Conversion Strategies

Wood and most other biomass fuels are composed primarily of cellulose and moisture. The high proportion of moisture is significant because it acts as a heat sink during the combustion process. The latent heat of evaporation depresses flame temperature, taking heat energy away from steam production, and contributing to the difficulty of efficiently burning biomass fuels. Cellulose, in addition to containing the chemical energy released in combustion, contains fuel-bound oxygen. This oxygen decreases the theoretical air requirements for combustion and, accordingly, the amount of nitrogen included in the products of combustion.

24

Drying of Biomass
Biomass can be considered as a source of charcoal and water

CH1.4O0.6 = CH 0.2 0.6( H 2O)

Harvested wood has greater weight of water than the weight of the wood itself The total amount of water in a given piece of biomass is called its moisture content (MC) Intrinsic moisture (bounded Water) moisture content of the material without influence of the weather Extrinsic moisture (free water) Influence of prevailing weather conditions during harvest on the overall biomass moisture content The MC percent of wood can be greater than 100%

25

Water Content Versus Moisture Content

The general range of moisture content for green (un-dried) hardwood lumber can range between 45% and 150%.

CH 1.4O0.6 = CH 0.2 0.6( H 2O)

MC Chemical Moisture = Fuel Weight
= 0 .6[ 2 (1) + 16 ] (100 %) = 47 % 12 + 0 .2 (1) + 0 .6[ 2 (1) + 16 ]

MT =

Fuel

Moisture + Chemical Wet Fuel Weight

Moisture

(100 M C ) = MC + MF 100

= 47 + 0.53M F

26

Moisture Content of Some Biomass

27

Particle Size and Shape

Mass v.s. Surface area
radius = 1 Surface = 12.57 Volume = 4.2 radius= 2 Surface = 50 Volume = 33.5

Same volume, different shapes Surface = 600 Volume = 1000

Surface = 4090 Volume = 1000

2r
0.5 50 10 40

Surface / Volume = 3

Surface/ Volume = 1.5

Surface / volume = 0.6

Surface/volume = 4.1

28

Shape and Bulk of Biomass Energy

29

Drying Time
Energy balance on a small particle

dH e = A p (Tb4 T p4 ) + hA p (T g T p ) dt dH = mwi Cp (373 Ti ) + mwi h fg

t dry

mwi Cp (373 Ti ) + mwi h fg dH = = dH e A (T 4 T 4 ) + hA (T T ) p b p p g p

Radiative and convective heattransfer

Mass transportoff-gasing

Heat conduction in particle

Moisture transport inside the particle and away from the surface
30

Exhaust Gas Drying

Continues drying by Stack gases
Hot air or stack gases contact biomass as it enters the boiler The stack gas (exhaust gas) contain 15 wt% moisture at almost 250 C Limited amount of moisture could be removed

WG = drying .gas.weight.kg / h M = water.evaporated .kg / h Ti = temperature.of .drying .gas.entering.o C To = temperature.of .drying .gas.leaving.o C

WG = (2940 M ) / Ti To

Power as Function of MC
= fuel flow [kg/s] Hcd = higher calorific heat value [kJ/kg], (18940 kJ/kg) P = Effect [kW] f f = moisture content [%] h = Latent heat of combustion water [kJ/kg], (2260 kJ/kg)]

P ( f f ) = m* (( Hcd * (1 f f )) (h * f f ))

31

Exercise
13. Calculate the moisture content if the fuel has 300 g water per kg gram of the fuel and it has a chemical formula of C6H7O(OH)5 . 14. Calculate the available power and power lost as function of moisture content for a fuel. 15. In a biomass fired boiler, the stack gases contain 15 wt% moisture and that the temperature 250C, calculate the additional moisture which can be removed before the gas become fully saturated. 16. Comment on whether ash or moisture would help or hinder the combustion of wood in a furnace.

32

Ultimate Analysis

Proximity Analysis

33

Direct Combustion
The principal categories of biomass conversion technologies for power and heat production are direct-fired and gasification systems. The two most commonly used types of boilers for biomass firing are stoker boilers and fluidized bed boilers. Biomass power systems are typically below 50MW in size (coal-fired: 100to 1,000-MW range). Cofiring involves substituting biomass for a portion of the coal in an existing power plant boiler. It is the most economic near-term option for introducing new biomass power generation. Because much of the existing power plant equipment can be used without major modifications, cofiring is far less expensive than building a new biomass power plant. Compared to the coal it replaces, biomass reduces SO2, NOx, CO2, and other air emissions.

