Ch. 7.

Mechanical Properties

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 Stresses
• Simple tension: cable
F F
Ao = cross sectional
Area (when unloaded)
F
σ= σ σ
Ao
Ski lift
• Simple shear: drive shaft
M Fs Ao
Ac τ
Fs
τ =
M Ao
2R Note: t = M/AcR here.
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 Stresses
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

F Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches σ= structure member
National Park Ao (σ < 0 here).

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6
 Stresses

• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water

σθ > 0

σz > 0 s h< 0
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7
 Stress and Strain

Tensile Compressive

Torsion
Shear

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 ENGINEERING STRESS

• Tensile stress, σ: • Shear stress, τ:

Ft Ft F

Area, A Area, A Fs

Fs
Ft Ft
σ= Fs Ft
τ= F
Ao Ao
original area
before loading Stress has units:
N/m2 or lb/in2
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 The stress state is a function of the orientations of the
planes upon which the stresses are taken to act.

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 ENGINEERING STRAIN
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
δ/2
−δ
ε = δ εL = L
Lo Lo wo
wo
δ/2
δL/2 δL/2
• Shear strain:
θ/2

γ = tan θ Strain is always

dimensionless.
π/2 - θ

π/2 θ/2
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 Tensile Stress-Strain Testing

• Typical tensile specimen

• Typical tensile
test machine
load cell

specimen
extensometer

moving cross head

• Other types of tests:

--compression: brittle
materials (e.g., concrete)
--torsion: cylindrical tubes,
shafts.
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 Elastic Deformation

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
δ
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
δ
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 Plastic Deformation (Metals)

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

δplastic
δelastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
δ
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 YOUNG’S MODULI: COMPARISON
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000
Eceramics
Diamond
800
600
400 Tungsten
Si carbide
Al oxide Carbon fibers only
> Emetals
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum
Platinum
<111>
Si crystal
CFRE(|| fibers)* >> Epolymers
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold Glass-soda AFRE(|| fibers)*
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
Magnesium, GFRE(|| fibers)*
40 Tin
Concrete

10 9 Pa
σ= E ε
20 GFRE*
CFRE*
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10
8 CFRE( fibers)*
6 AFRE( fibers)*
Polyester
4 PET

2 PC
PS
Epoxy only
E: Young’s
PP
1
0.8
0.6
HDPE

Wood( grain)
Modulus
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE

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 Linear Elastic Properties

• Modulus of Elasticity, E: σ
(also known as Young's modulus) E F
• Hooke's Law: 1 ε
σ=Eε Linear-
elastic
• Poisson's ratio, ν: εL
ν = − εL
ε
metals: ν ~ 0.33
ε F
ceramics: ~0.25 -ν simple
polymers: ~0.40 1 tension
test
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
ν: dimensionless
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 Example
A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a cylindrical
brass rod that has a diameter of 10 mm. Determine the magnitude of
the load required to produce a 2.5 x 10-3 mm change in diameter if the
F deformation is entirely elastic

− 2 .5× 10 − 3
Lateral strain: ε x = = − 2.5 × 10 − 4
Δd
d0 = 10
Negative sign: the diameter is reduced

10 mm Poisson’s ratio:
εx εx − 2.5× 10− 4
ν=− εz ⇒ εz = − ν =− 0.34 = 7.35 × 10 − 4

σ = ε z E = 7.35 × 10 − 4 × 97 × 10 3 MPa = 713

. MPa
10× 10 − 3 2
F = σ × A0 = σ ( ) π = 713
. × 10 × ( ) π=
d0 2 6
Δd=2.5 x 10-3 2 2
mm
Brass
5600 N = 1293lb
Rod
F

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 Elastic Deformation

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 The Origin of Elastic Strain

Fig. 2.8

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 The Origin of Elastic Strain

• E ~ curvature at ro
Energy

unstretched length
ro
r
smaller Elastic Modulus

larger Elastic Modulus

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 OTHER ELASTIC PROPERTIES

τ M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G:
G simple
1 γ torsion
τ=Gγ test

M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
ΔV ΔV P P
P= -K Vo
Vo -K pressure
test: Init.
1 vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= ΔV
E E
G= K=
2(1 + ν) 3(1 − 2ν)
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 Temperature Dependence of Young’s Modulus

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 Plastic deformation

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 Yielding
• Most structures are designed only for elastic deformation.
• When plastic deformation begins, the phenomenon of yielding
occurs.
• Plastic deformation: permanent, nonrecoverable deformation. For
metals, it is accompanied by a process called slip, which involves
the motion of dislocations.

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 Yield Strength
Plastic deformation starts

Proportional
Limit

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 Tensile Strength

Necking

Fracture

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 Example

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 DUCTILITY, %EL

Ductility: A measure of the degree of plastic deformation

that has been sustained at fracture.
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = L f − L o x100
(percent elongation) Lo
(function of Lo (typically, Lo= 50mm)
smaller %EL
Engineering (brittle if %EL<5%)
tensile
stress, σ
Ao
larger %EL Lo Af Lf
(ductile if
%EL>5%)

Engineering tensile strain, ε

• Another ductility measure: Ao − A f
%AR = x100
(percent reduction in area) Ao
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 Temperature Dependence of Ductility

For Iron

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 Resilience

The capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed

elastically and then, upon unloading, to have this energy recovered.

Modulus of Resilience Ur:

The strain energy per unit volume
required to stress a materials form an
unloaded state up to the point of yielding.
Unit: J/m3 or in.-lbf/in.3

Eq. (7.13) & (7.14)

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 Toughness

A measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy up to fracture

Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)

tensile larger toughness
stress, σ (metals, PMCs)

smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers

Engineering tensile strain, ε

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 1. Which will experience the greatest percent reduction in area?

2. Which is the strongest?

3. Which is the stiffest?

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 True stress and strain

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 Elastic recovery after plastic deformation

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 ceramics

Flexural strength, fracture

strength, bend strength,
modulus of rupture

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 Influence of porosity on Young’s modulus

For aluminum oxide at room temperature

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 Influence of porosity on the flexural strength

For aluminum oxide at room temperature

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 polymers

brittle

plastic

highly elastic (elastomeric)

The mechanical characteristics of polymers are highly sensitive to the

rate of deformation (strain rate), the temperature, and the chemical nature
of the environment.
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 Stress-strain curve for a plastic polymer

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 Temperature dependence

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Tensile stress-strain curve for a semicrystalline
polymer

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Deformation of a semicrystalline polymer

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 Elastic deformation

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 Viscous behavior

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 viscoelastic

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 HARDNESS
A measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation

apply known force measure size

e.g., (1 to 1000g) of indent after
10mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness

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 Minor load: 10 kg

Ex: 80 HRB

Minor load: 3 kg
Ex: 60 HR30W

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 Comparison of several hardness scales

For steels
Hardness conversion
depends on material

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 Correlation Between Hardness and Tensile Strength

Both tensile strength and

hardness are indicators of a
metal’s resistance to plastic
deformation.

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