14 in the following way which, with the exception that the order is different, agrees closely with Vasubandhus interpretation : Discrimination which does not stem from having heard from others but evolves from ones own pondering over the matter is cintamaya ; discrimination which stems from having heard from others and evolved by virtue of that which has been heard, is sutamaya, and discrimination which has evolved by having become meditatively absorbed in any kind of subject-matter, is bhavanamayi . 1. See above, pp. 119 sq. According to Abhidharmakosa V I 20 these qualities are gained in the stages of dhyana of the Gestalt-world in the first preliminary stage of dhyana (anagamya) and in that stage which does not comprise vitarka (dhyanantara) See also AbihdharmakoSa V III 22. 2. Abhidharmakosa V I 9-12. A more exhaustive treatment as found in Visuddhimagga III 121. See also above, pp. 101 sqq. 3. Abhidharmakosa V I j j .

s itu a tio n 1 in a s m u c h as in s p e c tio n i n th e B u d d h is t sen se o f th e w o r d c o m p ris e s b o th o f th e c o g n itio n o f th a t w h ic h m a k e s a th in g t h a t w h ic h i t is (svalakfana , svabftdva ) a n d o f th e c o g n itio n o f th e g e n e r a l c h a r a c te r is tic s o f th e t h i n g its e lf (sdm anyalakfana). T h u s , fo r in s ta n c e , t h a t w h ic h m a k e s o u r b o d y w h a t i t is, is its o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e fo u r g r e a t e le m e n ta r y q u a litie s ( m ahabhuta ) a n d o f th o s e q u a litie s d e r iv e d fro m th e m ( b h u ta ) w h ic h a r e te r m e d ru p a c o m p r is in g c o lo r a n d s h a p e , w h ile th e g e n e r a l c h a r a c te r i s t i c o f th is o r g a n iz a tio n is th e f a c t th a t as s o m e th in g c o n d itio n e d i t is im p e r m a n e n t, ( a n ity a ), u n a b le to y ie ld la s tin g c o n t e n t m e n t b e c a u s e o f its b e in g a n i n c o m p le te c y c le o f a c tiv ity in w h ic h t e m p o r a r y fe e lin g o f h a p p in e s s is m a r r e d b y a re si d u u m o f u n h a p p y fe e lin g d u e to th e f a c t t h a t th e c y c le h a s n o t b e e n c o m p le te d su c c e ssfu lly a n d h e n c e is, g e n e r a lly sp e a k in g , u n s a tis f a c to r y ( d u h k h a ) , d o e s n o t h a v e a r e a lity o f its o w n (Ju n ya )y a n d d o e s n o t h a v e a n i n d iv i d u a l it y o f its o w n o v e r a n d a b o v e th e c o n d itio n s t h a t b r i n g th e s e c h a r a c te r is tic s a b o u t ( anatm a) . T h e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e s e tw o sets o f c h a r a c te r is tic s is essen tia lly th e d is tin c tio n w e m a k e b e tw e e n a th in g a n d its sta te s, o r , in p h ilo s o p h ic a l te r m s , b e tw e e n n o n - p r im a r y c h a ra c te ris tic s b e lo n g in g to th e th in g a n d p r im a r y c h a r a c te r is tic s b e lo n g in g to its s ta te s . T h is d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n n o n - p r im a r y a n d p r i m a r y c h a r a c te r is tic s ([svalakfana svabhava a n d sdm dnyalaksana) n o t o n ly sh o w s t h a t th e t h in g is a n a b s t r a c tio n o f a c e r ta in k in d , i t m a y e v e n m is le a d u s in to t h in k in g t h a t th e th in g is so m e th in g a p a r t f r o m th e s itu a tio n in w h ic h it f in d s itself. T o h a v e p o in te d o u t th is c ir c u m s ta n c e is th e m e r i t o f th e M a d h y a m ik a s w h o d e c l a r e d t h a t th e svabhava is n o svabhava a t a ll (nihsvabhava). I t w ill, h o w e v e r, b e o b s e rv e d t h a t w h a t th e B u d d h is ts call svabhava in c e r ta in r e s p e c ts c o r r e s p o n d s to o u r p r i m a r y c h a r a c te ris tic s . W e c a n n o t h e r e d isc u ss th e n a t u r e o f th is d is tin c tio n a n d a b s t r a c ti o n ; i t is s u ffic ie n t to p o i n t o u t th e tw o ty p e s o f c h a r a c te r is tic s . T h e d is tin c tio n m a d e as re g a r d s o u r b o d y is v a lid a ls o fo r th e o th e r c o n s titu e n ts o f in s p e c tiv e s itu a tio n s : fe e lin g , ( vedana ) m e n t a l p ro c e sse s (citta ) a n d th o s e e le m e n ts (dharm a) t h a t c o n s titu te o u r w o r l d .2 A s a c o g n itiv e a c t ins p e c t i o n 5 is b y n a tu r e a n a ly tic a l u n d e r s ta n d in g (p ra jn d ). T h e

relatio n b etw een inspection a n d a n aly tical u n d erstan d in g has been explained by th e V aibhasikas in th e following w ay. D iscrim in atio n , an aly tical u n d e rsta n d in g (prajna ) bears on its o b ject d u e to th e p re d o m in a n t role o f inspection (smrti) w hich keeping the p a rtic u la r p e rc e p tu a l situ atio n constant, presents th e objective co n stitu en t o f the situ atio n for discrim ina tion. V a su b an d h u criticizes this view a n d offers instead th e follow ing in terp retatio n . D iscrim in atio n applies inspection a n d according to th e m a n n e r in w hich th e object is seen b y d iscrim in atio n , it is tak en h o ld of, ad d ressed (abhilapyate) by inspection .1 I n ap plying inspection th e re is a g ra d atio n o f learn in g , proceeding from th e grosser to th e subtler, as is expressed also b y the o rd e r o f th e objective constituents o f inspective situations. A t the sam e tim e it rem oves c e rta in m isconcep tions a n d superstitions. T h e inspection o f th e constituents o f o u r body destroys a tta c h m e n t to it, because th e veil o f aestheticism is to rn . A w a rn in g m u st b e expressed here ag ain st a possible m isu n d erstan d in g . T h e tearin g d o w n o f all th a t w e believe to be b e a u tifu l is no aim in itself b u t only a m eans to sever a tta c h m e n t a n d a d d ic tio n a n d this c an only be achieved by tem p o rarily d ep reciatin g th a t w hich we h e ld in high esteem . I f it becom es a n aim in itself n o fu rth e r progress on th e p a th is possible. Professional iconoclasts have n ev er c o n trib u ted to h u m a n develo p m en t in a positive w ay. In sp e c tio n o f ou r feel ings reveals th e unsatisfactoriness o f even p le a su rab le feelings, because th e underlying, u n p le a su ra b le feeling-tone releases a new cycle o f activ ity w ith a ll its h arrassin g aspects o f finding a solution to th e problem . In sp e c tio n o f o u r attitu d es shows th a t th ere is n o th in g static a n d n o th in g p e rm a n e n t ab o u t them ; a n d inspection o f the elem ents th a t co n stitu te o u r w orld, in te r n a lly as well as externally, m akes it a b u n d a n tly clear th a t n o w here is a Self to be fo u n d .2 I t is w ith the a tta in m e n t o f inspec tion o f the subtle, w hen we see a ll c o n stitu tin g elem ents as im p e rm a n e n t, unsatisfactory, u n re a l a n d n o n -in d iv id u a l that
1. Bhasya ad Abhidharmakosa V I 15. The explanation of smrtyu pasthdna which according to this interpretation is smrter ubastkanam, is not found elsewhere. According to Buddhaghosa, Vism X X II 34 it is satiyeva upatfhamm inspection is presence, hence presence, application of inspection. 2, Abhidharmakosa V I 15. Visuddhimagga X X I I 34.

t h e q u a litie s 'c o n d u c iv e to a n u n d e r s ta n d in g o f r e a lity in its r e a l i t y ( nirvedhabhagiya ) a r e p r o d u c e d in us. I n s p e c tio n p r o p e r ly c o n d u c te d is a p ro c e ss o f d e e p c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d a b s o r p tio n t h a t a ffe c ts th e w h o le o f o u r e x iste n c e w h ic h w e h a v e a r b i t r a r i l y s p lit u p i n t o a p h y s ic a l a n d a m e n ta ' aspect, a d iv is io n t h a t h a s m a d e u s f o rg e t t h a t th e m e n t a l a n d p h y s ic a l o c c u r w ith in a u n i t y a n d s h o u ld n o t th e re fo r e b e th o u g h t o f a s m o d if ic a tio n s o f, o r c h a n g e s in , tw o th in g s a m in d a n d a b o d y . T h u s as th e first i n d ic a tio n o f success th e r e arises h e a t ( iifm agata ), w h ic h is n o t o n ly fe lt b o d ily b u t is also a d i s t i n c t m e n ta l e v e n t a n d fo rc e t h a t b u r n s a w a y e m o tio n a l i n s ta b il i t y . T h is h e a t m a y la s t f o r q u i te a lo n g tim e a c tu a lly i t la s ts as lo n g as th e c o n c e n tr a tiv e s ta te o f a b s o r p tio n c o n tin u e s a n d w ill g r a d u a lly in c r e a s e u n til i t re a c h e s its m a x im u m v a lu e o r t o p ( m iirdhan).1 B o th th e in i t i a l h e a t a n d th e to p h e a t b e a r o n th e F o u r T r u t h s , e a c h T r u t h r e v e a lin g f o u r a sp e c ts, s o t h a t a to ta l o f s ix te e n a s p e c ts o b ta in s . T h is n u m b e r six te e n is a c o m m o n f e a tu r e o f A b h i d h a r m a w o rk s, a lth o u g h th e in te r p r e t a t i o n o f th e s e s ix te e n to p ic s m a y v a r y .2 B o th h e a t a n d its m a x im u m v a lu e a r e p a th w a y s o n w h i c h w e c a n p r o c e e d a s w e ll a s fa ll b a c k . T h e i r m a i n f u n c tio n is to le a d us to a m o r e v iv id r e a liz a tio n a n d a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e n a t u r e o f th e c o n s titu e n t^ o f o u r r e a l i t y .3 A fte r t h e m a x im u m v a lu e h a s p a s s e d th r o u g h th r e e d e g re e s o f in te n s ity i t is o n th e h ig h e s t d e g r e e o f in te n s ity t h a t th e r e c o m es a b o u t a n e v e n t o f h ig h e s t im p o r ta n c e a n d o f m o m e n ta r y d u r a t io n . I t is th e a c c e p ta n c e (k fd n ti )4 o f th e v a lid ity o f th e T r u th s w h ic h h a v e b e e n d ir e c tly e x p e r ie n c e d a n d w h ic h a lso h a s th re e d e g r e e s o f in te n s ity . O u t o f th e la s t th e r e re s u lts a n e x p e rie n c e w h ic h is te r m e d h ig h e s t w o r ld ly r e a l i z a t i o n ( laukikagradharm a )s w h i c h lik e th e p r e c e d in g e v e n t is o f m o m e n ta r y d u r a tio n . A c c e p ta n c e a n d h ig h e s t w o r ld ly r e a liz a tio n a re th e c u lm in a tin g p o in ts o f m o d ifia b le p ro c e sse s. H e a t a n d its m a x im u m v a lu e m a y b e d ir e c te d to a h u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e .T r u th s in su c h a
1.
2. 3.

A bhidbarm ako& a V I ib id . V I 18c.

17 .

See accom panying table. Abhidharmakosa V I 17-18 and Bhasya.

4.

w ay th a t the u ltim ate an d highest level o f know ledge m ay b e achieved. H ow ever, d u e to th e fact th a t th ro u g h those expe riences o f h e a t an d its m axim um value we com e to understand c erta in aspects o f reality w hich w 6 h a d n o t observed or taken th e tim e to a tte n d to, we m ay a t any m om ent com e to an accep tance o f th a t w hich we perceive even if it w ould be possible to proceed to a deeper understan d in g . I n o th er w ords, we m ay stop before we have exhausted all possibilities. O nce this h appens we are stuck. I t is, therefore, necessary to postpone acceptance as long as possible. T h e p oint a t w hich acceptance sets in is n o t only the final lim it to th e preceding process, it also separates one class o f individuals from the o th er ones. I t is o u t o f th e levels o f spiritual p en etratio n , i.e., from the dem ar cation line o f the setting in o f acceptance, th a t the spiritual classes of individuals (gotra) such as the Sravaka lineage, th e P raty ek ab u d d h a lineage, and th e B uddha lineage, come a b o u t .1 T o develop these four experiences o f heat, m axim um value, acceptance, and highest w orldly experience, is the direct p ath o f p rep aratio n , everything th a t w ent before was the rem ote p rep aratio n for enlightenm ent. Im m ediately after th e highest w orldly experience has been a tta in e d there arises a n im m aculate dharmajnanakfdnti w hich bears on the unsatisfactoriness o f th e w orld of sensuality .2 As the nam e im plies, it is an acceptance o f reality as it is and in this acceptance we find th a t p a rtic u la r knowledge b y experience (jnan a ) w hich in dealing w ith the constituents o f reality (dharma) sets us free. T h is acceptance, th o u g h n o t know ledge itself, expels all doubts, because by n a tu re it is an im passionate investi gation into the n atu re o f reality .3 Therefore, this p articu lar acceptance, too, w hich comes a b o u t after long p ractice o f con cen tratio n an d m editation an d is n o t tram m eled by em otionally toned considerations, is the p a th w ith o u t obstacles (anantaryamarga * Absence o f doubts alone can give us knowledge about the n atu re o f reality (dharmajnana) w hich like its m aternal soil, acceptance, is im m aculate. W ith gaining acceptance the
i. Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa V I 23 cd.

a. Abhidharmakosa V I 25cd 26a. 3. Abhidharmakosa V II 1 and Bhasya. 4. ibid. V I 28.

p e rs o n s tr iv in g to w in e n lig h te n m e n t , b e c o m e s a s p ir itu a l a r is to c r a t (a rya ) a n d m a y w in th e firs t f r u it o f h is s triv in g , th e s ta tu s o f a p e rs o n w h o h a s e n te r e d th e s tr e a m to w a rd e n lig h te n m e n t, N ir v a n a (srota-dpanna) . W ith g a in in g k n o w le d g e th e s a m e p e rs o n g a in s p o ssession (p rd p ti ) o f a c e r ta in e x tin c tio n o f c e r ta in in s ta b ilitie s (nirodha) I1 S in c e th r o u g h k n o w le d g e a lo n e h e b e c o m e s lib e r a te d , k n o w le d g e is th e p a th o f d e liv e ra n c e (.vimuktimdrga ) .a O u t o f th is k n o w le d g e o f th e u n s a tisfa c to rin e ss o f th e w o rld o f s e n s u a lity ( K a m a d h a t u ) w h ic h , as h a s a lw a y s to b e re m e m b e re d , is n o t p ro p o s itio n a l k n o w le d g e , co m es a n a c c e p ta n c e o f th e u n s a tisfa c to rin e ss o f th e h ig h e r m e d ita tiv e w o rld s, R u p a d h a t u a n d A r u p y a d h a tu . T h is a c c e p ta n c e , in tu r n , b rin g s a b o u t k n o w le d g e . B e in g s u b s e q u e n t to th e fo r m e r e v e n ts th e se tw o ty p e s o f a c c e p ta n c e a n d k n o w le d g e a r e te rm e d anvayajnan akfa n ti a n d anvayajndna re s p e c tiv e ly .3 S im ila rly , fo u r s u c h e v e n ts a ris e w ith e a c h o f th e r e m a in in g t h r e e T r u t h s o f O r ig in a tio n o f U n s a tis fa c to rin e s s (samudaya ), C e ss a tio n o f U n s a tis fa c to rin e s s (nirodha), a n d W a y to C essa tio n o f U n s a tis fa c to rin e s s (marga'). I n to ta l, th e re a r e e ig h t a s p e c ts o f a c c e p ta n c e (k fa n ti ) a n d e ig h t a sp e c ts o f k n o w le d g e (dharm ajnana ) . T h u s w e h a v e U n s a tis fa c to rin e s s o f K a m a d h a tu o f R u p a a n d A r u p y a d h a tu O r ig in a tio n o f U n s a tis fa c to rin e s s o f K a m a d h a t u o f R u p a a n d A r u p y a d h a tu C e s s a tio n o f U n s a tis f a c to r i ness o f K a m a d h a t u o f R u p a a n d A r u p y a d h a tu duhkhe dharm aj nanakfdnti ,, dharmajnana ,, an vayaj nanakfdnti anvayaj fiana samudaye dharm aj nanakfa n ti ,, dharmajnana > anvayajndnakfdnti anvayaj fiana nirodhe dharm aj nanakfdnti dharmajnana ,, anvayajnanakfdnti ,, anvayajndna

i. In particular this is the pratisamkhydnirodha, one of the three uncondi tioned elements. See Abhidharmakosa I I 36cd, 55d and Bhasya. a. Abhidharm akosa V I 28. 3. ibid. V I 26d.