34

Direct Fired Systems, Stoker (Fixed Bed)

Stoker boilers employ direct fire combustion of solid fuels with excess air, producing hot flue gases, which then produce steam in the heat exchange section of the boiler. Modern mechanical stokers consist of four elements, 1) a fuel admission system, 2) a stationary or moving grate assembly that supports the burning fuel and provides a pathway for the primary combustion air, 3) an overfire air system that supplies additional air to complete combustion and minimize atmospheric emissions, and 4) an ash discharge system. There are two general types of systemsunderfeed and overfeed.

35

Direct Fired Systems, Stoker

Underfeed stokers supply both the fuel and air from under the grate, while overfeed stokers supply fuel from above the grate and air from below. Overfeed stokers are further divided into two types: mass feed and spreader. In the mass feed stoker, fuel is continuously fed onto one end of the grate surface and travels horizontally across the grate as it burns.

Cross Section of Underfeed, Side-Ashv Discharge Stoker

Cross Section of Overfeed, Water-Cooled, Vibrating-Grate, Mass-Feed Stoker

36

Fluidized Bed Boilers

In this method of combustion, fuel is burned in a bed of hot inert, or incombustible, particles suspended by an upward flow of combustion air that is injected from the bottom of the combustor to keep the bed in a floating or fluidized state. The fluidized bed combustion process provides a means for efficiently mixing fuel with air for combustion. When fuel is introduced to the bed, it is quickly heated above its ignition temperature, ignites, and becomes part of the burning mass

37

Packed Bed Combustion Processes

38

Solid Fuel Combustion Processes Overfeed Bed

Thin bed - primary product CO2 Thick bed - ( > 8 particles thick) primary product CO - essentially a gasifier Volatiles almost always burn above bed with secondary air Stoichiometry of an overfeed bed is determined ONLY by bed thickness. Changing air flow only changes combustion rate, not stoichiometry!
39

Solid Fuel Combustion Processes, Underfeed Bed

Stoichiometry of bed changes sharply with air flow (unlike overfeed bed) Smaller particles operating diagram shifts to higher combustion rates while roughly preserving stoichiometry
40

Co-Firing Concepts
Energy production in coal-fired power plants by partial substitution of coal, as the main fuel, with biomass feedstock is called co-firing. Three basic types co-firing in power plants can be identified
direct co-firing, In this option biomass (a secondary fuel) enters the boiler together with coal (primary fuel). indirect co-firing, In this option biomass is gasified (or combusted) separately and the produced gas is injected and burned in the coal boiler parallel co-firing, In this option biomass is combusted in a separate (from coal) boiler, supplying steam to a common header.

41

Co-firing

A coal fired boiler is going to be revamp to be a coring boiler. To begin 5% of the coal will be replaced by wood calculate the Percentage output from wood. assumed efficiencies of the two fuels, 33% and 36% for wood and coal respectively. FUEL 1: Wood 5% by weight: FUEL 2: Coal 95% by weight: Electrical energy output from Electrical energy output from 15 GJ/t 25 GJ/t wood = 0.05 x 15 x 0.33 = 0.2475 GJ/t fuel coal = 0.95 x 25 x 0.36 = 8.550 GJ/t fuel

Total electrical output = 0.2475 + 8.550 = 8.7975 GJ/t fuel Percentage output from coal = 8.550 / 8.7975 = 97.2% Percentage output from wood = 0.2475 / 8.7975 = 2.8%
42

Exercise
A coal fired boiler is going to be revamp to be a coring boiler. To begin, 5% of the coal will be replaced by sewage sludge. Calculate the percentage output from sewage sludge. Assumed efficiencies of the two fuels, 33% and 36% for sewage sludge and coal respectively. Sewage sludge 5% by weight Gross heating value 4.0 GJ/t Moisture content 60% as received

43

Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is a form of incineration that chemically decomposes organic materials by heat in the absence of oxygen. Pyrolysis typically occurs under pressure and at operating temperatures above 430 C Organic materials are transformed into gases, small quantities of liquid, and a solid residue containing carbon and ash. Several types of pyrolysis units are available, including the rotary kiln, rotary hearth furnace, or fluidized bed furnace. These units are similar to incinerators except that they operate at lower temperatures and with less air supply. Kinetic Models relying on three parallel reactions, represented by below Pyrolysis can be controlled by chemical reactions, heat transfer, and/or mass transfer

44

Kinetic Scheme of Biomass Pyrolysis

The chemical rate constants are supposed to obey Arrhenius-type laws:

k = A exp( E / RT )

kinetic Parameter (1/s) kG kV kC

Activation energy (J/mol) 140 000 133000 121000

Pre exponential factor (1/s) 1.30E+08 2.00E+08 1.08E+07

45

Dimensionless Number
Internal heat transfer by conduction Internal mass transfer by diffusion Internal mass transfer by convection External heat transfer

t hc = C p L2 /

t dm = L2 /D f
tcm = L2 f /Pf K f

t ht = C p L / h

Devolatilization Time Correlation

tv = ad
a is 1.84 s/mm n is about 1.5 dP is particle diameter

n p

46

Gasification
Gasification is a term that describes a chemical process by which carbonaceous (hydrocarbon) materials (coal, petroleum coke, biomass, etc.) are converted to a synthesis gas (syngas) by means of partial oxidation with air, oxygen, and/or steam.

