2223 Notes

1 Chapter 2

Two types of components of Aerodynamic forces p = p(x, y, z ), = (x, y, z ), T = T (x, y, z ), v = v (x, y, z ) represents the ow eld, which creates a normal pressure distribution on the surface of the object a shear stress distribution on the surface of the object (friction) Equation of State of Perfect Gas Air = perfect gas most of the time: intermolecular forces are negligible (long distance between molecules, where far = weak force attraction and close = strong force repulsion) J p = RT Where R = 287 is the specic gas constant kg K For actual gases, use the Berthelot equation p ap bp =1+ 2 Where a and b are constants for the specic gas. RT T T

This quantity is smaller as p decreases and as T increases. At high temperatures, we have a chemically reacting gas Temperature conversion 0R=0K 0 F = 460 R 0 C = 273 K = 32 F 90 F = 550 R 10 C = 283 K

1.1

The Standard Atmosphere

Altitude: The Standard Atmosphere is used to describe mean values of pressure, temperature, density, and all other components varying with altitude ha = hG + r

 ha = absolute altitude hG = geometric altitude r = radius of Earth g varies with altitude g = g0 r ha

2

= g0

r hG + r

1.2

Hydrostatic Equation

This describes the force balance of an element of uid at rest. dp = gdhG integrate to get p = p(hG ) and assume g = constant = g0 at sea level. Then dp = g0 dh The Geopotential Altitude is given by h = r hG + r hG

There is little dierence between Geopotential and Geometric Altitude for low altitudes. r 1 h hG If hG << r, then hG + r So, with the radius of the earth r = 6.356766x106 m (45 latitude) and at an altitude of h = 7 km = 23,000 ft, we get a Geopotential Altitude of h = 6.9923 km. The standard Atmosphere has a dened variation of T with altitude, easily obtained from balloon measurements. For simplicity, we approximate the smooth temperature variation by a series of straight lines. There are two types of regions: If you are in a plane and measure: air pressure p = .616 x 105 N/m2 = 6.16104 N/m Then you get from Table B2: 4km = 4, 000m this is the Pressure Altitude If you are in this plane and measure, at the same real altitude: air temperature T = 265.4 K Then you get from Table B2: 3.5 km = 3,500 m this is the Temperature Altitude At the same real altitude, the air density can be obtained from p = RT = p/(RT ) = (6.16 x 104 ) / (288 265.4) = .80591kg/m3 then you get from Table B2: 4.15 km = 4,150 m this is the Density Altitude 2

2
2.1

Chapter 3
Basic Aerodynamics

We need to get ow properties: pressure velocity temperature density This will get us lift drag There are 3 important equation: Continuity Equation Momentum Equation Energy Equation The Continuity Equation = Continuity of Mass. In a time interval dt, the mass going through A1 is given by dm = 1 (A1 V1 dt) Then, the mass ow is given by m 1 = dm1 = 1 A1 V1 . dt

Since mass cant be created or destroyed m 1 = m 2 which gives us the Continuity Equation for steady uid ow. It is for compressible ow, i.e., for high speeds, such as in rockets. As the pressure changes, he volume changes, and with it the density, thus 1 = 2 . 1 A1 V1 = 2 A2 V2 For incompressible ow, the density does not change, and 1 = 2 . Thus, A1 V1 = A2 V2 . This is an assumption, but a good one for liquids and air up to about 100 m/s. The Momentum Equation = Continuity of Momentum based on F=ma Bernoullis Equation for incompressible ow is given by: V22 V12 p2 + = p1 + or p + V 2 /2 = constant along a stream line. 2 2 3

 For compressible ow, is a variable, and Bernoulli cannot be used. The Energy Equation is for frictionless adiabatic (isentropic) compressible ow in a stream tube, we have with as the ratio of specic heats cP = cT p2 = p1 2 1

p2 and = p1

T2 T1

We also can derive for isentropic ow with h as the enthalpy h1 + V12 V2 V2 = h2 + 2 or h + = constant. 2 2 2 V2 V2 V12 = cp T2 + 2 or h + = constant. 2 2 2

Or with h = cp T we can get cp T1 +

These two equations combined with the continuity equation and the equation of state to solve for compressible ow conditions

2.2

Airspeed indicator

If we put a hollow tube (Pitot tube) far enough out into the undisturbed air ow, and cap the tube o at the rear end, there will be a stagnation point at the opening of the tube, and the pressure measured at the capped end will be 1 2 the total pressure: static pressure + dynamic pressure or P0 = P + 2 V If we then measure the static pressure P on the side of the tube with pressure ports, we can solve the above equation for the true airspeed V to get 2(P0 P ) V = We can use a water column to measure the diernece in pressure P0 P = g (h0 h )

2.3

ICeT

Indicated Airspeed versus Calibrated Airspeed versus equivalent Airspeed versus True Airspeed Indicated Airspeed Vi is the speed shown on the airspeed indicator in the cockpit. This has to be corrected for location of the static pressure ports and the associated quality of the static pressure measurements, sometimes even of the total pressure measurements. This position or installation error Vp is corrected via a table or graph, showing the error with conguration and airspeed, to yield Calibrated Airspeed Vc : Vc = Vi + Vp 4

 Then, the calibrated airspeed has to be corrected for compressibility eects at a given altitude and calibrated airspeed using the f-factor from a table to yield the (usually lower) equivalent Airspeed Ve : Ve = f Vc The last correction comes from adjusting the equivalent airspeed to the standard sea level density to obtain the True Airspeed V : V = Ve SL

V is normally larger than Ve since the density ration is normally larger than 1. With q as the dynamic pressure we get:
1 2 q=1 2 V = 2 (Ve

SL 2 1 ) = SL Ve2 2

For high subsonic compressible ow, we use the Energy Equation to obtain airspeed from a Mach meter. This gives us the Mach number M directly from (p0 /p ): M = 2 1 p0 p
1

The speed of sound is given by a = RT Which tells us that the speed of sound only depends on temperature. M < 1 is subsonic M = 1 is sonic 0.75 < M < 1.2 is transonic M > 1 is supersonic M > 5 is hypersonic