W ay to Cessation of U n satisfactoriness o f K a m a * d h atu of R u p a and A rupyadhatu

marge dharmajnanakfanti dharmajnana anvayajnanaksanti ,, anvayajnana

O f these sixteen events, th e first fifteen are the Path of Seeing the T ruths (darsanamarga), the sixteenth event already partakes of the P ath of P ractising th at which has been seen (bhavanamarga)-1 W hile the first fifteen events are more like isolated events, though co-operating in such a w ay th at one event follows the other and th at each is different from the pre ceding one, the sixteenth event can only repeat itself an d there fore forms a continuity. Comprehension (abhisamaya) of the T ru th s is for the V aibhasikas a gradual process, proceeding from one topic to an oth er in the order indicated above. T o this conception of a gradual comprehension o f the T ruths, the V aibhasikas were forced by their peculiar m ethod o f analysis o f propositions, which we could observe in connexion with their definition o f possession (prdpti). T his they had analyzed to the effect th a t the pro position A possesses B was m eant to assert first A , then posses sion, and lastly B . 2 T h e same procedure obtains also here. T h e F o u r T ru th s had been converted into the proposition th at unsatisfactoriness is recognized, the origin or cause o f unsatis factoriness is abolished, the abolition of unsatisfactoriness is realized, and the p ath tow ard the abolition o f unsatisfactoriness is practised .3 C ertainly there is a succession o f events in the com plex of the Four T ruths, b u t this succession is n ot as the linguistic expression seems to have it, th a t first we have unsatis factoriness, then we have its origination, then its abolition and thereafter the w ay to its abolition. T hus the V aibhasikas, together w ith a few other little known schools, stand alone in their con ception of a g rad u al com prehension of the T ruths. Both V asubandhu 4 and Buddhaghosa recognize th a t there is some
1. Abhidharmakosa V I 28 and Bhasya. 2. See above, p. 178. 3. Cp. Atthasalini III 466. Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 65. Visuddbimagga X X II 95 sq. 4. Bhasya ad Abhidh.-kosa V I 27b, '

k in d o f s u c c e s s io n , b u t th is s u c c e s s io n is s u c h t h a t t h e F o u r T r u t h s a r e s im u lta n e o u s w i t h e a c h o t h e r a n d w ith t h a t w h ic h h a p p e n s in t h e i r r e a l i z a t io n , h e n c e a u n i q u e c o m p r e h e n s io n ('e k a kfa n a ). B u d d h a g h o s a a lm o s t u se s t h e s a m e w o rd s a s V a s u b a n d h u w h e n h e c o m m e n ts o n t h e c a n o n ic a l p a s s a g e t h a t h e w h o sees u n s a tis f a c to r in e s s a ls o sees its o r ig in 1 b y d e c la r in g t h a t o n e t r u t h is m a d e t h e s u b je c t o f d is c o u r s e i n th is q u o t a t i o n , b e c a u s e th is v e r y o n e t r u t h f u n c tio n s a ls o v /ith r e f e r e n c e to th e o t h e r t r u t h s .2 T h e s im u lta n e o u s n e s s o f th e F o u r T r u t h s h e ill u s tr a te s b y a n u m b e r o f sim ile s o f w h i c h o n e m a y b e a d d u c e d h e r e . J u s t as th e r is in g s u n th e m o m e n t i t a p p e a r s p e rf o rm s f o u r o p e r a t i o n s : i l lu m in in g th o s e th in g s w h ic h a r e v is ib le o b je c ts , d is p e llin g d a r k n e s s , s p r e a d i n g l ig h t, a n d d im in is h in g c o ld , so a ls o th is k n o w le d g e b y e x p e r ie n c e o f th e p a t h , in o n e in s t a n t u n d e r s t a n d s a n d c o m p r e h e n d s th e F o u r T r u t h s : c o m p r e h e n d s u n s a tis f a c to r in e s s , a b o lis h e s its o r i g i n a t io n , p r a c tis e s t h e p a th , .t o w a r d its a b o lis h m e n t, a n d r e a liz e s its c e s s a tio n .3 O f t h e fifte e n e v e n ts w h ic h f o r m th e P a t h o f S e e in g th e T r u t h s , t h e e ig h t ty p e s o f a c c e p t a n c e , ( k fd n ti) e n a b le u s to d o a w a y w it h t h a t in s t a b i l i t y i n o u r life w h ic h is th e v ie w w e h o ld a b o u t o u rs e lv e s t o g e t h e r w ith th o s e e m o tio n a l re s p o n s e s w h ic h a r e c o n n e c te d w i t h t h e v ie w s w e h o ld , b u t n o t th e o t h e r e m o tio n s a s th e y c a n b e o v e r c o m e o n ly b y c o n s t a n t c lo se st a t t e n t i o i l to th e T r u t h s . T h e v ie w s w e h o l d a b o u t o u rs e lv e s h a v e q u ite a n a n c e s tr y . M a n is f e t t e r e d to a w o r ld o f se n s u o u s a n d s e n s u a l s t i m u l a t i o n a n d r e a c t io n b y h is d e lu s io n - b e w ild e r m e n t (m oha) a b o u t w h a t is t r u e . I n th is b e w i l d e r m e n t h e d o e s n o t re c o g n iz e th e b a s ic u n s a tis f a c to r in e s s o f a ll t h a t h e e n c o u n te r s a n d re s o rts to a n ill c o n c e iv e d s c e p tic is m ( v ic ik itsd ) o u t o f w h ic h i s 'b o r n w r o n g v ie w (m ithyadr$ti ). T h is w r o n g a n d d is to r te d v ie w a b o u t t h a t w h ic h h e fin d s in a n d a r o u n d h im s e lf le a d s h im to b e lie v e i n h is p a r t i c u l a r e x is te n c e as th e so le t r u t h (satkayadrf t i ) w h ic h , i n t u r n , g iv e s rise to m e t a p h y s i c a l p r o b le m s , th e e x tr e m e v ie w s o f e t e r n a l e x is te n c e o r e t e r n a l a n n i h i l a t i o n (antagraha ) . A c c o r d in g to th e s u p e r s titio n s , m a n d e v e lo p s c e r ta in o b s e rv a n c e s
1. Sam yutta-nikaya V 437; V isu ddh im agga X X I I q8. 2 . V is u d d h im a g g a X X I I 98; ekatn saccam drammaoam kalvd sesesu kiccanipphattivasena. 3. V isuddh im agga X X I I 95.

w hich he believes to be ab le to b rin g a b o u t th e realization o f his dream s (filavratapardmarSa). T his form alism m akes him a tta c h special im p o rtan ce to th e view he holds ab o u t him self (raga) a n d this addictedness has in its w ake conceit (mdna) a n d co n tem p t (pratigha).1 O u t o f this vast re a lm o f form idable p ow er th e accep tan ces effectively d eal w ith th e pow ers of th e S elf b y u n d erm in in g the g ro u n d on w hich th ey o p erate through a n im passionate investigation in to th e ir n a tu re . T h e sixteenth event (marge nvayajnana) w hich is the first m o m en t o f th e P a th o f P ractisin g th e T ru th s ( bhavandmarga), is also th e realizatio n o f the first result w hich th e im m aculate w ay o f practice offers .2 T h e re a re tw o possible w ays o f a tta in in g th e P a th o f Seeing th e T ru th s w hich m ust b e trav ersed before th e P a th o f P ractising tl e T ru th s can be traversed. T h e one possibility an d this th e easier w ayis to practise th e w orldly p a th o f closest atte n tio n (laukika bhavandmarga) as laid dow n in the m editative processes leading to the realization o f a w orld o f G estalten a n d a w orld o f non-configuration, b y w hich we also becom e free from th e fetters w hich tie us dow n to a w orld o f sensuous a n d sensual stim ulation a n d response .3 H ow ever, this practice, thou g h o f high value a n d im p o rtan ce because o f its effect on o u r em otional n atu re, can n o t lead us beyond th a t w hich we call o u r w orld. I t can only lead us to th e highest point o f w orldly experience by m ak in g us dissatisfied w ith the low er levels o f o u r existence. T h ro u g h this p ra c tic e we m a y pass th rough a ll th e stages o f m e d ita tio n (dhyana) u p to the last stage (bhava.gra) b u t if we do n o t succeed in developing a vision o f th e T ru th s, w e rem ain w h a t we are, o rd in a ry beings, a n d th e best th a t c a n b e said a b o u t us is th a t w e h av e a h e a lth y a ttitu d e tow ard th e w orld. Since m e d ita tio n ten d s to co n q u er o u r em otional n a tu re , because in o rd er to e n te r th e various stages it is im perative th a t w e becom e d etach ed , the m o m e n t we e n te r in to th e p reli m in a ry stage o f a c tu a l m e d ita tio n a n d th en o n w ard into th e follow ing stages, we have the possibility of developing the q u a li ties conducive to a d eeper u n d erstan d in g o f re a lity (nirvedha1. Abhidharmakosa V 33.

2. ibid. V I 31. 3. See above chapter on Meditation.

b h a g iy a ) o u t o f w h ic h t h e i m m a c u l a t e P a t h o f S e e in g t h e T r u t h s is b o r n ,1 T h e a d v a n t a g e o f m e d i t a t i o n (dhyana) i n c o n n e c tio n w i t h t h e P a t h s is t h a t t h e f i n a l g o a l is a t t a i n e d e a r l i e r , b e c a u s e a p e r s o n w h o c o m b in e s b o t h a s p e c ts , t h e w o r ld ly a n d t h e s u p e r w o r l d l y , is i n p o s s e s s io n (p r d p ti) o f t h e a b o l i t i o n o f th o s e u n s e t t l i n g e le m e n ts w h i c h b e l o n g t o t h e w o r ld o f s e n s u a lity , t h e w o r l d l y p o s s e s s io n b e i n g o f a t e m p o r a r y n a t u r e o n ly , i f a l o n e , a n d t h e s u p e r w o r l d l y o f a p e r m a n e n t n a t u r e .2 H o w e v e r , i f a p e r s o n h a s n o t p r a c t i s e d m e d i t a t i o n , th is d o e s n o t e x c lu d e h i m f r o m e n t e r i n g o n t h e P a t h o f S e e in g t h e T r u th s a n d s u b s e q u e n tly fro m e n te r in g o n th e P a th o f P ra c tis in g t h e T r u t h s , b o t h in t h e i r i m m a c u l a t e a s p e c ts o f b e in g f r e e fro m a l l p a s s i o n a t e c o n s id e r a tio n s . T h e o n ly d if f e r e n c e is t h a t s u c h a p e r s o n s p r o g r e s s t o w a r d t h e f in a l g o a l w ill ta k e a l o n g e r tim e s in c e h e h a s t o w o r k h a r d e r t o o v e r c o m e a l l t h a t w h i c h m a y l e a d h i m o u t o f h is w a y . P ro v id e d th a t a p e rs o n w h o h a s n o t p ra c tis e d m e d ita t i o n (d h ya n a ) w h e r e b y c e r t a i n f e tte r s w o u l d h a v e b e e n th r o w n o f f , a n d th e r e f o r e is s till f e t te r e d b y a l l f e t t e r s (saka la b a n d h a n a ) , 3 c o m e s u p o n t h e P a t h o f S e e in g t h e T r u t h s , h e is lik e ly to w in t h e f i r s t f r u i t o f th is P a t h , b e c a u s e t h e im p u ls e t h a t h a s b e e n g i v e n c a n n o t b u t h a v e i ts e f f e c t. B u t h is a p p r o a c h to th is s ta tu s is s lo w , b e c a u s e a ll th o s e e m o t i o n a l f e tte r s t h a t tie h i m h a v e to b e c u t lo o s e a n d th e s e f e tte r s h a v e v a r i o u s d e g r e e s o f h e a v in e s s a n d i n t e n s i t y . N i n e d e g r e e s a r e d i s t in g u is h e d w h ic h r e s u lt f r o m a s u b d iv is io n o f t h r e e m a i n d e g r e e s . T h e o r d e r i n w h ic h t h e y a r e o v e r p o w e r e d is a s fo llo w s : I II III I . s t r o n g - s tr o n g 4 . m e d iu m -s tro n g 7. w e a k - s tr o n g 2 . s tr o n g - m e d i u m 5 . m e d i u m - m e d i u m 8 . w e a k - m e d iu m 3 . s tro n g -w e a k 6 . m e d iu m -w e a k 9. w ea k -w eak . T h e P a t h i t s e l f a ls o h a s n i n e d e g r e e s o f i n te n s ity a n d its o p e r a tio r i n o v e r c o m in g t h e in te n s itie s o f o u r e m o tio n s is s u c h t h a t th< P a t h a s b e i n g w e a k - w e a k y e t o v e r p o w e r s t h e e m o tio n s w h ic l a r e s t r o n g - s t r o n g . T h i s m e a n s t h a t , o n t h e o n e h a n d , w h a te v e r w e d o is s u r e t o h a v e its e ff e c t, h o w e v e r l i t t l e e f f p r t w e p u t in tc
1. 2. 3. A b h id h arm akosa V I 20 cd . ib id . V I 29 c ; 55. B h a sya ad A b h id h .-k o sa V I 63 d ; 29 c d ; I I 16 c d ; 36 cd .

o u r work, and, on the other, it is easier to overcome the coarser emotions than the subtler ones w hich more than often escape o u r notice .1 Although the emotions proper are overcome by the Path o f Practising the T ruths, the P ath of Seeing the T ruths destroys th e views we hold about ourselves, together w ith the emotions th a t attach to these views. In order to a tta in the status of a person who is in the stream tow ard N irvana (srota-dpama), the first fruit o f our striving, it is necessary to overcome at least th e first four or five degrees o f intensity o f our emotional res ponses in relation to our sensus and sensual w orld .2 I f these intensity degrees should have been overcome already by a worldly m editation practice, the person on the Path will skip the first status and approach the second status or Sakrdagam in (O nce retu rn er) which is m arked by the fact th a t the intensity degrees including the eighth degree have been overcome. Such a person is known as one who has become detached to a high degree (bhuyovitaraga).3 I f the ninth degree, too, has been overcome by having become completely detached from the sensual world (virakta, kamavitaraga), and moreover when no attachm ent of any intensity degree to any o f the meditative stages including the no-thing-ness sphere (akin canyayatana) obtains, such a person approaches the status o f an Anagamin (Non-returner).4 T he approach to any of these statuses com prises the fifteen events representing the P ath of Seeing the T ru th s, the sixteenth event denotes the fact th at a person has attain ed the status he was capable of attaining. Hence he is a person staying in a certain status (phalastha).s T he overcoming of each intensity degree of the unsettling elements ranging from our ordinary world of sensual responses to the highest realms of G estalten and of non-configuration, is literally an expulsion of this particular element (praharta). This expulsion does n o t meet w ith any obstacles (anantaryamarga). I t also is an event of being freed from its disturbing influence (vimuktimarga). Both events, expulsion and freedom, are know1. 2.
3.

Abhidharmakosa V I 33 and Bhasya. ibid. V I 29 cd -30a and Bhasya.

ib id .

4. 5.

ibid. ibid. V I 31

ab.

le d g e e v e n ts ( jn a n a ), b e c a u s e e m o tio n s c a n b e o v e r c o m e o n ly b y k n o w le d g e a n d n e v e r b y a c q u ie s c e n c e to t h e m .1 T h is d is tin g u is h e s th e P a t h o f P r a c tis in g t h e T r u t h s ( bhavandm arga) f ro m th e P a t h o f S e e in g t h e T r u t h s (darsanamarga) , w h ic h in v o l v e s a m o m e n t o r e v e n t o f a c c e p ta n c e a n d a n e v e n t o f k n o w le d g e . A f te r a p e r s o n h a s s u c c e e d e d i n e x p e llin g th e e ig h th i n te n s ity d e g r e e (w e a k m e d i u m ) o f th e h ig h e s t w o r ld ly s t a t e (bhavagra), a m e d ita tiv e s t a t e o f a b s o r p tio n ta k e s p la c e i n w h ic h i t is n o t p o s s ib le to s p e a k o f e i t h e r p e r c e p tio n - id e a tio n o r n o n p e r c e p t i o n n o n - id e a tio n (naivasarftjnanasaTftjfidyatana) ,2 h e m a y t h e n a s p ir e to b e c o m e a n A r h a n t b y e x p e llin g th e la s t in te n s ity d e g r e e ( w e a k -w e a k ) o f t h e l a s t tr a c e o f in s ta b ility s till le ft o v e r. T h e firs t e v e n t i n th is p ro c e s s , th e e x p u ls io n o f th e u n s e ttlin g e le m e n t t h r o u g h k n o w le d g e b y e x p e r ie n c e (jn a n a , anantarya marga, p ra h a n a ), h a s b e e n te r m e d V a j r o p a m as a m a d h i c o n c e n t r a t i v e a b s o r p t io n w h ic h is lik e a d ia m o n d , b e c a u s e i t e ffe c tiv e ly d e s tr o y s th e la s t r e m n a n t o f e m o tio n a l in s ta b ility , t h e d ia m o n d b e in g a f a v o u r ite s im ile o f h a r d n e s s a n d in d e s tr u c tib ility .* S in c e th is a b s o r p tio n c a n b e d e v e lo p e d w ith re f e r e n c e to a n y ty p e o f k n o w le d g e o f t h e F o u r T r u t h s a n d in th e v a r io u s sta g e s o f th e m e d i t a t i o n p ro c e ss t h e r e is a v a r i e ty o f s u c h d ia m o n d - lik e a b s o r p tio n s .4 H o w e v e r , th e s e V a jr o p a m a s a m a d h is w h ic h le a d to th e s ta tu s o f a n A r h a n t , c a n o n ly b e d e v e lo p e d a f te r t h e s t a t u s o f a n A n a g a m in h a s b e e n a t t a i n e d , b e c a u s e i n th e l a t t e r c a s e t h e n e c e s s a r y f o u n d a tio n f o r b e c o m in g a n A r h a n t h a s b e e n l a i d d u e to th e a lm o s t c o m p le te a b s e n c e o f e m o tio n a l in s ta b ility . T o g e t h e r w ith th e e x p u ls io n a n d d e s tr u c tio n o f t h e la s t in te n s ity d e g r e e , o f t h e la s t tr a c e o f i n s ta b ility , t h e k n o w le d g e o f e x h a u s t io n ( k fa y a jn a n a ) is b o r n , 6 w h ic h is b o t h a p a t h o f u n h a m p e r e d e x p u ls io n a n d a p a t h o f f r e e d o m . O n c e th e r e is th is k n o w le d g e t h a t a l l e m o tio n a l in s ta b i l it y h a s lo s t its p o w e r , th e p e r s o n is a n A r h a n t , a p e r s o n fo r w h o m th e r e d o e s n o t e x is t a n y t h i n g for w h ic h h e h a s to s tr iv e a n y m o r e o r w h ic h h e m u s t m a k e th e
1. 2. 3. 4. . . AbhidharmakoSa V 63d. See above pp. 131 sq. Abhidharm akosa V I 44d. ibid . Bhasya. Bhasya ad A bhid h.-kosa V I 3 ia b . Abhidharm akosa V I 44d-45a and B hasya.