Modern gasification technologies generally operate as follows:

A hydrocarbon feedstock is fed into a high-pressure, hightemperature chemical reactor (gasifier) containing steam and a limited amount of oxygen. Under these reducing conditions, the chemical bonds in the feedstock are severed by the extreme heat and pressure and a syngas is formed. This syngas is primarily a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The syngas is then cleansed using commercially available and proven systems that remove particulates, sulfur, and trace metals (e.g. mercury).

47

Syngas

48

Gasification Technology
Basic Gasifier Types

Diagram of downdraft gasification

lmbert (nozzle and constricted hearth)

gasifierDiagram of updraft gasification

The future improvements to gasifiers will be based on

a better understanding of the basic processes, improved measurements of gasifier behavior and better regulation of fuel properties

49

Efficiency of Gasification Exercise

cg =
LHVgas .Vgas LHV fuel . m fuel
. .

*100%

Example: 1 kg of wood produces 1.5 m3 of gas with average calorific value of 5.4 MJ/m3. Average calorific value of wood (dry) is 19.8 MJ/kg. Calculate the efficiency of the gasifire.

50

Suspension mod
Fluidized beds more than 40 GJ(thermal)/h and smaller particle feedstock sizes. Above the bed itself the vessel increases in diameter, lowering the gas velocity and causing particles to recirculate. The recirculation results in high heat and mass transfer between particle and gas stream Suspended particle gasifiers move a suspension of biomass particles through a hot furnace, causing pyrolysis, combustion, and reduction to give producer gas. Neither fluidized bed nor suspended particle gasifiers have been developed for small-scale engine use.

51

The Crossdraft Gasifier

It is the simplest and lightest gasifier. Air enters at high velocity through a single nozzle, induces substantial circulation, and flows across the bed of fuel and char. This produces very high temperatures in a very small volume and results in production of a low-tar gas, permitting rapid adjustment to engine load changes. The fuel and ash serve as insulation for the walls of the gasifier

52

The Crossdraft Gasifier

Air-cooled or water-cooled nozzles are often required. The high temperatures reached require a low-ash fuel to prevent slagging

The crossdraft gasifier is generally considered suitable only for low-tar fuels. Some success has been observed with unpyrolyzed biomass, but the nozzle-to-grate spacing is critical (Das 1986). Unscreened fuels that do not feed into the gasifier freely are prone to bridging and channeling, and the collapse of bridges fills the

53

Description of the Downdraft (Imbert) Gasifier

About one-third of the way up from the bottom, there is a set of radially directed air nozzles the incoming air burns and pyrolyzes some of the wood, most of the tars and oils, and some of the charcoal that fills the gasifier below the nozzles The diameter of the pyrolysis zone at the air nozzles is typically about twice that at the throat

54

Description of the Downdraft (Imbert) Gasifier

After the combustion/pyrolysis of wood and hot char at the nozzle level, the resulting hot combustion gases (C02 and H20) pass into this hot char where they are partially reduced to the fuel gases CO and H2 Tars that have escaped combustion at the nozzle may crack further in the hot char although tar cracking is now thought to occur only above about 850C High-grade charcoal is an attractive fuel for gasifiers because producer gas from charcoal, which contains very little tar and condensate, is the simplest gas to clean.

55

Superficial Velocity, Hearth Load, and Gasifier Sizing

Superficial velocity, Vs," of the gas calculated where it passes through the narrowest part of the gasification zone Although the units of Vs are length/ time (e.g., m/s), one should think of the superficial velocity as gas production expressed in terms of gas volume/cross-sectional area-time [m3/m2-s), a specific gas production rate. the maximum hearth load, Bh, expressed in gas volume/ hearth area, h

56

Superficial Velocity, Hearth Load, and Gasifier Sizing

Turndown ratio" the ratio of the highest
practical gas generation rate to the lowest practical rate Vehicle operation requires turndown ratios of at least 8:1, making the need for insulation and proper sizing in high-turndown applications apparent

57

Disadvantages of the lmbert Design

The hearth constriction seriously limits the range of biomass fuel shapes that can be successfully gasified without expensive cubing or pelletizing pretreatment It requires a high-grade, usually hardwood, fuel, generally at least 2 cm along the smallest dimension with no more than 20% moisture The Imbert design cannot be scaled-up to larger sizes because the air enters at the sides and is incapable of penetrating a large-diameter fuel bed unless the fuel size is increased proportionally

