94

E + + + + n + +

4.

Lasers

Eex +

Fig. 4.27

Forward-biased p-n junction.

external voltage source is connected to the p region, and the positive one to the n region, the p-n junction is said to be reverse biased (Fig. 4.28). The reverse-biased junction is employed in voltaic and photoconductive photodiodes, as well as in the avalanche photodiodes described in the next section.

4.8.2. Diode Lasers The simplest light-emitting diode (LED) is the forward biased p-n junction discussed in the previous chapter. The external forward biased voltage applied to the p-n junction forces holes from the p-region and conduction electrons from the n-region towards the junction. The movement of the charge carriers in the opposite directions creates an electric current through the device, and recombination of the electrons and the holes at the junction. The energy gained in the recombination can be released as non-selective heat (silicon and germanium semiconductors) or as light (GaAs), with the energy of photons being equal to the gap E between the valence band and the conduction band. The different patterns of relaxation by radiative or radiationless decay depend on the band-gain structure. Semiconductor materials with a direct band gap dissipate the recombination energy mostly as light, in contrast to semiconductors with an indirect band gap in which the energy is released mostly as heat. The radiative way of releasing energy is observed in materials that belong to the IIIV groups of elements, as well as in some materials from the IIVI groups. The distinct paths of relaxation originate from the fact that the conduction-electrons and the holes experience separate dynamics in various materials. In the direct-band gain
E p + + + n + + Eex + +

Fig. 4.28

Reverse-biased p-n junction.

4.8.

Diode Lasers

95

semiconductor, the momentum of an electron returning from the bottom of the conduction band to the top of the valence band changes very little. This is in contrast to a semiconductor with the indirect band gap, where this electronic transition is accompanied by a significant shift in the momentum. In principle, a semiconductor laser (also known as a diode laser) can be obtained from a LED in which population-inversion is achieved. The diode laser requires much higher current densities than an LED to reach the laser threshold (Fig. 4.29). The population-inversion between the conduction and valence bands is achieved by applying a strong forward-bias across the device, to inject a large number of electrons and holes into the junction. Operating under the conditions of population inversion means that the number of recombination events considerably exceeds the number of electron-hole pairs generated. To achieve greater efficiency, some kind of optical feedback is neededas in the other lasers we have described so far. Usually, two opposing crystal faces cleaved perpendicularly to the junction play the role of an optical cavity, just like mirrors in conventional lasers. Therefore, the light emitted on the p-n junction is reflected on the diode edge, and turns back to the junction again: additional electrons and holes are produced with electrons jumping from the valence band to the conduction band. The electrons again recombine with the holes under an applied forward-bias voltage: they return to the valence band, emitting light having energy equal to the difference, E, between the valence band and the conduction band. Moreover, the optical feedback between the cleaved parallel facets produces a more directional, coherent beam of light from the junction planein contrast to an LED, which emits in nearly all directions. The simplest laser diode is shown in Fig. 4.30. The earliest diode lasers, shown in Fig. 4.30, were a simple p-n junction and required extremely high current densities to reach a laser threshold. Although the first semiconductor laser was built in 1962, many years elapsed before the technology matured enough to meet the demands of real-world applications. The first diode lasers had to operate only in a pulsed regime under cryogenic cooling. Better performance was attained by inserting a few layers of a semiconductor material, instead of the simple p-n junction described above. The first continuous wave operation at room temperature was achieved in 1970.

Light intensity

Diode laser LED Threshold Current

Fig. 4.29 Scheme illustrating the difference between the light-emitting diode (LED) and the diode laser.

96
Cleaved facet +
p

4.

Lasers

Laser emission
n

Laser emission

Junction

Fig. 4.30

Laser diode scheme.

The cw operation becomes possible through the advent of the technology of double heterostructures. A huge variety of diode laser architectures exists, and the differences result from technological constructions to confine a carrier, current, or light inside the cavity. The first laser diode looked something like the device shown in Fig. 4.30. Since the early 1960s, when the first laser diodes were developed, semiconductor lasers have evolved significantly, invoking sophisticated semiconductor fabrication techniques. Several junctions of different materials are used in these designsnot just a single junction as shown in Fig. 4.30. Some types of diode lasers are shown in Fig. 4.31. Besides the classification in Fig. 4.31 we can distinguish lasers in which the interatomic distances of the crystalline layers that are grown on the substrate are perfectly matched to the crystal lattice of the substrate, and others that are based on large deviations (about 1%) from the size of the substrate crystal lattice, producing so-called strained layers material. In order to achieve a performance goal equaling the reliability and stability of other lasers, the diode lasers required some important improvements. First, there was a need to reduce heat while maintaining a population inversion. Secondly, to improve the beams quality and divergence. Third, to provide higher power levels
Diode lasers

Edge-emitting

Surface-emitting

Double-heterostructure

Planar-cavity Vertical-cavity surface-emitting surface-emitting (PCSEL) (VCSEL)

Stripe geometry

Index-guided

Gain-guided

SQW

QC

MQW

SQW

MQW

QC

Fig. 4.31 Diode lasers; SQWsingle quantum wells, MQWmultiple quantum wells, QCquantum cascade.

4.8.

Diode Lasers

97

while maintaining a single transverse mode output. Fourth, to control the wavelength of the output. The first goal can be achieved by increasing the effectiveness of population inversion at a given current or/and by reducing the current-flow into a small region. The double heterostructure architecture in Fig. 4.32a helps to confine charge carriers, and enhances population inversion. A double heterostructure junction consists of a very thin p-type layer (approximately 0.2 mm) of a direct-band-gap material having a smaller band-gain than the thicker p-type and n-type layers above and below it. When a forward-biased voltage is applied to this p-p-n junction, holes and electrons are injected from the outer regions into a central active layer, where they become trapped in the potential well created by the wider-band-gain materials. Carrier confinement into a small volume increases population-inversion, which means a higher efficiency, lower threshold current, less heat, and more light. This effect can be enhanced by adding current confinement to the double heterostructure. One way to introduce the current confinement is to use a stripe electrode instead of a wide

(a) + p-type active layer

P N (b) + SiO2 Metal

P N (c) + SiO2 Metal

p-type active layer

N N n Metal

p-type active layer

Fig. 4.32 (a) the basic double heterostructure diode; (b) gain-guided, striped geometry diode; (c) index-guided, striped geometry diode [9].