object o f study (aJaikfa).1 In p articu lar cases, after the know ledge o f exhaustion (kfayajnana) th ere arises an o ther know ledge, the knowledge th a t em otional instability w ill never be b ro u g h t about again (anutpadajndna) .2 These tw o types of know ledge together are E nlightenm ent (bodhi).3 According to Buddhism the goal of m an s life is enlighten m en t w hich in m ore fam iliar term s m ay be called spiritual m a tu rity . In the achievem ent o f this goal one factor is o f supreme im portance the concept w hich the individual has o f himself. U p o n this self-concept depends the developm ent o f character, th e achievem ent o f adjustm ent and integration. T h e deve lopm ent of ethical and social values also depends on this factor, because w h at a person thinks of him self cannot fail to have an influence on the levels of his aspiration a t every state. I am fully aw are o f the fact th a t the use o f the term self-concept in connection w ith Buddhist discipline will rouse a storm o f protest from certain m odern followers o f Buddhism who believe th at a self-concept is incom patible w ith spiritual developm ent along th e Buddhist P ath. W h at they do n o t see is th a t th e term self concept is a purely operational term and not a theory about a Self. I t is nothing concrete an d existent. I t is a potential p a rtic u la r th a t needs som ething added to it before any fully concrete thing exists. T his happens as soon as w e stop w ith acceptance which is the keystone o f a certain level or status .4 T his status m eans, in Buddhist term s, th a t any of us who has stopped w ith acceptance, is in the stream (srota-apanna) , is a S akrdagam in, is an A nagam in, or is an A rh an t. O nce we have a tta in e d any such status we have ad m itted th a t we are stuck. B ut life is never som ething static. T o be and to rem ain alive we m ust not allow ourselves to be carried into some shallow back-w ater. This is only possible i f we do not acquiesce in an y th in g anywhere, if we continue striving, indefinitely. Striv ing is assuredly no t a smooth affair an d hence it is disliked by m ost people who are quite happy to stay w here they happen to be. It needs a special effort, a special p a th (viJefamarga),
1. Abhidharmakoia V I 45b. 2. ibid. V I 50 and Bhasya. 3. Abhidharmakoia V I 67 ab. 4. Sec above, p. 220.

to o v e rc o m e th is in e r t i a , a s th e V a ib h a s ik a s w e re f u lly a w a r e . 1 A n d V a s u b a n d h u sh o w s h is d e e p k n o w le d g e o f h u m a n n a t u r e w h e n h e d e c la r e s : S in c e th e a t t a i n m e n t o f a c e r t a i n s ta tu s d o e s n o t im p ly t h a t t h e p a t h to a h i g h e r s ta tu s h a s a lso b e e n a t t a i n e d , a p e rs o n s ta y in g i n a p a r t i c u l a r s ta tu s d o e s n o t eo ipso a p p r o a c h a h ig h e r s ta tu s w ith o u t e x e r tin g h im s e lf f o r i t .2 T h e v e r y f a c t t h a t a n y s ta tu s a n d a n y fix e d ty p e o f s e lf-c o n c e p t is b a s ic a lly a n a d m is s io n o f o u r h a v in g b e c o m e s ta tic , w a s th e r e a s o n t h a t in M a h a y a n a B u d d h is m e v e n th e A r h a n t id e a l b e c a m e d is r e p u ta b le , n o t b e c a u s e th e A r h a n t w a s a d is r e p u ta b le p e r s o n , b u t b e c a u s e a s t h e e x p re s s io n o f a s ta tu s th is id e a l m il i t a te d a g a in s t th e th o r o u g h ly d y n a m ic c h a r a c te r o f B u d d h is m . S o f a r th e P a t h i n its v a r io u s a s p e c ts h a s b e e n d isc u sse d w ith r e f e r e n c e to t h e e m o tio n a l n a t u r e o f m a n , b e in g th e m o st d if f ic u lt sid e o f h im to s u b lim a te a n d to c o n tr o l. T h e e m o tio n a l n a t u r e is p r e s e n t e v e r y w h e r e in m a n a n d its p a r t i c u l a r fo rm d e c id e s t h e se le c tio n o f th e m e d ita tio n o b je c t to b e g in w i t h o n s e ttin g o u t to w in e n lig h te n m e n t. B u t o f n o less im p o r ta n c e is a p e r s o n s in te lle c tu a l a c u m e n , h is c a p a c ity to c o n c e n tr a te a n d to th in k c le a rly . T w o ty p e s a r e d is tin g u is h e d : O n e , w h o s ta r ts b y h a v in g c o n fid e n c e (Sraddha) in t h a t w h ic h o th e r s te ll h im , b e c a u s e t h e y a r e d e e m e d to b e d e p e n d a b le p e rs o n s b y v ir tu e o f h a v in g p r a c tis e d fo r th e m se lv e s c e r ta in a s p e c ts th is m a n is te r m e d sraddhdnusarin fo llo w in g b y v ir tu e o f h a v in g c o n f id e n c e ; th e o th e r is h e w h o is a n in d e p e n d e n t th in k e r a n d m a k e s h is o w n s tu d ie s o f w h a t th e te x ts h a v e to say a n d is te rm e d dharmdnusarin fo llo w in g t h e d o c tr i n e . O f th e s e tw o ty p e s , th e l a t t e r is o f s u p e r io r in te lle c tu a l a c u m e n , in h im th e fu n c tio n o f a p p r e c ia tiv e a n a ly tic a l u n d e r s ta n d in g (prajna ) is p a r tic u la r ly k e e n .4 T h e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e s e tw o ty p e s b e c o m e s m a r k e d w h e n th e y h a v e a t t a i n e d a c e r t a in s ta tu s b y h a v in g t r a v e r s e d s ta g e s o n T h e P a th . T h e n th e f o r m e r is k n o w n as s r a d d h a d h i m u kta , h is in te r e s t c e n te r in g o n th e re lig io u s e x p e rie n c e in v o lv in g c o n fid e n c e a n d tr u s t, a n d m a y b e s a id , i n o u r te r m s , to r e p r e s e n t th e re lig io u s ty p e o f m a n , w h ile t h e l a t t e r d u e to h is a n a l y t i c a l
1. A b h id h a rm a k o sa V I 65b d.

2. 3. 4..

ibid. V I 32 See above p p . 216 sq. Abhidharnjakosa V I 2flab.

m eth o d has gained a certain view o f reality an d is know n as drffiprdpta an d m ay be said to be the intellectual ty p e .1 T his difference is a distinguishing factor betw een the various types o f A rhan ts. T hose who have evolved o u t o f a religious tem pera m en t have only a tem porary lib eratio n an d m ay a n y tim e fall from th eir exalted status , 2 while only he who is th e intellectual type attain s non-tem porary liberation an d if he falls he cannot fall from th a t w hich he actually possesses3 H e is know n as a n U nshakable O n e (akopya).* W hile m any schools o f B uddhism did no t recognize the fall o f an A rh an t, such as am ong others the T heravadins, the V aibhasika view recap tu red som ething o f the dynam ic character, b u t being still b o und to the older trad itio n , failed clearly to evolve a m ore positive ideal. T h e typological classification has been very m uch elaborat ed. O nly the m ore im p o rtan t varieties m ay be m entioned here. T h ere are seven types o f sp iritual aristocrats (arya), a p a rt from the two types o f B uddhas, the B uddha him self and the P raty ek ab u d d h a, w ho are special forms o f the unshakable A rh a n t type. These seven types a re : 1 . S raddhanusarin 2. D h arm an u sarin by w ay o f tem peram ent in th e ir in itial state o f ordinary h u m an beings, w ho on having e n tered T h e P a th m ore dis tinctly reveal th eir intellectual acum en a n d becom e
1. Abhidharmakosa V I 31 cd. 2. ibid. V I 56. He is termed a samayavimukta. To this distinction corresponds the classical differentiation between cetavimukti and prajnavimukti. The former is liberation from passions, the latter from ignorance. See V I

761.
3. ibid. V I 59 and Bhasya. According to the Vaibhasikas a Buddha too, may fall, but only from the enjoyment of the spiritual good he has achieved, not from his Buddhahood. The unshakable Arhant may fall from the enjoyment of that which he has achieved, not from its possession, and he may also fall from (i.e. fall short of) that which he has not yet acquired. Any other Arhant may even fall from that which he has already obtained. 4. ibid. V I 50; 56. He alone has the anutpddajmna. O n this see above p. 229.

b y w a y o f p r e d o m in a n c e o f c o n fid e n c e and a n a ly tic a l u n d e r s ta n d in g re s p e c tiv e ly . 5 . K a y a s a k s in b y w a y o f c o n c e n tr a tiv e a b s o r p tio n in w h ic h th e te m p o r a r y s u s p e n s io n o f m e n ta l fu n c tio n s is r e a liz e d (nirodhasam apatti). 6 . P r a jn a v im u k ta b y w a y o f h a v in g b e c o m e lib e r a t e d fro m e m o tio n a l in s ta b il i t y th r o u g h d is c r im in a tio n , and 7. U b h a y a t o b h a g a v i m u k t a b y w a y o f h a v in g b e c o m e e m a n c ip a te d th r o u g h c o n c e n tr a t i v e a b s o r p tio n a s w e ll a s d i s c r im in a tio n . 1 T h e v e r y f a c t t h a t th e n a m e s o f th e s e ty p e s a r e c la ss-n a m e s te lls u s a g o o d d e a l a b o u t t h e ir n a tu r e . A la r g e n u m b e r o f p e rs o n s m u s t h a v e b e e n m e t w ith w h o c o m b in e d a n u m b e r o f p r o p e r tie s w h ic h ju s tif ie d th is te r m in o lo g y , b e c a u s e o th e rw ise w e w o u ld h a v e h e s ita te d to c a ll th e m so. B u t it is a n u n p r o f ita b le a t t e m p t to t r y to fin d o u t h o w m a n y v a rie tie s o f classes th e r e m a y b e , to j u s tif y th e ir in c lu s io n in a n y o f th e se ty p e s .2
1. Abhidharmakosa V I 63 and Bhasya. A n identical list is found in Visuddhim agga X X I 74-76. Here a person who attends to impermanence and is convinced of it is a saddkdnusdri on passing through the p ath to the first result o f beiDg in the stream. W hen this aim has been achieved he is termed a saddhavimutta. H e who attends to unsatisfactoriness and through tension release attains concentrative absorption is a kayasakkhi. H e who- enters the world o f non-configuration and attains the highest status therein, is an ubhatobh&gavimutta. H e who attends to the fact that nothing has an y individuality o f its own and has keen discrimination is on his path to the first goal termed a dhamnuinusari . when he has attained this goal a di tlhippatta, and when he .attains the highest status a pannavim utto. 2. T h u s 147, 825 varieties o f Jsraddhanusarins have been calculated, and 29, 565 kinds o f Dharmanusarins. T h is means that for certain scholastics the spirit o f Buddhism had become less important than enumeration. Classification b y-w ay o f absence of intensity degrees o f emotional insta b ility has been extended since earliest times to the jjrota-apanna (saptokxtparam a, kularhkula, Pali sottakkhattuparama, kolcnkola), Sakrdagam in (ekavicika P a li e ka b ijin ), and Anagam in (antardtiarinindyiv, vpapadyaparininaym , sabhis~ rhskdraparinindyin, anabhisom skaroparininqvin, urdhiasrotas, Pali antara-

3. 4.

S r a d d h a d h im u k ta D rs tip ra p ta

T h e V ijn a n a v a d in s co n tin u e th e line o f th o u g h t expound e d in th e A b h id h a rm a w orks o f th e SarvastivadinsV a ib h a sik a s b u t w ith a m ark ed difference in in te rp re ta tio n due to a ch an g ed outlook, w hich is n o t m erely th e tra d itio n a l a n ti thesis o f p lu ra lism a n d m on ism . As has b een show n above, th e S arvastivadins believed in a p lu ra lity o f kinds o f substance 1 a n d consequently accep ted a still g re a te r p lu ra lity o f substances' th a n kin d s .2 T h e V ijn an av ad in s, on th e o th e r h a n d , believed th a t th e re was only on e substance, m in d . T h e y w ere, in C.D. B ro a d s term s,* d ifferen tiatin g a ttrib u te m onists a n d substan tiv a l m onists; some o f them , how ever, accep ted a specific p ro p e rty p lu ra lism (d u a lism ), w h ile others h eld to a specific p ro p e rty m onism . T h e form er a re know n in T ib e ta n works as gzhan. ston. pa. T h e y d eclare th a t o u r e m p irical w orld as a w o rld o f p u rely co n d itio n ed existence has n o re a lity o f its own ( ran-ston ), w hile only th e u n d erly in g U ltim a te, T a th a g a ta - , g a rb h a , is re a l in itse lf b u t free from a n d devoid o f th e form er (gzhan, ston ) .4 T h o se w ho h e ld to a specific p ro p e rty m onism w ere m ore closely related to th e M ad h y am ik as w ho d id n o t c o m m it them selves b y a thesis o f th e ir own.

parinibbayi, upahaccaparinibbayi, asatikharaparinibbayi, sasankhdraparinibb&yi, uddhamsoto). Abhidharmakosa V I 34-39. Visuddhimagga X X III 55-57.
In the definition of these types, Buddhaghosa inclines to the Sautrantika for mulation as far as the sdbhisamskaraparinindyin and anabhisamskaraparinirrayin. are concerned. In the case of the upapadyapdrininayin he gives defini tion which is not the Sautrantika view, but is nevertheless rejected by the Vaibhasikas. As to the urdhvasnias Buddhaghosa only knows him as going to the Akanistha heaven to find Nirvana there. The Vaibhasikas distin guish another type who goes to the bhaiagra. 1. They, accepted rupa which roughty corresponds to our material substance, citta-caitta mental substance, rupa-citta-viprqyukta, substance which is neither material nor mental and asomsktta substance which is diffe rent from all other substances. 2. Their total was 11 rupa, 1 citta, 46 caitta, 14 rupa-citta-riprayukta, 3 asamskrta 75 substances. 3. C . D. Broad, The Mind and its Place in Nature, pp. 26 sq. 4. See for instance Phyag. rgya. chen. poi. man. nag. gi. bsad thyar. rghyal. bai. gan. madzod, fol. 60a sq.

