STATIC Static routing is not really a protocol, simply the process of manually entering routes into the routing

table via a configuration file that is loaded when the routing device starts up. As an alternative, these routes can be enterd by a network administrator who configures the routes. Since these routes don't change after they are configured (unless a human changes them) they are called 'static' routes. Static routing is the simplest form of routing, but it is a manual process and does not work well when the routing information has to be changed frequently or needs to be configfured on a large number of routing devices (routers). Static routing also does not handle outages or down connections well because any route that is configured manually must be reconfigured manually to fix or repair any lost connectivity. DYNAMIC Dynamic routing protocols are software applications that dynamically discover network destinations and how to get to them. A router will 'learn' routes to all directly connected networks first. It will then learn routes from other routers that run the same routing protocol. The router will then sort through it's list of routes and select one or more 'best' routes for each network destination it knows or has learned. Dynamic protocols will then distribute this 'best route' information to other routers running the same routing protocol, thereby extending the information on what networks exist and can be reached. This gives dynamic routing protocols the ability to adapt to logical network topology changes, equipment failures or network outages 'on the fly'. Message Switching Message Switching, also known as store-and-forward switching, refers to a switching technique involving transmission of messages from node to node through a network. The message is stored at each node until such time as a forwarding path is available. Ethernet is a family of frame-based computer networking technologies for local area networks (LANs). The name comes from the physical concept of the ether. It defines a number of wiring and signaling standards for the Physical Layer of the OSI networking model, through means of network access at the Media Access Control (MAC) /Data Link Layer, and a common addressing format. IEEE 802.3 is a collection of IEEE standards defining the Physical Layer and Data Link Layer's media access control (MAC) sublayer of wired Ethernet. This is generally a LAN technology with some WAN applications. Physical connections are made between nodes and/or infrastructure devices (hubs, switches, routers) by various types of copper or fiber cable.

Ethernet: IEEE 802.3 Local Area Network (LAN) protocols Ethernet protocols refer to the family of local-area network (LAN) covered by the IEEE 802.3. In the Ethernet standard, there are two modes of operation: half-duplex and full-duplex modes. In the half duplex mode, data are transmitted using the popular Carrier-Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) protocol on a shared medium. The main disadvantages of the half-duplex are the efficiency and distance limitation, in which the link distance is limited by the minimum MAC frame size. This restriction reduces the efficiency drastically for high-rate transmission. Therefore, the carrier extension technique is used to ensure the minimum frame size of 512 bytes in Gigabit Ethernet to achieve a reasonable link distance. The Ethernet system consists of three basic elements: 1. the physical medium used to carry Ethernet signals between computers, 2. a set of medium access control rules embedded in each Ethernet interface that allow multiple computers to fairly arbitrate access to the shared Ethernet channel, and 3. an Ethernet frame that consists of a standardized set of bits used to carry data over the system. As with all IEEE 802 protocols, the ISO data link layer is divided into two IEEE 802 sublayers, the Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer and the MAC-client sublayer. The IEEE 802.3 physical layer corresponds to the ISO physical layer. The MAC sub-layer has two primary responsibilities: Data encapsulation, including frame assembly before transmission, and frame parsing/error detection during and after reception Media access control, including initiation of frame transmission and recovery from transmission failure

The MAC-client sub-layer may be one of the following: Logical Link Control (LLC), which provides the interface between the Ethernet MAC and the upper layers in the protocol stack of the end station. The LLC sublayer is defined by IEEE 802.2 standards. Bridge entity, which provides LAN-to-LAN interfaces between LANs that use the same protocol (for example, Ethernet to Ethernet) and also between different protocols (for example, Ethernet to Token Ring). Bridge entities are defined by IEEE 802.1 standards.

Each Ethernet-equipped computer operates independently of all other stations on the network: there is no central controller. All stations attached to an Ethernet are connected to a shared signaling system, also called the medium. To send data a station first listens to the channel, and when the channel is idle the station transmits its data in the form of an Ethernet frame, or packet. After each frame transmission, all stations on the network must contend equally for the next frame transmission opportunity. Access to the shared channel is determined by the medium access control (MAC) mechanism embedded in the Ethernet interface located in each station. The medium access control mechanism is based on a system called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).