58

The Stratified Downdraft Gasifier

"open-top or "topless gsifire with a hearth on the bottom Air reacts with pyrolyzing biomass in the second zone, and most of the volatile wood oil is burned to supply heat for this pyrolysis, "flaming pyrolysis

Adiabatic char gasification

59

Tar-Cracking Gasifiers
The cost of the gas cleanup system needed for engine use generally exceeds the cost of the gasifier Combustion of Tars

Downdraft center nozzle gas producer

The DeLaCotte tar-recycling gasifier

60

Thermal Tar Cracking

Temperatures above 800C rapidly crack the primary pyrolysis oils to olefins and aromatic compounds While high temperatures (above 800C) can destroy tars rapidly, these same high temperatures also promote reaction with char, which in turn rapidly quenches the gas to 800C Therefore, the time available for tar cracking in a bed of hot charcoal is very short

Transparent gasifier and tar reformer

61

Producer Gas for Transportation

Transportation applications system must be small, lightweight, and compact; operate at widely varying load conditions; have fast response times; be low in tar; be low in cost; be safe; and be convenient to use and service Updraft and fluidized-bed gasifiers have the slowest response times of the gasifier types and cannot be expected to follow changing loads with favorable results The gas from both updraft and fluidized-bed gasifiers also contains large quantities of tars, making these gasifier types unsuitable for engine

62

Sizing the Gas Producer to the engine

The average vehicle engine power required from a gasifier may be figured from the gasoline mileage at cruising speeds: Power (hp) = Cruising speed (km/h) x Conversion (hp-h/liter) /Gasoline mileage at cruising speed (km/liter) Gasifiers typically require about 3 kg of wood or 1.3 kg of charcoal to replace one liter of gasoline. Thus, it is possible to calculate wood consumption rates

63

Producer Gas for Transportation

The fastest response time is obtained from crossdraft gas producers, but they are suitable only for low-tar fuels such as charcoal Downdraft gas producers provide a low-tar gas product from biomass and also have a rapid response time, so they are suited for powering engines with either varying or fixed loads. A common problem among gasifiers is the use of an oversized gasifier. An oversized gasifier produces excessive tars because lower flow rates do not develop the high temperatures necessary for good tar destruction. An undersized gasifier has excessive pressure drop, weak gas, and excessive raw gas temperature, and may be prone to burning out the grate.

64

Gasification
On an average 1 kg of biomass produces about 2.5 m3 of producer gas. In this process it consumes about 1.5 m3 of air for combustion. For complete combustion of wood about 4.5 m3 of air is required. Thus biomass gasification consumes about 33% of theoretical stoichiometeric ratio for wood burning.

The average energy conversion efficiency of wood gasifiers is about 60-70% an is defined as:

65

Devolatilisation
Removal of bound moisture and some volatiles Breakdown of hemi-cellulose: emission of CO CO2 Exothermic reaction causing the wood temperature to rise from 250 to 350C; emission of methane and ethane External energy is required to continue the process

The rate of mass loss during devolatilisation

dmv = Amv exp( E / RT ) dt

mv= mass of volitiles remaining (kg) A = Arrhenius constant E= Activation energy (kj/kmol) R= universal gas constant (kj/kmol-K) T= Temperature (K)
66

Exercise
18. The ultimate and proximate analysis of the biomass in question is given below. Assume that gas consist of CH4, H2, and CO and that all O is consumed during devolatilization process.

Name

Ash%

C%

H%

O%

N%

S%

Release of C during Devolatiliz ation %

Release of H during Devolatiliza tion %

Release of O during Devolatiliz ation %

Biomass

1.4%

55%

11.4%

32.5%

0.9%

0.2%

90%

100%

85%

67

68

Exercise
A stock of biomass (waste wood) is found to have a sulfur content of 0.1 wt% (dry basis) and a heating value on dry basis of 2.4 MJ/kg. This fuel will be used to replace a subbitumus coal which has sulfur content of 1.0 % (dry basis) but a heating value (dry basis) of 38 MJ/kg. By how much will the emission of sulfur dioxide in kg per MJ, be lowered when the coal is replaced by the biomass.

69

Exercise
A small wood particle has a temperature of 800 K. Find the time required to devolatilise 90% of the volatile mass, assuming that it follows a first order reaction and with Arrhenius constant (A)=7.E+7 and activation energy (E)=125kJ/mole. Using the equation for a first order reaction

dmv = Amv exp( E / RT) dt

Integrating

m v2

m v1

t2 dmv = dt mv Aexp(- E / RT) t1

m v2 ln m v1 = t t 2 1 Aexp(- E/RT)
70

 Since, mv2 = 0.1 mv total & mv1 = mv total Substituting

0.1 m v total ln m v total = t2 0 7 7 x10 exp(-125,000/8.314/8 00)

Thus: time (t2) required is 4.78 sec

71

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