U s u a lly in w o rk s d e a li n g w ith I n d i a n a n d B u d d h is t p h ilo s o p h y t h e V ijn a n a v a d i n s a r e c o n s id e r e d to b e th e id e a lis ts 5 a m o n g B u d d h is t sc h o o ls, b u t so a r e a l l M a h a y a n a B u d d h is t s c h o o ls , b e c a u s e a g a i n to fo llo w th e v a lu a b le d is tin c tio n m a d e b y C D . B r o a d 1 th e y u n d e r s t a n d th e n a t u r e o f th e u n iv e rse to b e s u c h t h a t th e m o s t s u b lim e a n d m o s t v a lu a b le , B u d d h a h o o d , b e c o m e s m a n if e s te d in e v e r g r e a t e r in te n s ity a n d to a n e v e r w id e r e x te n t. B u t w h a t a c t u a ll y d is tin g u is h e s th e V ijria n a v a d in s fro m a l l o t h e r s c h o o ls o f B u d 'd h ism , is t h e i r m e n ta lis m , th o u g h n o t o f a L e ib n iz ia n o r B e r k e le ia n ty p e , b u t m o r e i n lin e w ith th e v ie w o f B r a d le y w h o th in k s t h a t th e A b s o lu te is w h o lly m e n t a l s t u f f o r e x p e r ie n c e , a s h e te r m s it. T h is m o n is tic c o n c e p tio n 2 h a s i m p o r t a n t c o n se q u e n c e s, S in c e t h e r e is n o th i n g b u t m in d {c itta m a tra ) a s u l t i m a t e re a lity (dharm atacitta ) ,3 th e q u e s tio n o f r e je c tin g a n d e x p e llin g so m e th in g n o lo n g e r h a s a n y l i te r a l m e a n in g . T h e P a t h is n o t a w a y to g e t r i d o f s o m e th in g b y d u m p i n g i t s o m e w h e re a n d th e n to p r o c e e d l i g h t e r a n d l i g h te r (o fte n m is u n d e r s to o d as e m p tie r a n d h o llo w e r t h a n b e f o r e ) , b u t is a m e a n s o f u n d e r s ta n d in g g.nd c o m p r e h e n d in g h o w a ll t h a t w h ic h i n th e o ld te rm in o lo g y h a d b e e n d e c la r e d t h a t i t o u g h t to b e g iv e n u p a n d e x p e lle d , h a s c o m e a b o u t . T h u s A s a n g a w h o is a sp e cific p o p e r ty m o n ist ( b e s id e b e in g a d if f e r e n tia tin g a t t r i b u t e m o n is t a n d s u b s ta n tiv a l m o n i s t ) s ta te s : S itic e t h e r e e x ists n o e n t i t y a p a r t fro m u ltim a te re a lity , T h e p a s s io n s h a v e b e e n d e c l a r e d b y t h e B u d d h a to b e t h e w a y o u t ( o f t h e p a s s io n s ) 4 I n h is c o m m e n ta r y o n th is a p h o r is m h e say s t h a t s in c e t h e r e is n o e n t i t y w h a ts o e v e r a p a r t fro m u l t i m a t e r e a lity , b e c a u s e n o e n t i t y c a n e x is t o v e r a n d b e y o n d u l t i m a t e r e a lity , th e u l t i m a t e n a t u r e o f p a s s io n s w h ic h a p p e a r s a s a d is tin c t p a s s io n is a ls o th e w a y o u t o f it.
1 . G . D . B r o a d , T h e M in d a n d its P la c e in N a tu r e , p . 6 5 4 . _ 2 . M o n is m d o e s n o t m ilit a t e a g a in s t a p lu r a lit y o f k in d s o f m in d , b e c a u s e th e a p p a r e n tly d iffe r e n t k in d s m a y d if fe r o n ly in a r r a n g e m e n t a n d te r m in o lo g y . T h u s th e V ijn a n a v a d in s h a d 8 citta, 51 caitta, 11 r u p a , 24 viprajrukta, a n d 6 asam skrta- 100 v a r ie tie s , a ll o f th e m b e in g tr a n s fo r m a tio n s [paripdma) o f th e o n e s u b s ta n c e m in d . 3 . M a h a y a n a s u tr a la r b k a r a , c o m m , a d X I I I 19 . ' 4 . M a h a y a n a s u t r a la n k a r a X I I I 11.

S im ilarly , ig n o ra n c e {aoidya ) a n d e n lig h te n m e n t ( bodhi) a re o n e a n d th e sam e th o u g h n o t as a m a th e m a tic a l e q u a tio n .1 O n ly a co rrect ap p ro a c h (yoniiah pratipad) to o u r em o tio n al, as w ell as o u r in te lle c tu a l n a tu re , ca n ensure lib e ra tio n from u n b a la n c in g effects8, b u t w h a te v e r savours o f rep ression a n d re je c tio n c a n n o t be a co rre c t a p p ro a c h . B o d h isattvas b y v irtu e o f th e ir ceaseless striv in g h a v e a c q u ire d th e c a p a c ity to m ake a c o rre c t a p p ro a c h a n d th erefo re th e y d o n o t la c k in positive e m o tio n a l values. In ste a d o f b e in g em o tio n a lly a n d intellec tu a lly sta rv e d a n d d rie d u p , a B o d h isa ttv a h a s in fin ite love for a ll se n tie n t beings. As A san g a expresses it: A B o d h isa ttv a s g re a t love fo r se n tie n t beings has d eeply p e n e tra te d in to his v e ry existence, T h e re fo re h e is ceaselessly en g ag ed in th e g o od o f beings as i f th e y w e re his o n ly c h ild 3 N o t o n ly is th e re a c o rre c t a p p ro a c h to o u r em o tio n al n a tu re w h ich , fig u rativ ely sp eak in g , tears th e veil o f self-centered p assionaten ess, th e re is also a c o rre c t a p p ro a c h to o u r in tellec tu a l side w hich, sp eak in g eq u a lly figuratively,- re n d s th e veil o f ig n o ra n c e a b o u t a ll th a t c an be k n o w n a n d th e re is n o lim ita tio n to know led g e. T h e U ltim a te , in B u d d h ism , is so m eth in g know a b le , th o u g h n o t kn o w n b y th eo ry o r discu rsiv e m e th o d , b u t b y d ire c t ex p erien ce. I n o rd e r to ach iev e lib e ra tio n from em o tio n al in sta b ility a n d fro m ig n o ran ce, o r in o th e r w o rd s, to g a in e m o tio n al suste n a n c e a n d know ledge, v arious stages a n d levels h a v e to be tra v e r sed. T h e re a re five m a in p a th s : S a m b h a r^ m a rg a P ra y o g a m a rg a D a rs a n a m a rg a B h a v a n a m a rg a N isth a m a rg a 4 I n discussing these five p a th s a n d th e ir v ario us aspects I follow th e exposition o f sG a m .p o .p a (D va g s.p o .lh a .rje) w ho,
. . x# M ah ay a n asu trala m k a ra comm, a d X I I I 12 ; avidya ca bodhis caikam coin ni * ad X I I I 13; tan eva ragadin yonxsah bratipadyamanas tebhyo ib id . X I I I 20. A b h id h arm asa m u ccay a , p p . 65 sqq.

vxmxuy^'te

3* 4*

th o u g h b e i n g a M a d h y a m ik a , a c c e p ts t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f th e s ta g e s o f a n d o n T h e P a t h as l a id d o w n b y th e V ijn a n a v a d in s , .a n d g iv e s s u c h a c le a r a c c o u n t o f t h e in te r - r e la tio n o f e v e n ts , a s c a n b e d o n e o n ly b y o n e W ho h a s tr a v e lle d T h e P a t h to its v e r y e n d ; a n d t h a t o f A s a n g a w h o in h is A b h id h a r m a s a m u c c a y a is m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d w ith th e c o r r e c t d e f in itio n o f te r m s . 1 T h e F i r s t P a t h o r S a m b h a r a m a r g a is th e p e r io d in w h ic h w e e q u ip o u rs e lv e s w i th a l l t h a t is n e c e s s a ry to s e t o u t o n th e to ils o m e p a t h to w a rd s w in n in g e n lig h te n m e n t i n o r d e r to b e a ll t h e m o r e a b le to w o rk selflessly fo r th e w e lfa re o f a ll s e n tie n t b e in g s . F o r th is p u r p o s e o n ly e x c e lle n c e (Jtunya) a n d k n o w le d g e w h ic h is n e v e r s e p a r a te d f r o m e x p e r ie n c e ( j& dna ) w ill d o . A s A s a n g a say s : T h e e q u ip m e n t o f B o d h is a ttv a s is u n s u r p a s s a b le e x c e lle n ces a n d k n o w le d g e ; T h e f o r m e r se rv e to m a k e h im ris e in S a m s a ra , t h e l a tte r to p a ss th r o u g h i t w it h o u t b e in g e m o tio n a lly a n d in te lle c tu a lly u n b a l a n c e d .2 T h e S a r v a s tiv a d in s h a d a lr e a d y in s is te d t h a t th e w in n in g o f e n l i g h te n m e n t is n o t a c h ie v e d in o n e e x is te n c e ; o n e e x iste n c e w a s n e c e s s a ry to la y th e f o u n d a ti o n fo r th is ta s k . F o r th e V i j n a n a v a d in s tim e a s s u c h h a s d is a p p e a r e d , a s m a y b e g le a n e d f r o m A s a n g a s d e f in itio n o f th is P a t h o f E q u ip m e n t : C o n tin u o u s ly (sarfttatyd ) p a y in g c lo sest a t t e n t i o n (bhdvana) to p o s itiv e v a lu e s in a n e v e r in c re a s in g m a n n e r , T h e s u s te n a n c e (a h a ra ) d e r iv e d fr o m it, is th e a ll a c c o m p lis h in g e q u ip m e n t o f h im w h o h a s a s te a d f a s t m in d .3 F o r o r d in a r y h u m a n b e in g s w h o a r e j u s t b e g in n in g to .g ro w u p to b e h u m a n b e in g s a n d to b e h a v e h u m a n e ly , th is e q u ip m e n t m e a n s to o b s e rv e e th ic s a n d m a n n e r s in e v e r y w a lk o f life , to k e e p r e s t r a i n t o n th e sen ses so t h a t s e n s u a l a t t a c h m e n t m a y n o t g ro w , to b e m o d e r a te i n e a tin g a n d d r in k in g , to b e w a k e f u l d u r i n g th e firs t a n d la s t h o u r s o f th e n ig h t w h ic h sh o u ld
1. "bu. t h a r . rim , g y i. 2. 3. s G a m . p o . p a s a n a ly s is is in h is D a m . c h o s. y i d . b z h in . g y i . n o r . p a . r in , p o . c h e i. r g y a n . sh e s. b y a , fca. th e g . p a . c h e n . p o i. la m . b & ad . p a . , f o il. 10 5 b sq q . M a h a y a n a s u t r a la n k a r a X V I I I 3 8 . ib id . X V I I I 4-

be devoted to contem plation a n d m ed itatio n on the positive qualities. T h e B uddha developed b y traversing T h e P ath, to strive energetically an d to a tte n d to w hatever work there m ay be, to develop tran q u illity an d insight, an d to be fully aware o f all actions and th eir effects on o u r environm ent. In particu lar it m eans to develop discrim ination (prajnd ) by either hearing the positive doctrine o f Buddhism o r by pondering over it, o r b y attem p tin g according to the capacity o f each o f us to m ake it a living experience .1 In ad d itio n to this, a Bodhisattva has to bring everything to highest perfection. A sanga, therefore* declares th a t liberality (dana) a n d ethics (sila), two of the p e r fections a B odhisattva has to acquire and to practise, consti tu te th a t w hich is know n as excellence (punya), w hile discrim i n atio n (prajnd), another perfection o f a B odhisattva, leads to the highest form o f knowledge o r knowledge by im m ediate experience (jnana). L iberality an d ethics as well as discrim i n atio n are inseparably linked w ith three o th er perfections for becom ing effective, viz., patien ce (foanti, often this term m eans acceptance, a n d since no perfection is separate from know ledge, th e u n derstanding o f hum an n a tu re is also p a tie n t acceptance, a toleran t view o f others 5 shortcom ings), strenuousness (virya), an d concentration (dhyana). A nd all o f them are necessary in o rd e r to ascend to higher a n d higher levels o f sp irituality ( bhumi ),* A t this stage, w h eth er still a sim ple beginner or alread y a m ore advanced B odhisattva, a person practises inspec tio n (smrtyupasthdna) in order to learn m ore a b o u t the nature o f th a t w hich im m ed ia tely concerns us; our body, o u r feelings, o u r attitudes, an d the constituents of this our im m ediate reality. H e fu rth er strives to bring it ab o u t th a t (i) the unhealthy a n d unw holesom e w hich has already arisen in his life disappears an d (ii) th a t the unwholesome in h u m an n a tu re w hich has n o t yet arisen will n o t arise; (iii) th a t the good a n d wholesome w hich is the counteracting force to th e u n healthy a n d unw holesom e, if it has not yet m ade its way in to our life, arises and (iv) th a t it spreads if it has already come in to o u r life.* F in ally he practisesi . A bhidharm asam uccaya, p . 65. a. Mahayanasutralankara X V II I 41 and a commentary. 3. T he technical term is samyokproh&oa, Tib.yan.dag.par. spoA.ba, correct rejection, but in m eaning it corresponds to Pali sammappadhana.

c e r t a i n f o r m s o f c o n c e n t r a t i v e a b s o r p t i o n (,rd d h ip a d a ) i n w h ic h t h e d e s ir e to a t t a i n f u ll c o n c e n t r a t i o n (c h a n d a s), s tr e n u o u s n e s s (v ir y a ) , a n a t u r a l d i s p o s i t i o n ( c itta ) , a n d m e t i c u l o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n ( m im a ih sa ) a r e t h e k e y n o te . T h e s e t h r e e p r a c t i c e s a r e d i s t r i b u t e d i n s u c h a w a y t h a t e a c h o f t h e m fo r m s a lo w e r , a m e d i u m , a n d a s u p e r i o r P a t h o f E q u i p m e n t .1 T h e P a t h o f E q u i p m e n t is a ls o t h e P a t h o f P r e p a r a t i o n , a l t h o u g h t h e P a t h o f P r e p a r a t i o n is n o t j u s t t h e P a t h o f E q u i p m e n t ,2 b e c a u s e i n a d d i t i o n to b e i n g e q u i p p e d f o r f u r t h e r t r a v e l w e p r e p a r e o u r s e lv e s f o r s e e in g r e a l i t y . D u r i n g th is p e r i o d t h e f o u r q u a l i t i e s le a d i n g to a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r e a l i t y (nirved h a b h a g iva ) a r e d e v e lo p e d . T h e f ir s t q u a l i t y ( h e a t u fm a g a ta ) is t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h e o b j e c t i v e c o n s t i t u e n t s o f o u r p e r c e p tu a l s itu a tio n s a r e n o t lite ra lly e x te rn a l, p h y s ic a l o b j e c t s , b u t a r e m e n t a l a d d r e s s e s (;m a n o ja lp a ) i n t h e s e n s e t h a t w h a t h a d b e e n c a lle d th e in trin s ic c h a r a c te r o r th e n a tu r e o f a t h i n g ( s v a la k fa n a ) a n d its g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ( sa m a n y a la ksa n a ) a r e d i s c o u r s e s w i t h i n a p u r e l y p e r c e p t u a l w o r l d . T h i s s t a g e is a ls o t e r m e d c l a r i t y (d lo k a ) a n d is s y n o n y m o u s w i t h a n a c c e p ta n c e o f t h a t w h ic h h a s b e e n fo u n d b y a th o r o u g h in v e s ti g a t i o n i n t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h in g s (d h a rm a n id h yd n a kfa n ti ) .3 E v e r y e f f o r t h a s to b e m a d e to in t e n s i f y th is c l a r i t y u n t i l i t r e a c h e s its m a x i m u m v a l u e (m u r d h a n ). T h r o u g h t h e in c r e a s e o f c l a r i t y t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h e r e is o n l y m i n d (c itta m d tra ) b e c o m e s s e t t l e d a n d o n e sees t h a t t h e p e r c e p t s o f a l l t h in g s w e e n c o u n t e r a r e in s id e m i n d a n d t h a t t h e r e is n o t h i n g e ls e b u t m i n d . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h a t w h i c h w e a r e a c c u s t o m e d t o c a ll a n e x t e r n a l p h y s i c a l o b j e c t a n d w h i c h w e c l a i m to k n o w b y o u r s e n s e s -is n o n e o t h e r t h a n t h e p e r c e p t w h i c h is k n o w n b y t h e m i n d . W h a t e v e r w e p e r c e i v e is p e r c e i v e d i n r e l a t i o n to o u r b o d y a n d t h i s i n t u r n i n r e l a t i o n to o t h e r t h i n g s in s p a c e , b u t p e r c e p t i o n is t h e a c t i v i t y o f o u r e x p e r i e n c i n g m i n d . I n th is w a y t h e e x t e r n a l
1 . s G a m . p o . p a , l o c . c i t . f o . . 1 0 6a . S e e a ls o A b h id h a r m a s a m u c c a y a , 71-73 . C p . A b h i d h a r m a k o s a V I 68d-6_qbl.

pp.