As each Ethernet frame is sent onto the shared signal channel, all Ethernet interfaces look at the destination address. If the destination address of the frame matches with the interface address, the frame will be read entirely and be delivered to the networking software running on that computer. All other network interfaces will stop reading the frame when they discover that the destination address does not match their own address. When it comes to how signals flow over the set of media segments that make up an Ethernet system, it helps to understand the topology of the system. The signal topology of the Ethernet is also known as the logical topology, to distinguish it from the actual physical layout of the media cables. The logical topology of an Ethernet provides a single channel (or bus) that carries Ethernet signals to all stations. Multiple Ethernet segments can be linked together to form a larger Ethernet LAN using a signal amplifying and retiming device called a repeater. Through the use of repeaters, a given Ethernet system of multiple segments can grow as a "non-rooted branching tree." Non-rooted" means that the resulting system of linked segments may grow in any direction, and does not have a specific root segment. Most importantly, segments must never be connected in a loop. Every segment in the system must have two ends, since the Ethernet system will not operate correctly in the presence of loop paths. Even though the media segments may be physically connected in a star pattern, with multiple segments attached to a repeater, the logical topology is still that of a single Ethernet channel that carries signals to all stations. Protocol Structure - Ethernet: IEEE 802.3 Local Area Network protocols The basic IEEE 802.3 Ethernet MAC Data Frame for 10/100Mbps Ethernet:

7 Pre

1 SFD

6 DA

6 SA

2 Length Type

46-1500bytes Data unit + pad

4 FCS

Preamble (PRE)- 7 bytes. The PRE is an alternating pattern of ones and zeros that tells receiving stations that a frame is coming, and that provides a means to synchronize the frame-reception portions of receiving physical layers with the incoming bit stream. Start-of-frame delimiter (SFD)- 1 byte. The SOF is an alternating pattern of ones and zeros, ending with two consecutive 1-bits indicating that the next bit is the left-most bit in the left-most byte of the destination address. Destination address (DA)- 6 bytes. The DA field identifies which station(s) should receive the frame.. Source addresses (SA)- 6 bytes. The SA field identifies the sending station. Length/Type- 2 bytes. This field indicates either the number of MAC-client data bytes that are contained in the data field of the frame, or the frame type ID if the frame is assembled using an optional format. Data- Is a sequence of n bytes (46=< n =<1500) of any value. (The total frame minimum is 64bytes.)

Frame check sequence (FCS)- 4 bytes. This sequence contains a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check (CRC) value, which is created by the sending MAC and is recalculated by the receiving MAC to check for damaged frames.

Token bus network Token passing in a Token bus network Token bus is a network implementing the token ring protocol over a "virtual ring" on a coaxial cable. A token is passed around the network nodes and only the node possessing the token may transmit. If a node doesn't have anything to send, the token is passed on to the next node on the virtual ring. Each node must know the address of its neighbor in the ring, so a special protocol is needed to notify the other nodes of connections to, and disconnections from, the ring. Token bus was standardized by IEEE standard 802.4. It is mainly used for industrial applications. Token bus was used by GM (General Motors) for their Manufacturing Automation Protocol (MAP) standardization effort. This is an application of the concepts used in token ring networks. The main difference is that the endpoints of the bus do not meet to form a physical ring. The IEEE 802.4 Working Group is disbanded. In order to guarantee the packet delay and transmission in Token bus protocol, a modified Token bus was proposed in Manufacturing Automation Systems and flexible manufacturing system (FMS) Stations should not starve Assign priorities to frames Solution is token bus. Each station knows its neighbors Special control frame is a token Owner of the token can send After sending, should pass token to neighbor Collisions are avoided

IEEE 802.4 defines the media access control (MAC) layer for bus networks that use a token-passing mechanism (token bus networks). This is an application of the concepts used in token ring networks. The main difference is that the endpoints of the bus do not meet to form a physical ring. The IEEE 802.4 Working Group is disbanded. Token Ring: IEEE 802.5 LAN Protocol Token Ring is a LAN protocol defined in the IEEE 802.5 where all stations are connected in a ring and each station can directly hear transmissions only from its

immediate neighbor. Permission to transmit is granted by a message (token) that circulates around the ring. Token Ring as defined in IEEE 802.5 is originated from the IBM Token Ring LAN technologies. Both are based on the Token Passing technologies. While them differ in minor ways but generally compatible with each other. Token-passing networksmove a small frame, called a token, around the network. Possession of the token grants the right to transmit. If a node receiving the token has no information to send, it seizes the token, alters 1 bit of the token (which turns the token into a start-of-frame sequence), appends the information that it wants to transmit, and sends this information to the next station on the ring. While the information frame is circling the ring, no token is on the network, which means that other stations wanting to transmit must wait. Therefore, collisions cannot occur in Token Ring networks. The information frame circulates the ring until it reaches the intended destination station, which copies the information for further processing. The information frame continues to circle the ring and is finally removed when it reaches the sending station. The sending station can check the returning frame to see whether the frame was seen and subsequently copied by the destination. Unlike Ethernet CSMA/CD networks, token-passing networks are deterministic, which means that it is possible to calculate the maximum time that will pass before any end station will be capable of transmitting. This feature and several reliability features make Token Ring networks ideal for applications in which delay must be predictable and robust network operation is important. The Fiber Distributed-Data Interface (FDDI) also uses the Token Passing protocol.