2. A b h i d h a r m a s a m u c c a y a j p . 6 5 'yahsaTnbhHramargah sa prayogamfirgah. y a s tu jtrqyogamdrgah sa na sambharamargah. ' 3. C o m m e n t a r y a d M a h a y a n a s u tr a la iik a r a s G a m . p o . p a , lo c . c i t . , fo l. 8 0 a. X IV 2 3 -2 4 . See a ls o

physical object that is seen or touched can be said to be as internal to the mind as it is external to the body and the body (as the percept) is just as internal to the mind as it is external to other objects in space. Since it is impossible to assign any special location to mind, it is utterly impossible to perceive objects outside mind and even inside mind. Outside and inside owe their existence to the symbolific activity of m ind which in this activity not only distinguishes objects by their qualities of color a n d shape and the spatial relations that exist between them, b u t also gives us a t the same time symbolic information about o u r own body and its relation to the physical world. This symbolific activity of mind is absolutely private to the observer and confusion arises when we have to discriminate between our private perceptual w orldand the public physical world, which in ordinary life we need not do, as a rule. Percepts, however, a re never anywhere else but where they are perceived to be; externality belongs as much to the perceptual world as do the other relations between perceptual symbols. But what we call o u r physical world is essentially a set of conceptual symbols a n d what we call our perceptual world is also a set of symbols, a n d both sets of symbols are the forms in which m ind expresses itself. Hence there is only one world and no mysterious dis placem ent or projection from a perceptual world into a physical world (grahyavikfepah prahtno bhavati).1 There is only the one private world o f the symbolific activity o f m ind (grahakamkfepah kevalo vaSifyate).2 Once this has been recognized and accepted the stage of acceptance (kfanti) has been reached and it is not difficult to come, on the basis of this, to what is called the highest w orldly experience ( laukikagradharma). Certainly, to accept the view th a t there is only mind (cittamatra), evinces a far deeper analysis of and penetration into the nature of reality than the rath er naive realistic conception o f the Sarvastivadins, bordering on metaphysical materialism, which does not discriminate between the various levels and their symbolic sets. In other words, acceptance has been considerably postponed by the Vijnanavadins. But to postpone acceptance needs constant labor and our disposition must be dominated
I. a. Commentary ad MaMyanasutrala&karaXIV. 25. ibid. XIV. 26,

b y s e v e ra l p o w e rs w ith w h ic h w ill e n a b le u s to p o s tp o n e a c c e p t a n c e a s lo n g a s p o s s ib le , b e c a u s e a c c e p t a n c e , t h o u g h g iv in g u s sL p o i n t f r o m w h i c h t o lo o k o u t o n t o r e a l i t y , a t t h e s a m e t i m e h a s a f o s s iliz in g e f f e c t. A s s G a m . p o . p a p o i n t s o u t , d u r i n g t h e f ir s t tw o s ta g e s l e a d i n g u p to a c c e p t a n c e , t h e d o m i n a n t f u n c tio n s . (d b a n .p o , S k t. in d riy a ) i n o u r m e n t a l m a k e - u p o r d is p o s itio n a r e c o n f id e n c e {dad .p a , S k t. S ra d d h a ), s tr e n u o u s n e s s (brtson. g ru s , S k t . v ir y a ) , i n s p e c t i o n ( d ra n .p a , S k t. s m r ti) , a b s o r p t i o n t h r o u g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( tin . ne. d z in , S k t. s a m a d h i ) , a n d d is c r im in a tio n . (fes.ra b , S k t. p r a jr ia ). A s s o o n a s t h e s t a g e o f a c c e p t a n c e a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g h i g h e s t w o r l d l y e x p e r ie n c e h a v e c o m e th e s e s a m e f u n c t i o n s c o n t i n u e o p e r a t i n g n o t a s a i d i n g d o m in a n c e s , b u t a s u n s h a k a b l e p o w e r s a n d c o n v ic tio n s (stobs, S k t. b a la ) . x H o w e v e r, i t m a y b e a sk e d w h e th e r th e p o in t w h e r e a c c e p t a n c e s e ts i n , h a s b e e n p o s t p o n e d l o n g e n o u g h a n d w h e t h e r t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t o u r i m m e d i a t e e x p e r ie n c e is m e n t a l t e l l s u s a n y th in g a b o u t th e n a tu r e o f re a lity . T h e a n s w e r, I a m a f r a i d , m u s t b e N o . M e n t a l i s m d o e s n o t t e ll u s t h a t t h e r e a l i t y o f w h i c h w e a r e a w a r e is i t s e l f m e n t a l , t h o u g h i t d o e s n o t e x c lu d e th i s p o s s ib ility , a n d a s t o m i n d i t m e r e l y sa y s t h a t i t s a c t i v i t y is s y m b o lif ic . H e n c e , a s t h e M a d h y a m i k a s w e r e q u i c k t o p o i n t o u t , a c c e p t a n c e o f m e n t a l i s m is p r e m a t u r e . A f u r t h e r a n a ly s i s , a s w a s d o n e b y t h e T a n t r i k s w h o w e r e M a d h y a m ik a s ^ w o u l d h a v e l e d t o a c e r t a i n f o r m o f m e n t a l i s t i c n e u t r a l i s m .2 W ith th e a tta in m e n t o f th e h ig h e s t w o rld ly e x p e rie n c e (laukika.gra d h a rm a ) t h e P a t h o f P r e p a r a t i o n h a s c o m e t o its e n d a n d t h e P a t h o f S e e in g (darSanam arga) b e g in s i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e p r i v a t e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s y m b o lif ic a c t i v i t y o f m i n d ( g r d h a k a v ik fe p a ) h a s s u b s i d e d , w h e n t h e p r i v a t e w o r l d a n d th e p u b l i c w o r l d a r e ijo l o n g e r i n d u r a t i n g c o n s t r u c t s o f m i n d a n d p u r e e x p e r ie n c e o b t a i n s .3 A p a r t f r o m t h e s ix te e n k n o w le d g e e v e n ts f o u n d a l r e a d y i n t h e S a r v a s t i v a d i n s P a t h o f
i. s G a m . p o . p a . lo c . c i t . , f o l . 1 0 6 b . O n indriya a n d bala s e e alsoA b h id h a r m a s a m u c c a y a , p . 74. a. I o w e t h is t e r m to G . D . B r o a d . I t w o u ld b e a f r u i t f u l ta s k to m a k e a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f B u d d h is t p h ilo s o p h y in s t e a d o f h u n t in g f o r c h a n c e a n a lo g i e s i n W e s t e r n p h ilo s o p h ie s . B u d d h is t p h il o s o p h y r e m a in s s t i l l t o b e w r itte n . 3 . M a h a y a n a s u t r a la n k a r a X I V 2 8 -4 1 a n d c o m m e n t a r y .

Seeing, d u rin g this stage th e seven m em bers o f enlightenm ent a re p resent an d , w h a t is m ore, h ighly effective. These a re : inspection (dran.pa, Skt. sm rti), appreciative an a ly tica l u n d e r stan d in g o f the constituents o f reality (ch.os.rnam.par. byed.pa, Skt. dharmapramcaya), strenuousness (brtson. grus, Skt. virya), enthusiasm (dga.ba, Skt. p riti), tension relax ation (Sin.tu.sbyans. pa, Skt. prasrabdhi), concentrative absorption (tin.ne. dzin , Skt. samadhi), a n d eq u an im ity (btan.snoms, Skt. upekfa). Because o f th e ir deeper p en etratio n to reality the co ntent o f these func tions is n atu rally different from th a t o f the previous levels w here th ey w ere p resent b u t not- so effective1. W hile traversing this P a th o f Seeing, p e tty Self-centered ness w ith all its likes and dislikes has given w ay to a new self concept w hich is in h arm o n y w ith reality. I t is due to th e realizatio n th a t it is only w ith nespect to th e relatio n betw een th e p o stu lated in trospected self know n by com m on-sense an d p h ilo sophical th eo ry a n d th e p o stu lated extern al ob ject known in th e sam e m an n er (-this object m ay be a n o th e r person as contrasted w ith m y ow n person ) th a t a re la tio n o f other-ness betw een th e perceiving subject a n d th e perceived object exists. B ut before reality , w hich is one experience, is sp lit u p in to subject a n d object, th e re is one-ness w ith reality a n d same-ness (samata) o f se lf a n d object. I t is this one-ness o f reality in B uddhism w hich is th e ro o t o f infinite compassion tow ard suffering m ankind. As Asariga expresses it : E ver a n d ag ain p e n e tra tin g to the sameness o f u ltim ate re a lity (in all th a t exists) . H e alw ays adopts a n a ttitu d e to w ard sentient beings w hich brings o u t th e ir sameness w ith him self .2 T his realizatio n m oulds a m a n s life, in the following w ay : . . H av in g come to u n d erstan d th a t th e w orld is b u t creative forces, is w ith o u t a n y in d iv id u ality o f its own, o n ly an increase o f unsatisfactoriness,

i. sG am . p o .p a , lo c. c it, fo l. 106b. H ere, to give one exam ple, inspection does not m erely see th at the characteristics o f things are m in ddependent, but th at these characteristics are no characteristics m them selves. See P h yag .rgya. chen. poi. m an. n ag . g i. bsad. sb yar. rg yal. bai. gan . m d zod , fo l. 88b. a . M ahayan asutralan kara X I V 30.

H e a b a n d o n s a u s e le s s s e lf - c o n c e p t a n d r e lie s o n a l o f t y s e lf - c o n c e p t o f s u p r e m e u s e fu ln e s s . W i t h o u t a s e lf - c o n c e p t y e t h a v i n g a s e lf - c o n c e p t, e x e m p t f r o m s u f f e r in g y e t f e e lin g u n s a tis f ie d , H e w o r k s f o r t h e b e n e f it o f a l l w i t h o u t e x p e c t i n g a n y p a y m e n t a s d o e s a p e r s o n w h o is o n ly b e n t o n h is o w n w e lf a r e . W ith a m in d fre e d b y s u p re m e e m a n c ip a tio n y e t fe tte re d b y s t r o n g tie s . N o t s e e in g a n e n d o f s u f f e r in g h e e x e r ts h i m s e l f a n d w o r k s . T h e w o r l d is u n a b l e to b e a r its o w n s u f f e r in g , h o w m u c h le ss t h e s u f f e r in g o f a l l o t h e r s p u t t o g e t h e r . I n c o n s i d e r a t e l y t h e w o r l d lo o k s o n l y f o r o n e e x is te n c e , a B o d h i s a t t v a d o e s o th e r w is e . T h e b e n e v o l e n c e a n d te n d e r n e s s , t h e e x e r t i o n a n d i n d e fa tig a b le n e s s o f th e B u d d h a -S o n s w ith re s p e c t to s e n t i e n t b e in g s I s t h e g r e a t e s t m i r a c l e i n a l l w o r ld s , -a n d y e t i t is n o m i r a c l e b e c a u s e a l l b e in g s a r e t h e s a m e w i t h a n d to h i m .1 T h e P a t h o f S e e in g is , i n o n e s e n s e , p r e l i m i n a r y t o t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s ta g e in s p i r i t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t , th e P a t h o f P r a c t i s i n g t h a t w h i c h h a s b e e n s e e n (d.arSanam arga '), i n a n o t h e r s e n s e , i t is a l r e a d y p r e s e n t a n d c o - e x i s t e n t w i t h t h e P a t h o f S e e in g , s in c e w e c a n n o t h e l p a c t i n g o n w h a t w e h a v e s e e n u n le s s w e a r e m o v i n g c o r p s e s . T h e P a t h o n w h i c h w e p a y t h e c lo s e s t a t t e n t i o n t o t h a t w h i c h w e h a v e p e r c e i v e d is o f tw o ty p e s : a w o rld ly p a th o f p r a c tic e a n d a s u p e rw o rld ly p a th . T h e fo rm e r c o m p r is e s t h e e i g h t s ta g e s i n m e d i t a t i o n ( f o u r riipdvacara a n d f o u r U ru p ya va ca ra ). M e d i t a t i o n is n e c e s s a r y f o r t h r e e r e a s o n s , a s s G a m . p o - p a p o i n t s o u t . M e d i t a t i o n is a c o n c e n t r a t i v e e f f o r t i n w h ic h a n o r d i n a r y d if f u s e d m i n d is b r o u g h t i n t o fo c u s w h e r e b y a ll in s ta b ility , p a r tic u la r ly e m o tio n a l in s ta b ility w h ic h g o es h a n d i n h a n d w i t h a d i s o r d e r l y m i n d , a n d w h ich " c a n o n l y b e r e m e d i e d b y c o n c e n t r a t e d a t t e n t i o n to t h e w o r k in g o f o u r m i n d , is g iv e n u p . T h e a b se n c e o f e m o tio n a l in s ta b ility h a s a s its p o s itiv e e x p r e s s io n t h e f o u r b o u n d le s s q u a l i t i e s o f b e n e v o le n c e , c o m p a s s io n , p a r t i c i p a t i n g j o y , a n d i m p a r t i a l i t y . T h e p o s itiv e
i. M a h a y a n a s u t r a la n k a r a X I V 3 7 -4 1.

valu es th a t are d ev elo p ed 'th ro u g h m ed itatio n form then a solid basis for th e superw orldly p ractice o f alw ays being aw are of th a t w hich th e F o u r T ru th s im p ly for o u r b e h av io r in life .1 T h e superw orldly p a th is traversed for g ain in g two types o f k n o w ledge; the one is w ith o u t in d u ra tin g constructs o f m ind (nirvikalpa) a n d serves to b rin g o u r ow n B u d d h a qualities to u tm o st p u rity ,2 th e o th er is a ty p e o f know ledge in w hich th e findings o f th e previous type o f know ledge have a definite position (yathdvyavasthSna) a n d w hich serves to b rin g sen tien t beings to sp iritu a l m a tu rity . As it addresses itself to sentient beings w ho h av e n o t yet a tta in e d B uddha-hood, it is a k in d o f w orldly know ledge w hich m ay be said to be inspired by u ltim a te reality inasm u ch as it obtains after the superw orldly know ledge (lokottara-pr$thalabdham laukikam) .* I t is on this P a th o f closely a tte n d in g to th a t w hich has been perceived, (viz. th e eig h t types o f accep tance o f th a t w hich has been perceived, as co n stitu tin g th e P ath o f Seeing, an d th e eig h t types o f know ledge resu ltin g from th e aforesaid acceptances th a t w ere th ere or th e P a th o f Seeing w hich u ltim a te ly forms th e P a th o f P ra c tic e ,4 th a t the E ightfold P a th so w ell known has its u ltim a te raison d'etre.8 C ertain ly , it takes m u c h tim e a n d still m u ch m ore la b o r on o u r side to set foot on the various step s: C o rre c t V iew o f R e a lity (samyagdrfti), C o rrect C onception of R e a lity \samyaksarhkalpa), C o rrect E xertion as supported by R e a lity (samyagvyayama), C o rre c t O b serv ation o f R eality (samyaksmrti), C o rrect Speech (samyagvac), C o rrect A ction (samyak-karmanta), C o rrect M o d e o f Life (samyagajivu ), a n d C o rrect C oncentratedness (samyaksamadhi). I t is on this P a th also th a t th e various aspects, listed as sep arate path s by th e Sarvastivadins-V aibhasikas, come into
sG a m .p o .p a, loc. c it., fol. 107a. T h ere are eighteen B uddha qualities (buddhadharma) : ten powers (b ala), four absences o f fear (vaisarailya), three observations (smrtyupasthana), an d one G reat Com passion (mahakarund). T h e powers again are types o f know ledge. M ost schools accepted these eighteen B uddha qualities, but the interpretation varied . A full accou nt o f these B uddha qualities is given in A bhidharm akosa V I I 28-33. A bh idh arm asam uccaya, p . 98-39. 3. M ahayanasutralahkara X I V 43 and com m entary. 4 . sG a m . p o . p a , lo c. c it., fol. 107a. 5. ib id .. fol. 107b. 1. 2.

o p e r a t i o n . T h u s T h e P a t h c o m p r is e s t h e n i n e i n t e n s i t y - d e g r e e s w e fo u n d w ith e m o tio n a l in s ta b ility a n d th e r e la tio n s h ip b e t w e e n T h e P a t h a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g e m o t i o n t h a t is o v e r c o m e b y i t is s u c h t h a t t h e m o s t s u b t l e r e m n a n t o f e m o t i o n a l i n s t a b i l i t y c a n b e o v e r c o m e o n l y b y t h e P a t h w h e n i t h a s a t t a i n e d i ts h i g h e s t p o w e r , a n d v ic e v e r s a . H e r e w e m a k e t h e p r e p a r a t i o n f o r o v e r c o m i n g o u r i n s t a b i l i t y ( p ra yo g a m a rg a ) , h e r e w e s u c c e e d i n o v e r c o m i n g t h i s i n s t a b i l i t y (d n a n ta rya m a rg a ) , h e r e w e r e a l i z e t h a t w e h a v e g o t r id o f o u r in s ta b ility (v im u k tim d r g a ) , a n d h e r e b y s p e c ia l e f f o r ts w e r is e to h i g h e r a n d h i g h e r le v e ls o f s p i r i t u a l i t y * ( viiesa m a rg a ').x T h e P a t h o f S e e in g R e a l i t y ( d a ria n a m d rg a ) a n d t h e P a t h o f P r a c t i s i n g R e a l i t y ( b hava n d m a rg a ) b y w h i c h s p i r i t u a l p r o g r e s s is m a d e , c o m p r is e s t e n le v e ls ( b h u m i ) . T h e f ir s t le v e l is t e r m e d T h e J o y f u l O n e (p ra m u d ita ) , b e c a u s e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e P a t h o f S e e i n g t h i s le v e l m a k e s u s s e e t h a t e n l i g h t e n m e n t is n o t t o o f a r a w a y a n d i n t h is s e e in g w e r e a l i z e t h a t r e a l i t y is f o u n d e v e r y w h e r e ( sa rv a tra g a ta th a ta ) a n d n o t i n s o m e m y s te r io u s a n d f o r e v e r u n a t t a i n a b l e r e a l m .2 T h e r e m a i n i n g n i n e le v e ls m a k e u p t h e P a t h o f P r a c t i s i n g R e a l i t y . O n e a c h le v e l w i d e r a n d r iio r e c o m p r e h e n s iv e r e a l i z a t i o n o f r e a l i t y is a t t a i n e d . T h e s e c o n d le v e l is t e r m e d T h e S ta in le s s o n e ( v im a la ) b e c a u s e e th i c s a n d m a n n e r s w h i c h a r e i n d i s p e n s a b l e f o r s p i r i t u a l d e v e lo p m e n t c a n n o t a n y m o re b e b ro k e n a n d as a c o n s e q u e n c e a p e r s o n o n t h i s le v e l w i ll n o t d e b a s e h i m s e l f b y a c t s t h a t s h o w n o t h i n g o f h u m a n e q u a l it i e s . R e a l i t y is e x p e r i e n c e d a s p o s s e s s i n g t h e m o s t s u b l i m e q u a l i t i e s a n d d i s p l a y i n g i n f in ite r ic h n e s s (p a ra m a ta th a td ) . T h e I l l u m i n i n g O n e (p r a b h a k a r i ) is t h e n a m e o f t h e t h i r d le v e l. I t is so c a l l e d , b e c a u s e t h r o u g h c o n c e n t r a t e d a b s o r p t i o n c l e a r l i g h t is b r o u g h t a b o u t , a n d r e a l i t y is f o u n d to in fo rm e v e ry th in g by its s u b l i m e v a lu e s (p a ra m a n ifya n d a ta th a ta ) . T h e f o u r t h le v e l is T h e F l a m i n g O n e ( a r c ifm a ti ) , b e c a u s e t h e s p i r i t u a l a t t a i n m e n t o f t h i s le v e l lik e a f la m e b u r n s a w a y th e
1. A b h id h a r m a s a m u c c a y a , p. 70. 2 . M a h a y a n a s u t r a la n k a r a X X - X X I 3 2 . I n d is c u s s in g t b e v a r io u s l e v e l s a n d t h e d e e p e r r e a liz a t io n o f r e a l i t y , I f o llo w s G a m . p o . p a , l o c . c i t . , f o l . 10 8 . s g .

veils o f em otional a n d in tellectu al instability. Since no p etty ego o b tain s reality is seen to be such th a t it c a n n o t be m ade som eones p ersonal pro p erty (afiarigrahatathatd). O n th e fifth level, term ed T h e O n e D ifficult to C onquer (sudurjaya ) because it is a difficult task a n d still m ore difficult to succeed in brin g in g sentient beings to sp iritu al m a tu rity and to p rev en t them fro m falling, re a lity is realized as n o t being different according to th e status a person m ay h av e attained ( abhima-jdtiyatatkatd ). T h e O ne W hich Is P resen t (abhimukhi) is th e nam e of the sixth level. H ere S am sara a n d N irv an a a re presented to o u r view as h aving the sam e value, n eith er o f them being such, th a t th e one m ay be preferred to the o th er. R e a lity is seen to b e n e ith e r p u re n o r im pure (asarhkliftavyavaddtatathatd). T h e seventh level bears the n am e T h e O n e W h o Goes F a r ( durarhgama), because on this level we find th e u n iq u e p ath th a t ca n be w alked to its very end. H e re th e realizatio n comes th a t re a lity is one an d indivisible, regardless o f the m an n er in w hich it m ay be presented to o th er beings w ho are o f different in tellectu al capacity (abhinnatathata). T h e eighth level is term ed T h e U nshakable O n e (acala) because it can n o t be upset by such considerations as w hether th ere a re im ages o r no im ages. R e a lity rem ains w h at it is, it is n o t m ad e b e tte r by th a t w hich w e call good n o r is it m ade worse by th a t w hich we term evil (anupacaydpacayatathata). T h e n in th level or T h e O n e W hich H as G ood D iscrim i n a tio n (sddh.uma.ti) is ch aracterized by four types o f u n d e r sta n d in g ,1 viz., u n d erstan d in g o f th e nam e, o f th e thing, of the voice, an d o f th e presen tatio n o f th e experience. T h e ten th level, Cloud o f D h a rm a (dharmamegha), contains inn u m erab le D h aran im u k h as an d S am adhim ukhas, an d b ein g knowledge, encom passes all th a t can be know n, ju st as a cloud fills th e sky. A nd ju s t as ra in quenches th e thirsting e a rth , so this clo u d p ours dow n th e ra in o f the D h a rm a and extinguishes th e raging fire o f all kinds o f in stability. W hen through countless ages th e P a th o f Practising R ea lity has reached its highest perfection it passes in to th e P ath o f F in alizatio n (nifthamdrga) by w hich the B uddha level (budhai.
pratisamvid.

See A bhidharm akosa

V I I 37-40.'

b h u m i ) is a t t a i n e d .1 T h is P a t h b e g in s w ith th e V a jr o p a m a s a m a d h i, th e c o n c e n tr a tiv e a b s o r p tio n w h ic h is as in d e s tr u c tib le as a d ia m o n d , w h ic h c a n n o t b e u p s e t b y w o r ld ly c o n d itio n s , w h ic h c a n n o t b e o b s c u r e d b y a n y d a r k e n in g p o w e rs , w h ic h c a n n o t b e s h a k e n b y th e in d u r a t i n g c o n s tr u c tio n s o f a w o r ld ly m in d , w h ic h h a s th e sa m e fla v o r a s R e a lity , a n d w h ic h v ie w s th e c o m m o n r e a l i ty in a ll t h a t c a n b e k n o w n . T h e V a jr o p a m a s a m a d h i o b ta in s w h e n a t th e e n d o f th e P a th o f P r a c tic e a ll f e tte r s h a v e b e e n s h a k e n off, it c o m p ris e s o f a p a t h o f p r e p a r a t i o n (prayoga m arga) a n d a p a t h o f u n o b s tr u c te d n e s s (anantaryam drga ). T h e r e s u lt o f th is c o n c e n tr a tiv e a b s o r p tio n is th e d e e p ly m o v in g k n o w le d g e t h a t a ll in s ta b ility , w h e th e r e m o tio n a l o r in te lle c tu a l, h a s e x h a u s te d its p o w e r ( ks-ayajn&na ) a n d t h a t n o in s ta b ility o f a n y ty p e c a n e v e r a p p e a r a g a in (anutpadajfidna ) A t th is tim e th e e ig h t o p e r a tio n a l fo rc e s o f th e E ig h tf o ld P a t h c o g e th e r w ith F u ll L ib e r a t io n (sam yagvim okfa), a n d F u ll K n o w le d g e o f L ib e r a t i o n (sam yagjndna) h a y e b e c o m e a n in a lie n a b le p o ssessio n fo r w h ic h i t is n o lo n g e r n e c e s s a r y to s tr iv e ( asa iksa ) . 2 I t is R e a lity in its e n tir e ty .

Conclusion T h e P a t h is in s e p a r a b ly c o n n e c te d w ith th e id e a o f p ro g re ss. I n th is r e s p e c t i t is i m p o r t a n t to n o te t h a t B u d d h is t p h ilo s o p h e rs n e v e r d o u b te d th e p o s s ib ility o f perpetual p ro g re s s b u t n e v e r h e ld th e v ie w o f uniform p ro g re s s w h ic h im p lie s t h a t e v e ry l a t e r s ta te o f s is b e t t e r t h a n e v e ry e a r lie r s t a t e o f s .3 H o w e v e r , th e y d if fe r e d f ro m e a c h o th e r as to th e p r o b le m w h e re th e v a lu e o f a th in g lie s. S o m e o f th e m d i d as w e u s u a lly d o . F o r w h e n w e s p e a k a b o u t p ro g re s s w e ta lk a s i f th e w h o le v a lu e o f a th in g la y i n its su ccessiv e s ta te s a n d w e e v e n g o so f a r as to ta lk as i f th e w h o le v a lu e o f a th i n g r e s id e d in its fin a l s ta te . T h i s is o f c o u rs e a m istake^, as th e V ijn a n a v a d in s a n d M a d h y a m ik a s c le a r ly sa w . I t is t r u e , t h e v a lu e o f a t h in g d o e s d e p e n d in so m e w a y o n th e v a lu e s o f its s u c c e ssiv e s ta te s , b u t i t d o e s n o t

1. s G a m . p o . p a . lo c . cit . , fo l. 1 x 7 a . 2 . i b i d . . fo l. 10 8 a. A b h id h a r m a s a m u c c a y a , p p . 76 s q . 3 . T h is w o u ld m e a n t h a t S a m s a r a g r a d u a lly b e c o m e s N ir v a n a a n a a ll t h a t w e w o u ld h a v e to d o w o u ld b e j u st to s it id le a n d w a it. F o r th e rej e c tio n o f s u c h a v ie w , see s G a m . p o . p a . lo c . c i t . , fo l. 2a.

d epend on these alone. T h e value o f a thing is a q uality w hich inheres in its entire history, from its beginning to its end, if it has a n end. W hen the V ijnanavadins declare th a t to walk the P a th o f Practice takes already two Asam khyeyas ,1 to say nothing o f the tim e th a t is needed for arriv in g a t this p a rticu la r stage o f th e T h e P ath , an d w hen they insist th a t a B odhisattva has to a n d does work w ithout ever looking for an end o f his striving, because R eality is everyw here, w ithout beginning or end, they m ake use of the strongest argu em en t th a t can be found to assert th a t continuous striving is the essence an d v alue o f T h e P ath an d o f Buddhism as a p a th through life. T o lose oneself in a static ideal, to cen ter the whole value in the final state of a thing, is to deny reality an d a n a tte m p t to escape from it, w hich forever will rem ain unsuccessful, because R eality is m ore th an the seg m e n t we believe to be reality. W e m ay be too stupid to see R eality as a whole because a p a rt from the abstractions we have m ad e, we tend to forget th a t we have ab stracted one aspect o r the o th er from the rest o f R eality , bu t th a t does not speak again st R eality. I n realizing th a t w hen we p lay off Sam sara an d N irv an a against each o ther we are dealing w ith abstractions an d n o t w ith R eality, the V ijnanavadins a n d M adhyam ikas by asserting th a t R eality is a m ixture o f unity a n d relative isola tion prevented the ideal of Buddhism , living R eality, from be com ing self-stultifying. W here th ere is R eality there is T h e P a th , retain in g its full m eaning a n d value o f p erp etu al progress, as u n lim ited as the ideal itself.

I. Mahayanasutralankara X I V 44. One Asamkhyeya is the lapse of as many years as we would express by a 1 followed by 140 zeroes.

(A ll w ords, in clu din g the Sanskrit, P a li, and T ib e ta n term s, follow the E n glish a lp h a b et. T .= T ib e t a n .) abhdva i g2 abhdvamdtra 192 abhibhava 2 A b h id h arm a i , 2, 3 , 84, 87, sq ., 154, 159 . abhigati 2 abhibhvdyatana 135, 141, I42n. 4 abhijjha 91 abhijnd 126, I42n . 4 I43n . 2 abhikjna 2 abhimana 91 n . 2 abhimukha 2 abhimukhi 245 abhinnd 39, 119 , 143 n . 2 abhinna 166 abhinnajdtiyatathatd 245 abhinnatathatd 245 abhisamaya 223 abhisamkfepika 161 n.2 abhra 155 tbhuivd bhdva 170 abhyavakdsika 161 n .2 absolutism 212 absorption , m editative 57 s q .,6 0 sq ., 74, 228 sq. abydpdda 34 abydpddasaniia 81 acald 245 dcaya 171 sq. accep tan ce 221 sq ., 225, 228, 229, 239, 243 acqu aintan ce 110 sq. a ctiv ity 46 adaptablen ess 85 a d ap tatio n 76 adhiccuppattiyd adhimuccana 136 adhimukti 62 n . 1, 31 n . 2 adhimokkha 31 n . 2. 86 abhimokfa 62 n . 1 adhipati 74, 168 adhipatiyattha 61 adhyatmam arupasarhjfii 139 adhydtmasamprasdda 123 adittha 200 adosa 81 advesa 81 aesthetic appreciation 138 aesthetic factor 110 aestheticism 21 g affect 8, 56sq. dgamanato 204 agga 57 n . 1 agra 57 n . 1 a g in g 170, 172 sq. dha.na-pariydhana.rasa 49 dhara 175, 236 dhdrasamutthana 184, 186 ahare pafikkulasanna 112 ahetukavipaka 25 ahrtkya 77 ajdta 192 djiva 200 ajjhattam arupasanhi 137 ajjhattam sampasadana 123 djna 210 djnendriya 199, 210 dkdJadhatu 129 dkdsdnanca 127 dkdsanantya 1 27 akimcanya 127 130 akihcuhha 127 dkincanndyatanasannd-sahagata 130 akincanya-dyatana 227 akopya 231 akusala 7, 88 alambana 57 n . 1, 129 alambanapratyaya 180 n . 1 dlayaaijndna 9 sq ., 10 n . 1,113 n . 2. 44 alobha 79 dloka 155, 238 dmodana 52 cmoha 82 anabhijjhd 83 andgamin 196, 210, 2 i6 n .3 , 227 sq ., anajndtamdjndsydmindriya 199 ' analysis 70, 87, 113 s q ., 223 ananndtannassdmitindriya 199 dnantaryamarga 2 15 , 2 21, 227 s q ., 244 246 dmpdnasmrli 142 n . 4 anapatrdpya 77 andtman 204, 206, 207 s q ., 218 anattadassuna 83 anavajjitukdmata 132 andhakdra 155 anenja 42 n.2 aiiga 120, 200 aniccadassana 81 anxccdnupassana 23 aniccatd 173 anidarSana 152

anidassana 152, 161 anikkhittachandatd 66 anikkhittadhuratd 66 animitta, animitta 204, 205, 207 sq ., animittamagga 205, 207 animittavimokkha 205 dnimittavimokfa 204 anitya 204,^207, 218 anityata 169, 17 1, 173 annamannam upanidhdya 156 annindriya 210 antagraha 224 antagrahadr}ti 90 n .i

arupavacara 198 n . 4 arupya 127, 128, 131, 133 sq,

A ru p yad h atu

127, 222

arupyavacara 242

A rupya-w orld 140 drya 167, 179, 222, 231 asacchikata 200 asaiksa 229, 246 asaiksamarga 215 dsariijhlka 179 asamjnisamdpatti 179
asamklistavyavaddtatathatd 245 asamskrta 192, 233 asamskrta akasa 129, 173 asammussanata 68 asamvara 169 asankhdrena 87 asattvdkhya 158 asmimdna 91 n. 3 asithilaparakkamaia 66 asparsavihard g2 n . 2 asrava 54 asraya 10. n .i dsrayapardvrtti io n . 1 nirvana 11 assaddhiya 85 asubha 142 n . 4 217 aiubhabhdvand 1 39 asubhasanna 80 assuropita, asuropita 92 n . 3 atapa 155

a n tip athy 92 s q ., 102 sq ., 106 antithesis 212 anubhava 37 n . 2 anukrama 180 anulomabhdva 207 anupacaydpacayatathatd 245 anupddinna 148 s q ., 188 anupadinnaka-santdna 148 anupdttamahdbh utahetuka 158 anussati 68 ar Ipdda 192 anutpadajnana 229, 2 3 1, 246 anvayajndna 222 anvayajndnaksanti 222 apaccakkha 200 aparigrahatathata 245 apatrdpya 74 apdtubhdva 194 apaya 7 5 , 91 apildpanatd 68 dpodhatu 183 appamdnasanna 81 appand-samadhi 118 appanihita 204, 205 appatigha 161 appatta 200 apperception 13, 15 , 25, 26 apradurbhdva 192 apramana 106 apranihita 204, 207 apranihitavimoksa 204 sq ., 206 aprdpti 178 apratisthita 193 n. I apratisthitanirvdna 193 dptavacana 216 n . 3 araha 196 arammana 101 n . 2, 129 drammanapaccaya 180-n. 1 arammarfato 204 ararid 142 n . 4 arcismati 244 A rh a n t 22 s q ., 196, 2 1 1 , 213 sq ., 228 sq. arupa 127, 129 arupabhdvana 127 arupasamjnd 139 aruparaga 2.12

atheism 114 sq.

atimana 91 n . 3

A tm an 114 atom 181 s q ., 183-85 atom ic th eory 181 attabhinivesa 206 attka 33 n . 3 attainm en t 178 sq. attamanata 53 attanimitta 205 attention 17 attitude 4 ,8 , 11 s q ., 30, 84, 95, 9 7 sq- 133 sq-5 , h ealth y 4 sq. , un h ealth y 89 sq. , m editative 121 , su p erw o rld ly 202 auddhatyakaukrtya 119 auddhatya 54 n .2 , 84, 93, 94 n . i , 212: autom atic phenom enon 18 dvajjana 18 avarabhdgiya 210 a varice 79 avatthiti 59 A v ic i h ell 5 avidita 202 avidya 59, 120, 2 12 , 235 avijjd 212 avijnapti 162

avihimsdsanna 83 avikkhepa 59, 86 avinibkcgarupa 184 avisdhara j g avisdhatamdnasata 59 av upasama 54 n. 1 avydkrta 45

cakfurvijnana 29 catudhatuvavatthana 113

causation 179, 180

cetana 3 1, 37, 38 n . 1 , 4 1 sq ., 43 s q ., 4 5 5 100 celasika 39, 54, 55 cetasika-assada 37 cetaso vikkhepa 54 n .i cetovimukti 235 chandas 31 n .2 , 63 n .3 , 92, 238 chdyd 155 cita 13 civ id 215 sq. cintamaya 216 n. 3 citta 4, 13 sq ., 15 sq ., 3 1, 46, 47, 54,

aw areness 20, 29, 85, 124 sq. dyatana 16, 172 ay uhana 42
bdhusacca 75 bala 72, 74, 210 sq ., 240, 243 n.2

beh avio r 76, 106 b e lie f 59, 78 ben evolen ce 78, 104 bew ilderm ent 102, 103, 112 , 114, 324 bhantattam cittassa 54 n .2 bhavadasaka 186 bhavdgra 225, 228 bhavand 195, 197, 208, 236 bhavandmarga 195, 211 s q ., 2 15, 228, 244 bhavandmaya 216 n. 3, 223 bhavanga 26, 44 bhinna 166 bhoga 80 bhum i 88, 202, 237, 244 , bhurt 71 bhiita 218 bhuyovitaragq 227 b ija 44 n . 2 bijavasthd 9 bisex u a lity 165 n. 3 b irth 169 sq . 174 bliss 54, 56 sq. bodhi 229, 235
bodhicittotpada 88, 2 16 n . i