Protocol Structure - Token Ring: IEEE 802.5 LAN Protocol

1 SDEL

2 AC

3 FC

9 Destination address Route information 0-30 bytes Information (LLC or MAC) variable

15bytes Source address

FCS (4 bytes)

EDEL (1)

FS(1)

SDEL / EDEL - Starting Delimiter / Ending Delimiter. Both the SDEL and EDEL have intentional Manchester code violations in certain bit positions so that the start and end of a frame can never be accidentally recognized in the middle of other data. AC - Access control field Contains the Priority fields.

FC - Frame control field indicates whether the frame contains data or control information Destination address - Destination station address. Source address - Source station address. Route information - The field with routing control, route descriptor and routing type information. Information - The Information field may be LLC or MAC. FCS - Frame check sequence. Frame status - Contains bits that may be set on by the recipient of the frame to signal recognition of the address and whether the frame was successfully copied.

In the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), the D-channel is the channel that carries control and signalling information. (The "D" stands for "delta" channel.) The B-channel ("B" for "bearer") carries the main data. In ISDN, there are two levels of service: the Basic Rate Interface, intended for the home and small enterprise, and the Primary Rate Interface, for larger users. Both rates include a number of B- (bearer) channels and a D- (delta) channel. The Bchannels carry data, voice, and other services. The D-channel carries control and signaling information. The Basic Rate Interface consists of two 64 Kbps B-channels and one 16 Kbps Dchannel. Thus, a Basic Rate Interface user can have up to 128 Kbps service. The Primary Rate Interface consists of 23 B-channels and one 64- Kpbs D channel in the United States or 30 B-channels and 1 D-channel in Europe. Protocol Structure - ISDN: Integrated Services Digital Network

Below is the general structure of the ISDN frame:

Protocol discriminator 0 Flag 0 0 0 0 Length of reference call value Call reference value Message type Other information elements as required

Protocol discriminator - The protocol used to encode the remainder of the Layer. Length of call reference value - Defines the length of the next field. The Call reference may be one or two octets long depending on the size of the value being encoded. Flag - Set to zero for messages sent by the party that allocated the call reference value; otherwise set to one. Call reference value - An arbitrary value that is allocated for the duration of the specific session, which identifies the call between the device maintaining the call and the ISDN switch. Message type - Defines the primary purpose of the frame. The message type may be one octet or two octets (for network specific messages). When there is more than one octet, the first octet is coded as eight zeros. A complete list of message types is given in ISDN Message Types below. ISDN Information Elements - there are two types of information elements: single octet and variable length. Single octet information elements- the single octet information element appears as follows:

8 1

2 Information element

Information element identifier

Variable length information elements - The following is format and the variable length information element:

8 0

Information element identifier Length of information elements Information elements (multiple bytes)

The information element identifier identifies the chosen element and is unique only within the given Codeset. The length of the information element informs the receiver as to the amount of the following octets belonging to each information element. ISDN Message Types - The possible ISDN message types: Call Establishment, Call Information Phase, Call Clearing, and Miscellaneous. Codeset - Three main Codesets are defined. In each Codeset, a section of the information elements are defined by the associated variant of the protocol:

Codeset 0 Codeset 5 Codeset 6

The default code, referring to the CCITT set of information elements. The national specific Codeset. The network specific Codeset.