Bodhisattva 169, bodhyanga 202 b o d y 185 bojjhanga 202

235,

236 sq.

brahman ig 8 n . 4 brahmabhiita 198 n. 4 brahmacakra 198 n . 4 brdhmanya 198 n. 4 brahmatihdra 106, 198 n . 4 bras, bu T . 195

breath con trol 114 , 217 Buddha 3 , 11 5 , 203, 231, 237 buddhabhumi 246 buddhadharma 243 n . 2 Buddhahood 234, 243 buddhi n o buddhicarita 102
caga 80
caitta 4 , 191 cakkhudasaka 186 caksuhprasada 149

57. 59> 84, 95, 178, 184, 191, 218, 238 cilta-ceiasika-dhamma 131 cittaikdgratd 49 cittamatra 234, 238 sq. cittangavasena 43 cittanissitatta 39 n .i cittapassaddhi 54 cittaprasrabdhi 54 cittass ekaggatd 49, 57 cittasamutthana 184, 186 cittasyaikdgratd 58, 120 cittaviprayukta dharma 164 samskara 17$ clarification 123 c la rity 238 cogn ition 25, 188 co lo r 137, 155 compassion 86, 108 sq ., 202 sq ., 243 n.2 com plex 8 com prehension 223 sq. conceitedness 91, 213 concentration 49, 5 1 , 56, 57 sq ., 58 s q ., 60, 6 g, 74, 120, 122, 125 sq. conception 74 confidence 59, 63, 66, 94, 102 s q ., 123, 205 conglom eration 182 conscious 20 consciousness 12, 27 con tem plation 1 1 1, 124 co n tin u ity 147, 172 con viction 123, 240 crav in g 95, 120 crea tiv ity 138 cu ltu re 62, 99 cu p idity 90 sq, 102, 104, 106, 112, 120 D akas 191 n .i
dandhabhinnd 126 darianabhaga 153 dassanamdrga 195, 2 12 , 215, 223, 228,. daia aSubha 106 n.2

235. 240, 242, 244

dassana 195 s q ., 208 d aufth ulya 54 n . 2 dbyer . med T . 195 d eath 1 1 1 s q ., 169, 174 d eceit 95 decorum 74, 75 n . 3 7 6 s q . , g o sq . delusion 83, 93, 102, 106 d eliveran ce 203 sq . d ep th -exp erien ce 197 desa 180 desire 59 , 113 d evelo p m en t 150 dhammavicaya 202 dkammasabhdva 90 n . 1 dharanatd 68 dharma <3, 5 n . 3 , 2 18 , 2 21, 245 dharmajnana 221 sq. dnarm ajnanakfdnti s s i dharmanidhycnakfanti 238 dharmdnusarin 230 dharmamegha 245 dharmapravicaya 202, 240 dharmatacitta 234 dharmayatana 163 dhatu 166 dhatusahnd 83 d h i 61 d h iti 66 dhum a 155 dhitrasampaggdha 66 dhuranim itta 305 dhyana 97, 101, 119 , 124, 14 1, 14 2 , 2 17 , 225 s q ., 237 dhyananlara 316 n .3 disciplin e 14 1, 210 discrim ination 94 s q ., 102 s q ., 9 19 , , 237 disposition 1 2 , 17, 114 ditthadham m asukhavihdra 143 n . 2 d itth i 99 d itth igata 88 s q . difthim dna 85 ditthip p atta 232 n . i ' divyacaksurabhijnd 142 n .3 d o g m a 95 dogm atism 1 14 , 133 domanassa 93 dom estication 8 dom inance 60 s q ., 64, 70, 72 s q ., 240 dosa 88, 93, 198, 313 dosacarita 102, 137 draaya 73, 156, 166, 167, 170, 1 7 6 , 178, 179 n .4 , 181, 190 d rive 4 1, 44, 46 drftadharm asukhavihdra 143 d f f f i 59, 219 d rftip rdp ta 2 3 1, 232 drstiparam arja 90 n .3 d u alism 5 3 , 233 d u h k h a 204, 207, 218

dukkhadassana 82 dukkhapatipadd 1 25 durangam d 245 duration 170 sq. dvefa 88, 92 n . 5 , 93 n . i , 1 12 ease 84 ecstasy 12 r effect 4, 19 E g o 1 14 , 205, 207 egocen tricity 2 2, 77 eid etic im ag e 118 s q ., 1 3 1 , 184 ekagga 57 ekaggatd 58 ekakfatfa 334 ekarasa 140 elem entary qualities 146, 148, 149 s q ,, em otion 6 s q ., 8 s q ., 9 ,10 , 5 1 , 53, 120, 122 s q ., 139, 206, 226 em otion al fetters 336 em otion al in stability 10, 64, 140, 328, 342, 344 em otional outburst 8 s q ., 10, 1 1 , 53, 1 1 6 , 120, 209 em otion al satisfaction 2 em o tio n ality 12 em otive a sp ect 51 sq . energy 64 s q ., 72, 186 , kin etic 184 sq. , potential 19, 20 n. 1 en ligh ten m en t 4, 72, 1 1 5 , 203, 229 s q ., 33a sq. enthusiasm 7 3 , 241 en um eration 177 epistem ological object 145 eq u an im ity 124, 125 equilibrium 11 esoteric teach in g 136, 140 ethics 7 7 sq ., 79, 8 1, 202, 236 s q ., ethical b eh avio r 201 eternalism 205 excitation grad ien t 46 existence 30, 137, 132, 193 , S 1 5 , 236 exp ectan cy 187 sq. experience 48, 113 , 130 s q ., 139 sq i, 154 sq ., 237, 239 exoteric 136 fear 75 feeling 37 sq ., 52, 55 s q ., 162 fem ininity 165 sq. fetters 210, 211 fixation 134 flux 17, 163, 186 fluxional 21 * food 175 s q ., 176 form alism 2 11 form ulation 133 sq. freedom 135 sq.

15 *

function-event 30 sq. 49 functional pattern 834 gandha 159, 184 eata 89 gati 167 generality 167 sq. Gesamtsituation 32 Gestaltg9 sq., 111,115 sq., 126. 129 sq., 138 sq. 150, 162, 165, 172, 1 Gestaltung 74, 96, 198 gest'jre 157 sq. ghdnadasaka 186 gocara 153 God 114 gods i, 114 gotra 22 1 gotrabhu 196 grdhakavikfepa 241 grahyaviksepa 239 growth 147 guna 142 Guru 191 n.i gzhan. ston, gzhan. ston, pa T . 233 gzhi T . 195 hadaya 48 harmonious atmosphere 56 heart 30, 189 heat, meditative 220, 238 , physiological 175 sq. heaven 6 hedonism 205 hell 6 hermaphroditism 165 n. 4, 169 hetu 5, 180 n. 1 hiri 74 homosexuality 165 n. 4 hri 74 hunger 175 sq. hutvd abhdvatfhena 173 idealist 233 illusion 192 ill-will 210 image 26, 117 sq., 138 immeasurables, four 106 impartiality 109 sq. impermanence 169, 173 impression 130 impurity 80, 2f7 incarnation 215 n.3 indattha 61 indifference 109 individual 97 individuality 106 indriya 61, 72 sq., 166 n.i, 240 infinitude 127 sq. insight 85 inspection 59, 68, 85, 94, 124 sc

219 sq., 237, 240, 241 n. 1 integration 83 intellect 102, 105, n o s q ., 112, 230 intellectual process 122 intellectual type 114 intention 186 sq. irfyd 92 isadrupa 127 issa 92 ittnilinga 169 itthindriya 165 jdndmi passdmi 138 janyajanakabhdva 36 n 3 jam 17c, 172 jd ti 75, 167, 170 sq. java 180 javana 25 jhdna 101, 119 jivita 61, 73, 163 jivhddasaka 1 86 jivitendriya 184 jriana 87 n. 2 221, 228, sq., 236 jneydvarana ion. 1, 54 n. 2 joy 53. 56, 86, 108, 109 sq. kala 5, 180 kdma 6 sq. kdmacchanda 119, 210 Kamadhatu 164, 210, 222 kdmavacara 5, 14, 88 kamavitardga 227 kammatthdna 101 kammaniiatd 85, 163 Karmang, 10, 19 sq., 41, 45, 460, 1, 184 karund 86, 104, 107, 198 n. 4, Kasina n 6 , 129 kaukrtya 92 kaya 52, 54, sq,, 84 kSyadasaka 186 kdyddi-satipatthana 67 kayappasdda 188 kdyapassaddhi 53 kdyaprasrabdhi 53, 54 n. 2 kayavijnapti 156 kdyendriya 166 kayika 54 kayaduccaritamrati 86 kdyasdksin 232 kdyasakkhi 232 ketukamyatd 91 khana 5 n, 1. khippabhinna 126 kilesa 62 kiriya 18, 22, 24 kiriyamanodhatu 18 klesabtja 9 klesabijdmifakta 9
sq-,235

kles&varana 10 n . i , 54 n. 2 klesopaklcsa 10 kliflam anas 22 knowledge 69 sq ., 72, 74, 83, n o sq ., 128, 142, 222 sq., 227, 228, 235, , b y experience 2c8, 228 ; , superworldly 243 krtsnayatana 116, 126, 141 ksana 5 n. 1, 171 ksanti 220, 222, 224, 237, 239 ksayajnana 229, 246 kukkucca 92 kusa 7 kusala 7, 7 n .i kusalam ula 79, 216 kusalavipaka 1 g laghu 152 la hula 84, 163 ' lakkhana 74, 101 n.2 lam T . 195 lam . rim T . 191 n .i lam . zab T . 191 n .i lassitude 84 laukika 142 n .i laukikdgradharma 239, 240 laukikamdrga 215 L aw o f Contradiction 128 _ L aw o f Interdependent O rigination 114 levels, spiritual 88, 131, 222, 238, 241, 244 sq. 246 liberation 246 liberality 79, 238 linga-santhdna 165 livelihood 200 lobha 88, 90, 93 n . i , 213 lokapala 78 lokanasaka 90 lokiya 197 lokottara 142 lokottaramdrga 215 lokottarapxsthalabdha laukika 243 lokuttara 197 sq., love 103, 104, 104 n. 2, 107 macchariya 92 mada 91 maegagamana 205 mahdbhumika 31 n. 1 48 mahabhuta 19 sq ., 146, 181, 183, 218 mahdkarund 203, 243 n. 2 mahatva 146 M ahayana 88, 149 sq., 169, 193, 230 mahikd 155 m aitri 107, 198 n. 4 majjhatia 124 malevolence 92 sq.

243

tndva 88, 91, 2 1a, 213, 223 ' manahsamcetana 46 n. 1 manas 16 sq., 20 sq., 22, 23 sq ., 27, 29 sq ., 46 sq ., 6 1, 72, 73, 210 n.2 manasa 48, 157 manasikdra 86 manaskdra 31 n. 2 mano-dyaiana 16, 48, manodhatu 18, 24, 25 manodvdra 27 manojalpa 238 manoiijnana 20, 29 sq., 44 manovinnana 20, 23, 25 manovinnanadhatu 20, 23 sq ., 25, 27 sq ., 3 1. 48 manovifineyya 169 mt.ntra 117 manusyasabhdgatd 167 manusyatva 167 marga 191, 222 masculinity 165 sq. mass 175 sq ., 213, mass-man value 213 mastery 134, 137 materialism 239 mati 31 n. 1 mdtsarya 92 matter 144, 146 maya 95, 192 mdydsdtheyya 85 mayopamasamadhi 192 n. 1 med. bzhin. du snan. ba T . 151 meditation 8 5 ,9 7 s q ., 101 sq ., 122 sq., 124, 129, 134, 1 3 5 138 sq ., 140, 141, 197 sq ., 217, 225, 242 obstacles for 84, 120, 135 m editative stages 141 mental states 144 memory 28 sq ., 67 mentalism 234, 240 metaphysical 1 15 , 134, 192, 239 metta 82, 107 micchdjivavirati 86 middha 91 n. 4 M iddle Path 83 mimdmsd 238 mind 4 sq., 87, 144 sq ., 148, 233.. 239 misanthropy 109 misdemeanor 86, 201 miserableness 82 m ithyddtfti 90 n, 5 , 212, 224 mithydmana 91 n. 3 mitta 82 modana 52 modification 169 moha 88, 93, 112, H 4 j ! 98. 214, 224 mohacarita 102, 137 mohdmsika 91 n. 4 moksabhdgiya 216 m om ent 171 sq ., 173 S < 1*

momentariness 38 sq., 147, 157, 171, monism 233 sq . mood 38, 121, 124, 224 moral conduct 75 morality 76, 77 motive 41, 44 motivation 41 mudild 86, lo g , 198 n. 4 muduta 84, 163 muktitas 90 n. 1 murdhan 220, 238 mufitasmrti 94 n. 4 nabhas 156 nai vasamjndndsa mjna 127, 131 , ayatana 228 namakdya 179 nana 89, gg, 112, 200, 208 nana.ttasa.nna 130 na ragabhdvamatta 1:3 natthibhdva 132 navabhava 173 nekkhammasahnd 80 nevasahndndsannd 127 , sahagata 130 niccanimitta 205 nifrsvabhdoa 218 nikdya abhdga 166 sq. nikkama 65 nimitta 138 nimittabhaga 153 nippariydya desand 2n.i nirodha 129, 143 n. 2, ig 2 , 222 nirodhasamdpatti 179 Nirvana 9, 10, 14, 41, 142, 192 sq., 202, 204, 222 nirvanadhdtu, nirupadhiseja 10 , sopddhisesa 10 nirvedhabhdgiya 212, 216, 220, 225, 238 nirvikalpa 243 nissattadhdtu 48 nissattanijjivatd 5 nifthdmdrga 245 nitya 167 niyydnika 197 nominalism 121 non-antipathy 79, 81 sq., non-cupidity 79, 81 sq., non-delusion 79, 82 sq. non-existence 127, 192 sq. non-violence 83 numerical system 173 nutrition 175 object 137, 146, 238 objective constituent 119, 164, 177 odagya 53 odor 159

173

ojd 176, 184 olarika 50 opinionatedness 90 sq. orambhagiya 210 organism 148 sq., 149 origination 171 sq. ottappa 74 paccakkha 200 n. 1 paccanikajhapana 101 n.2 paccanikato 206 padakdya 179 paddrtha 167 paggdha 86 paguftnald 85 pairness 85 sq. paksa 194 n.2, 212 pakti 147 pamodana 52 Pdmojja 52 pancopadanaskandha 90 n. 1 pandaka l6g pandara 48 panidhi 206 paniid 69 panndcakkhu 202 pannavimutta 232 pannattidhamma 118 pannindriya 206 . pantheistic 115 n.4 paramartha 2 n. 1 paramanisyandatathata 244 paramatas go n.i paramarsa 90 n.i paramartha 2 n.i paramatathatd 244 paricchindana 87 n.2 parikalpita 157, 161 n.2 parmama 234 parinamikagandha 159 pariyutrhdnamandata 209 pasada 35 passaddhi 84, 202 passion 107, 234 Path 142, 191, 195 sq., 204 et passim , Eightfold 94, 201, 212, 246 , Middle 193 , of Equipment 238 , of Finalization 246 , of Practice 242 sq., , of Preparation 237 , of Seeing 240 sq. 243 pathavldhdtu 183 pathavikasina 117 patibhdganimitta 118 sq. patience 237 patigha 92, 129 patipada 125 patipakkha 206 patisandhi 26

p a tisa ti 68 , uniform 246 properties 128 sq. p atu 131 pellucidity o f m ind 103, 115 pjth agjan a 179 perception 15, 25, 29, 3 3 sq, 39, 12.7, prthagjanasabhdgata 167 prthagjanatva 167 i 3 > >3 i 132. i 5 3 sq - i8 9 , 238 , non-sensuous 28 prthivikrisnayatana 117 perceptual situation 67, 144 sq ., 148 psyche 60 perfection 133, 237 psychic event 26 pessimism 80 punarbhavaksepa-samartha 9 phala 154 punya 236, 237 phalastha 227 purecardnucara 18 phassa 16, 31 s q ., 37 n.3 47 sq. purisindriya 165 phofthabha 160 purusendriya 166 n .i physical object 146 p iirvaca rya 168 physiochem ical nature o f m an 184 physiological gradient 47 raga 93 n. 1, 103, 104 n .2 , 10 7, 112 , p lti 25, 49, 5 1 , 72 . 198, 2 17 , 225 pluralism 233 ragacarita 102, 138, 217 possession 178 sq. ragacitta 165 ragappanidhi 206 possessiveness 102 sq. prabhfikari 244 rdgamsika 92 practice 112 , 1 1 5 , 126, 242 rajas 155 ran. stoii T . 233 prajna 47 n. 2, 59, 6 1, 69, 74. 87 n. 2 rasa 184 106, 112 , 126, 216 n . 3 , 208, 230, rddhipdda 238 237* s q-x 240 realism 121 prajfidbala 74 R eality 1, 135 s q ., 141, 151, 238, 230, prajndprabheda 143 n. 2 243, 247 p rajn ap ti 168, 179, 179 n - 4 rebirth 27, 80 prajnavim ukta 232 recollection 67 sq. prajnavimukti 231 n. 3 relation 17 7 , 179 prahdrta 227 sq. relaxation 54, 84, 121 prahdrtamdrga 215 religiosity 102, 103 pramdna 216 n .3 religious experience 230 pram uditd 244 religious temperament 114 sq. pranidhi 216 religious type o f m an 230 pranidhijnana 142 n. 4 renunciation 80 prapti 178, 222, 223, 226 repression 11 prasdda 115 resolution 66 prasarpana 147 respect 63 prasrabdhi 54 n. 2, 84, 202, 241 ritualism 2 1 1 pratighdla 99 n.2 m am . p a T . 151 pratiniyama 180 rupa 99, 127 sq. 131, 138, I 4 '4 , 145, pratipad 125 153 sq ., 159, 161, 162 sq ., 164 sq., pratipakfa 194 n .2 , 212 164 n .i, 165, 172 sq ., 175 , 177stl - > pratipaksacitta 9 182, 189 sq ., 234 pratisamkhydnirodha 222 n .i rupa-citta-viprayukta 233 n .i pratisam vid 142 n. 4 R upad hatu 222 Pratityasam utpada 114 rupana 100 pratyaksa 200 n .i rupaprasdda 152 sq pratyaya 180 n .i ruparaga 212 Pratyekabuddha 221, 231 rupavacara 14, 126, 129, 166 n. I, 167, prayogomdrga 2 15 , 235, 244 i g 8 n. 4, 242 prejudice 78 rupayalana 103 preparation 215 rubupapatli 161 prim ary qualities 146 p riti 49, 51 sq ., 53, 55, 57 sq. 120 sq ., sabda 158 123 sq ., 124 sq ., 242 sabhaga 35 n.2 priti-sukha 52 sabhagala 167 sq. progress 246 sq. sab!idva 48, 74, 173 . perpetual 246 sq.

sabhdvato 131, 306 saddhd 61, 103, 205 saddhacarita 102 saddkdvimutta 232 saddhindnya 205 sadhumati 245 sagunato 204 sahajagandha 159 sahakarikaranabhdva 11 saint 22 sakaddgdmi 196 sakalabandhana 226 sakkayadi tthi 198 sakrdagamin 196, 209, 229 sakalatthena 116 n. 3. samdddnika 161 n. 2. samadhi 31 n.2, 58 sq., 61, 69, 121 sq., 202 sq., 210, 210 n .2 , 240, 241 samddhindriya 206 sdmagri 180 samannaphala 198 samdnya 167 samdnyalaksana 218, 231, 238 samarasa 140 samatd 241 Samatha 85, 126 samavdya 5 samayavimukta 230 sambharamdrga 235 sq. samdhdrana 147 sameness 241 sq. samgraha 147 sa m jtt 31, 39 samjndveditanirodhasamdpatti 141 samkhdranimittarammana 207 sctmkhardvasesa 132 samkhdrdvasesasukhumabhdva 131 samkhyd 180 samklesa 168 sammdditthi 72, 84, 212 sammajiva 198, 201 sammdkammanta 202 sammappadhdna 237 n.3 sammdsamddhi 6o, 69, 74 sammasati 69, 74 sammdsamkappa 50 sammavdca 200 sammdvaydma 66, 74 sammukhibh&ta 9 samnivesavisesa 156 sampajanna 85, 124 sampaticchanakiccdmanodhatu 18 sampayuttadhamma 123 samphassaja 38 samprajanya 85, 124 samp rasa(la 123 Samsara 9, 14, 140, 191, 236 samsthdna 154, 156, 157 samskdra 54, 164 samskdraskandha 46 n .i, 56

samskrta 192 samthiti 59 samudaya 222 samutthana 74 samriha 5 samvara 169 samvega 111 samyagajiva 243 samyagdrfti 72, 74, 213 , 243 samyagj ndna 246 samyagvdc 243 samyagvimokfa 246 samyagvydyama 371, 243 samyakkarmdnta 243 samyakprahdna 238 samyaksamadhi 60, 69, 74, 243 samyaksamkalpa 50, 74, 243 samyaksmrti 74, 243 sdmyogikagandha 159 samghdtaparimdriu 181 sanmilta 205 saiind 31, 37 n. 3, 39, 54 Santa 192 sdntatara 132 santatiparindma 163 fantha 169 ^ sdntvana 23', 26 sappatigha 153 sapratigha 153 saranatd 68 sarasato 206 sarvatraga 48 sarvatragatathatd 244 sasafikharena 88 sati 66 sa., 68, 86, m , 124, 202 satkayadrsti 90 n .i, 210, 224 sattvabheda 166 sattvdkhya 158 sattvavikalpabheda 166 saumanasya 61, 72, 210 n.2 scepticism 210, 214, 224 self 83 sq., 106, 139, 207, 229 self concept 229, 241 self improvement 83 sq. self-respect 74 sq., 77, 79, 90 sensation 39 sq., 52, 56 , pure 117 sense data 21 sense field 172 sense organ 35 sensibility 35 sq. 152 sensuality 210 Sensum Theory 151 sex 164 sq., 168 sq., 185, 210 sex organs 165 sexual activity 168 sexual border cases 169 sgyu. ma. Ita. bu'i tin.lie. dzin T . 191 n.i shape 156 sq. siddhdnta 179

i l i a 237 silabbatapardmasa 198 silavratapardmarsa 90 n .i, 210, 225 simultaneousness 224 skandha 54 smrti, 47 n. 1,5 9 sq ., 66, 69, 85, 124, 202, 210 n. 2, 219, 239 sq. smrUr upasthanam 219 n .i smrtyup0sthdna 2 17 , 2 ig n . 1, 237, 243n2. somanassa 25, 72 sotadasaka 186 sotapatti 93, 106 soul 5 n. 4 sound 158 sq. space 127 sq. sparSa 31, 32, sq ., 36 n. 3, 44, 162 spiritual exercises ig2 spraftavya 160 sraddha 59, 60 sq ., 63 sq., 1 15 , 123, 210 n. 2, 230, 240 sraddhddhimukta 230, 232, 235 sraddhdnusarin 230, 231 sq. sramanya 198 Sravaka 221 srota-apatta 213, 214, 222, 227, 229 srota-apatti 196 sruta 216 srutamaya 216 n. 3 sthiti 170 sthityanyathatva 170 stimulus 4 1, 42, 44 strain 84 strinariya 166 n. 1 structurance 182 sq ., 186, 189 structure 148 s q ., 165, 181 styana 91 n .i _ _ stydnamiddha 119 subha, subha 140 subject-object division 24 subjective disposition 24 subjective factor 23, 76 subsistence 30 suddha 204 suddha tthaka 184 suddhitas. go n. 1 sudurjayd 245 sukha 40, 51 sq. 55, 57 sq., 120, 124, 210 n. 2 sukhapatipada 126 sukhanimitta 205 sukhuma 50 sunHatd 204 sunya 204, 218 sunyata 15c sq., 204 sq, 206 sq. sunyatdiimoksa 204, 206 superworldly 142, 200 siirabhdva 75 sutamaya 216 n. 3 svabhava 5 n. 3, 218 sq. svabijapustyadhdnatafi 10

Svalaksana 218 s q .,2 3 8 svasamvitti 154 svasamvittibhdga 154 sym bolic activity 239 sym bolic expression 1 symbolism 131, 132 synthesis 212 taddrammana 26 sq. tjja 38, 48 takkana 49 tan gible 160 tanhd 120 T an tra 89, 104, 140, 150, 154, 193 240 taste 160 T ath aga ta ga rb h a 233 tatramajjhattatd 86 tejodhatu 184, 187 teleological explanation 87 temperament 101 sq ., 139 , intellectual 112 , possessive 114 , religious 114 sq. thaddha 84 thama 66 theistic 114 Theory o f M ind , Central 47 thesis 212 thlna g 1 n. 4 thinamiddha 84, 91 thitassa anno.thatta 169 tkiti 5g thun. mon T . i g i n .i thun. mon. m a .y in . p a T 191 n .i totality 33 sq ., 116 sq., 126 sq ., 136 tranquillity 85 transcendency 1 transcendental 22 transitoriness 81 transmigration 215 n.3 transparent 63 trimandaloparisitddhi 62 n. 2 trsna 59 Truths, Four 69, 202, 208, 223, tshad.med. T . 1 gQ n.4 tshans. p a T . 199 n. 4 tshanspa'i gnas pa T . 199 n. 4 ubhayatobhdgavimukta 232 ubhayatobhagavimuita 232 n. I uddhacca 82 n.2, 84, 93, 212 litidhnmbhdgiya 212 uggahanimitta 1 18 uh.ana 49 lijukata 85 . U ltim ate R eality 234 sq. unamana 91 n.3 unconscious continuum 26

34?

unconsciousness, induced 179 tayodhdtu 184, 187 understanding 78, 128 vedana 31, 36 sq., 37 n.3, 38, 44sq., , analytical appreciative 59, 74, 5 4 , 5 5 , 162, 218 138, 142 vedanabija 45 unity o f center 30 vedanaskandha 57 unnati 91 vicara 49 sq., 57, 120, 122 unreality experience 129 vicikifcha 93 unsatisfactoriness 222 sq. vicikttsa 93, 119, 210,-224 upacaya-samddhi 118 vihara 199 upacaya 171 visible object 27 upacayagamin 198 vijnana 20, 20, 153, 190 upacayasantati 171 vijnananantya 127, 130 upacita 20 vij nanaparinama 133 upadana 120 vijiiapti 162 upada-rupa 152 vimala 244 upadaya 181, 184 vimati 93 n.5 upadSya-rupa 152, 266 vimokkha 135 sq., 203 upadinna 148 sq., 188 vimoksa 135, 141, 142 n.4, 203 upadinnaka-santana 148 vimuktabhdva 92 upama 192 n.i vimvktimarga 215, 222, 227, 244 upasagga 33 n.3 vihhana 37 n. 3, 48 upasamd 112 vinndnakkhandha 48 updtta-mahdbhuta-hetuka 158 vinndnanca 127, 130 upekkhd log3 I24n 202 . vinndnancdyatana-sannasahagata 130 upeksa 45, 109, 124, 198 n. 4, 203 n. 4, vipaka 10, 22 210 n.2, 241 vipdkaheluka-manovinndna-dhdtu 24 upekhasatiparisuddhi 125 vipdka-manedhdtu, 25 uppdda 169 vipassand 85 143 n.2, 205, 208 urdhvabhdgiya 211 vipasyana 125 n.2 usmagata 220, 238 viraga 112 sq., 129 ussada 185 virakta 227 ussaha 66 viriya 202 ussothi 66 vtrya 61, 64, 202, 237 sg., 240, 241 utpdda 169 visesamdrga 215, 229, 244 4 utusamutthSna 186 vitakka/j-csq., uyyama 66 vitakkacarita 102, 137 vitarka 49, 51, 57, 74, 120, 122 volition 44 sq'. vdciduccaritavirati 86 votthapana 34 vdcivinnatti 158 vrddhi 147 vdgvijnopti 158 sq. vyanjana 33 n.3 vaibhutvika i6 i n.2 lyanjanakdya 179 vaisaradya 243 n.2 vyapada 119, 210 vajjha 213 tyavaddna Vajra 143 vyaya 169 Vajropama-samadhi 228, 246 vyuhana 147 value 103, 246 , maximum 220 vanna 184 will power 65 vannakasina 110 world 144, 148, 238 sq. varna 155 varndkrtsndyatana n o yasmim samaye 4 vdsana 20 tdsdnavptilabhe sati 10 yathaiyavasthdna 243 ye-a- vpanaka 15 5 vastu 120, 133 yoga 120, 180 vatthu 155, 175 yoni 167 vaithudasaka 186 n.2 yonisah pratipad 235 caya 75, 169 yuganaddha 85 vaydma 66

TABLES T h e f o l l o w in g t a b l e s d o n o t p r e t e n d t o e x h a u s t t h e t o p i c s in th e A b h id h a r m a . T h e y a r e o n ly m e a n t a s a g u id e . A s f a r a s p o s s i b l e I h a v e t r i e d to p r e s e r v e t h e d y n a m i c c h a r a c t e r o f t h e B u d d h i s t c o n c e p t i o n s .1

i . F o r the ta b u la tio n o f m en ta l events see p a r tic u la r ly A n a g a r ik a B G o v in d a , T h e P sy ch o lo g ica l A ttitu d e o f E a r ly B u d d h ist P h ilosop h y an d its system atic representation a c co rd in g to A b h id h a m m a tr a d itio n , P a tn a U n iv e r s ity 19 3 7, p p . 205 sq.

T he Structure o f M ind lini :

according

to the

A tthasa

M ind (citta), in centre, radiates into its states and functionevents as

I . ( 5 phassapancaka) : I I . (5 dhyana ) : III. IV .

(8 indriya') :

(5 m agga) :

V. V I. V II. V III.

(7 b ala) : (3 m u la ) : (5 k a m m a p a th a ) : (1 2 y u g a la k a ) :

IX . X.

(6 p ifth id u ka )

( 9 yevdpanaka) :

phassa, vedana, sanila, cetana, c itta ; vitakka, vicara, p iti, sukha, cittek a g g a td ; saddha, viriya, sati, samddhi, p a n n a , mano, samanassa, j i v i t a ; sam m aditthi, sammasankappa, sam mavdydma, sam m dsati, sam m dsam a d h i; saddha, viriya, sati, samddhi, p a n n a , hiri, ottappa ; alobha, adosa, am oha ; anabhijjhd, abydpada, sam m aditthi, hiri, ottappa ; kaya citta passaddhi, -lahutd, -m udutd , -kam m annata, -pagunnala, -u ju ka ta ; sati-sam pajarlna, sam atha-vipassana, paggdha avikkhepa ; chanda, adhimokkho, manasikdra, tatram ajjhattatd, karuna, mudita, kayaduccaritavirati, vaciduccaritavirati, m icchajivavirati

T h e i r i n t e r r e l a ti o n h a s b e e n i n d ic a te d b y a rro w s .

TA B LE B. T h e S tru c tu re o f M in d acco rd in g to th e A b h id h am m a tth a sa n g a h a :

M in d (citta), in -c e n tre , rad iates in to its states as I. (7 sa.dha.rana) : pkassa, vedana, saniid, cetana, ekaggatd, jivitindriya, manasikara;
(6 pakinnaka ) : vitakka, vicara, adhimokkha, viriya, piti,

II.

chanda;

III.

(1 3 sobkana ) :

IV . V, V I.

(3 vira ti) : (2 appamatia) : (1 p a n n a ) :

saddha, sati, hiri, ottappa, alobka, adosa, tatram ajjhattatd, K aya-cittapassaddhi, -lahuta, -m uduta, -kam m an n a ta , -pagunnata, -ujukata; kayaduccaritavirati, vaciduccaritavirati, m icchajivavirati; karuna, m uditd; panna

A g a in s t th e c o n c e p tio n o f M in d in th e A tth a s a lin i th e a b o v e r e p r e s e n ts a c e r ta in s im p lif ic a tio n w ith in c re a s in g r ig id i t y a n d n a rro w n e s s .

TABLES

265 T A B LE G.

T h e S tru c tu re o f M in d a cco rd in g to th e A b h id h arm ak o ia :

M in d (citta), in centre, rad iates in to its states as I. (10 mahdbhumika) : vedana, sarftjnd, cetana, sparta, chandas, mati, smrti, manaskdra, adhimukti, samddhi \

II.

(10 kuialamahabhum ika) : (2 aniyata) : (adhikarh kvacit) :

III. IV .

sraddha, apramada, prasrabdhi, upekfa, hri, apalrapya, alobha, advefa, avihirnsa, - virya; vicara, vitarka; kaukrtya N u m e ric a l

P o v e rty a n d rig id ity a re m o st conspicuous. lim ita tio n p ro v es disastrous to th e living sp irit.

T a b le D . T h e S ix te e n A sp e c ts o f th e F o u r T r u t h s : I t w ill b e o b se rv e d th a t th e n a m e s a n d th e ir g e n e ra l i n te r p r e ta tio n a r e th e sa m e w ith th e V a ib h a s ik a s (B h asy a a d A b h id h a r m a k o s a V I I 13) a n d V ijn a n a v a d in s (A b h id h a r m a s a m u c c a y a , p p . 38, 61 , 65, 77) . E x c e p t fo r tw o te rm s th e c o n c e p tio n o f th e T h e r a v a d in s (V is u d d h im a g g a X X I I 9 7 ) is e n tire ly d iffe re n t. V a ib h a s ik a - V ijn a n a v a d in s I. ( T r u th o f U n sa tisfa c to rin e s s ) im p e rm a n e n c e pilana U n s a tis fa c to ri- sankhata ness Sunya e m p tin e ss santdpa anatmaka n o n - in d iv id u a - viparinama lity ( u n r e a lity ) D uhkha anitya duhkha T h e ra v a d in s

s tra in c o n d itio n e d s ta te o f a ffairs to rm e n t change

II.

Sam udaya to rin e ss) : hetu samudaya prabhava pratyaya

( T r u th o f th e O r ig in a tio n o f U n sa tisfa c

m o tiv e -p o w e r o rig in a tio n p o w erfu ln ess c o n d itio n in g fo rc e

ay uhana niddna samyoga palibodha

in s tig a tio n re la tio n c o n n e x io n im p e d im e n t

III.

N ir o d h a rin e s s ) : nirodha Santa pran.ita

( T r u th o f th e A n n ih ila tio n o f U n s a tis fa c to

d is a p p e a r a n c e peace e x a lte d n e ss

nissarana viveka asankhata

nihsarana

e sc a p e

amata

escap e d & ta c h m e n t u n c o n d itio n ed s ta te o f affa irs im m o rta lity