CPE - Customer Premises Equipment - refers to all ISDN compatible equipment connected at the user sight. Examples of devices are telephone, PC, Telex, Facsimile, etc. The exception is the FCC definition of NT1. The FCC views the NT1 as a CPE because it is on the customer sight, but the CCITT views NT1 as part of the network. Consequently the network reference point of the network boundary is dependent on the variant in use. ISDN Channels B, D and H - The three logical digital communication channels of ISDN perform the following functions:

B-Channel D-Channel

Carries user service information including: digital data, video, and voice. Carries signals and data packets between the user and the network

Using the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) Basic Rate Interchange (Basic Rate Interface in ISDN) service, an NT1 (network terminating unit 1) is a device that accepts a two-wire signal from the phone company and converts it to a four-wire signal that sends and receives to and from devices within the home or business. In the U.K. and some other countries, the NT1 is located at the telephone company's central office. In the U.S., the NT1 is a separate box at the home or business or it can be integrated into one device. If it is a separate box, up to eight devices, such as telephones and computers, can be attached to it. If the NT1 is built into one device, then only that one device can be served by the line coming in from the phone company. Additional devices would require one or more additional lines. ISDN Devices In the context of ISDN standards, STANDARD DEVICES refers not to actual hardware, but to standard collections of functions that can usually be performed by individual hardware units. The ISDN Standard Devices are: Terminal Equipment (TE) Terminal Adapter (TA) Network Termination 1 (NT1) Network Termination 2 (NT2)

Exchange Termination (ET)

Terminal Equipment (TE) A TE is any piece of communicating equipment that complies with the ISDN standards. Examples include: digital telephones, ISDN data terminals, Group IV Fax machines, and ISDN-equipped computers. In most cases, a TE should be able to provide a full Basic Rate Access (2B+D), although some TEs may use only 1B+D or even only a D channel. Terminal Adapter (TA) A TA is a special interface-conversion device that allows communicating devices that don't conform to ISDN standards to communicate over the ISDN. The most common TAs provide Basic Rate Access and have one RJ-type modular jack for voice and one RS-232 or V.35 connector for data (with each port able to connect to either of the available B channels). Some TAs have a separate data connector for the D channel. Network Termination (NT1 and NT2) The NT devices, NT1 and NT2, form the physical and logical boundary between the customer's premises and the carrier's network. NT1 performs the logical interface functions of switching and local-device control (local signalling). NT2 performs the physical interface conversion between the dissimilar customer and network sides of the interface. In most cases, a single device, such as a PBX or digital multiplexer, performs both physical and logical interface functions. In ISDN terms, such a device is called NT12 ("NT-one-two") or simply NT. ISDN Devices In the context of ISDN standards, STANDARD DEVICES refers not to actual hardware, but to standard collections of functions that can usually be performed by individual hardware units. The ISDN Standard Devices are: Terminal Equipment (TE) Terminal Adapter (TA) Network Termination 1 (NT1) Network Termination 2 (NT2) Exchange Termination (ET)

Terminal Equipment (TE) A TE is any piece of communicating equipment that complies with the ISDN standards. Examples include: digital telephones, ISDN data terminals, Group IV Fax machines, and ISDN-equipped computers.

In most cases, a TE should be able to provide a full Basic Rate Access (2B+D), although some TEs may use only 1B+D or even only a D channel. Terminal Adapter (TA) A TA is a special interface-conversion device that allows communicating devices that don't conform to ISDN standards to communicate over the ISDN. The most common TAs provide Basic Rate Access and have one RJ-type modular jack for voice and one RS-232 or V.35 connector for data (with each port able to connect to either of the available B channels). Some TAs have a separate data connector for the D channel. Network Termination (NT1 and NT2) The NT devices, NT1 and NT2, form the physical and logical boundary between the customer's premises and the carrier's network. NT1 performs the logical interface functions of switching and local-device control (local signalling). NT2 performs the physical interface conversion between the dissimilar customer and network sides of the interface. In most cases, a single device, such as a PBX or digital multiplexer, performs both physical and logical interface functions. In ISDN terms, such a device is called NT12 ("NT-one-two") or simply NT.

X.25 provides quality of service and error-free delivery, whereas, Frame Relay was designed to relay data as quickly as possible over low error networks. Frame Relay eliminates a number of the higher-level procedures and fields used in X.25. Frame relay was designed for use on links with error-rates far lower than available when X.25 was designed. X.25 prepares and sends packets, while frame relay prepares and sends frames. X.25 packets contain several fields used for error checking and flow control, most of which are not used by Frame Relay. The frames in Frame Relay contain an expanded link layer address field that enables frame relay nodes to direct frames to their destinations with minimal processing. The elimination of functions and fields over X.25 allows Frame Relay to move data more quickly, but leaves more room for errors and larger delays should data need to be retransmitted. X.25 packet switched networks typically allocated a fixed bandwidth through the network for each X.25 access, regardless of the current load. This resource allocation approach, while apt for applications that require guaranteed quality of service, is inefficient for applications that are highly dynamic in their load characteristics or which would benefit from a more dynamic resource allocation. Frame Relay networks can dynamically allocate bandwidth at both the physical and logical channel level.

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