Ancient India

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Contents
Articles
History of India Vedic period Historical Vedic religion Vedic priesthood Vedic mythology Rigvedic deities Indus Valley Civilization List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilization List of Indus Valley Civilization sites Bronze Age Iron Age India Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures Vedic science Vedas Indo-Aryan peoples List of Rigvedic tribes Mahajanapada Maurya Empire List of Mauryan rulers Nanda Empire Magadha Legendary kings of Magadha Pradyota dynasty Haryanka dynasty Shishunaga dynasty Sunga Empire Kanva dynasty Gupta Empire 1 26 33 39 42 43 46 61 63 66 84 86 88 89 101 107 110 121 141 142 145 156 158 159 162 164 172 173

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History of India

History of India
Part of a series on the

History of India

Chronology of Indian history Ancient India Prehistoric India and Vedic India Religions, Society, Mahajanapadas Mauryan Period Economy, Spread of Buddhism, Chanakya, Satavahana Empire The Golden Age Discoveries, Aryabhata, Ramayana, Mahabharata Medieval India The Classical Age Gurjara-Pratihara Pala Empire Rashtrakuta Empire Art, Philosophy, Literature Islam in India Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagara Empire, Music, Guru Nanak Mughal India Architecture, Maratha Confederacy Modern India Company Rule Zamindari system, Warren Hastings, Mangal Pandey, 1857 British Indian Empire Hindu reforms, Bengal Renaissance, Independence struggle, Mahatma Gandhi Subhas Chandra Bose

Outline of South Asian history History of Indian subcontinent

The history of India begins with evidence of human activity of Homo sapiens as long as 75,000 years ago, or with earlier hominids including Homo erectus from about 500,000 years ago.[1] The Indus Valley Civilization, which spread and flourished in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent from c. 3300 to 1300 BCE in present-day

History of India Pakistan and northwest India, was the first major civilization in South Asia.[2] A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in the Mature Harappan period, from 2600 to 1900 BCE.[3] This Bronze Age civilization collapsed before the end of the second millennium BCE and was followed by the Iron Age Vedic Civilization, which extended over much of the Indo-Gangetic plain and which witnessed the rise of major polities known as the Mahajanapadas. In one of these kingdoms, Magadha, Mahavira and Gautama Buddha were born in the 6th or 5th century BCE and propagated their ramanic philosophies. Most of the subcontinent was conquered by the Maurya Empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. It became fragmented, with various parts ruled by numerous Middle kingdoms for the next 1,500 years. This is known as the classical period of Indian history, during which time India has sometimes been estimated to have had the largest economy of the ancient and medieval world, with its huge population generating between one fourth and one third of the world's income up to the 18th century. Much of northern and central India was united in the 4th century CE, and remained so for two centuries, under the Gupta Empire. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the "Golden Age of India". From this time, and for several centuries afterwards, southern India, under the rule of the Chalukyas, Cholas, Pallavas, and Pandyas, experienced its own golden age. During this period, aspects of Indian civilization, administration, culture, and religion (Hinduism and Buddhism) spread to much of Asia. Kingdoms in southern India had maritime business links with the Roman Empire from around 77 CE. Muslim rule in the subcontinent began in 8th century CE when the Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh and Multan in southern Punjab in modern day Pakistan,[] setting the stage for several successive invasions from Central Asia between the 10th and 15th centuries CE, leading to the formation of Muslim empires in the Indian subcontinent such as the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. Mughal rule came from Central Asia to cover most of the northern parts of the subcontinent. Mughal rulers introduced Central Asian art and architecture to India. In addition to the Mughals and various Rajput kingdoms, several independent Hindu states, such as the Vijayanagara Empire, the Maratha Empire, Eastern Ganga Empire and the Ahom Kingdom, flourished contemporaneously in southern, western, eastern and northeastern India respectively. The Mughal Empire suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided opportunities for the Afghans, Balochis, Sikhs, and Marathas to exercise control over large areas in the northwest of the subcontinent until the British East India Company gained ascendancy over South Asia.[] Beginning in the mid-18th century and over the next century, large areas of India were annexed by the British East India Company. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, after which the British provinces of India were directly administered by the British Crown and witnessed a period of both rapid development of infrastructure and economic decline. During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress and later joined by the Muslim League. The subcontinent gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, after the British provinces were partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan and the princely states all acceded to one of the new states.

History of India

Prehistoric era
Stone Age
Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley in central India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the Middle Pleistocene era, somewhere between 500,000 and 200,000 years ago.[4][5] Tools crafted by proto-humans that have been dated back two million years have been discovered in the northwestern part of the subcontinent.[][] The ancient history of the region includes some of South Asia's oldest settlements[] and some of its major civilizations.[6][] The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the palaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley.[] Soanian sites are found in the Sivalik region across what are now India, Pakistan, and Nepal.[7]

Bhimbetka rock painting, Madhya Pradesh, India (c.30,000 years old)

The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent was followed by the Neolithic period, when more extensive settlement of the subcontinent occurred after the end of the last Ice Age approximately 12,000 years ago. The first confirmed semipermanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the Bhimbetka rock shelters in modern Madhya Pradesh, India. Early Neolithic culture in South Asia is represented by the Bhirrana findings (7500 BCE)in Haryana, India & Mehrgarh findings (7000 BCE onwards) in Balochistan, Pakistan.[][8] Traces of a Neolithic Stone age (5000 BC) writings of Edakkal Caves in culture have been alleged to be submerged in the Gulf of Khambat Kerala, India. in India, radiocarbon dated to 7500 BCE.[9] However, the one dredged piece of wood in question was found in an area of strong ocean currents. Neolithic agriculture cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region around 5000 BCE, in the lower Gangetic valley around 3000 BCE, and in later South India, spreading southwards and also northwards into Malwa around 1800 BCE. The first urban civilization of the region began with the Indus Valley Civilization.[]

History of India

Bronze Age
The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE with the early Indus Valley Civilization. It was centered on the Indus River and its tributaries which extended into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley,[6] the Ganges-Yamuna Doab,[10] Gujarat,[] and southeastern Afghanistan.[11] The civilization is primarily located in modern-day India (Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan provinces) and Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab, and Balochistan provinces). Historically part of Ancient India, it is one of the world's earliest urban civilizations, along with Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt.[12] Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.

The docks of ancient Lothal as they appear today.

The Mature Indus civilization flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilization on the "Priest King" of Indus subcontinent. The civilization included Valley Civilization urban centers such as Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rupar, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal in modern-day India, and Harappa, Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan. The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and multistoried houses.

Early historic period

Vedic period

History of India

The Vedic period is characterized by Indo-Aryan culture associated with the texts of Vedas, sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India[13] and next to some writings in Egypt and Mesopotamia are the oldest in the world. The Vedic period lasted from about 1500 to 500 BCE,[14] laying the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society. In terms of culture, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age in this period.[] Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the Map of North India in the late Vedic period. Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain.[] Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the north-west.[15][16] Vedic people believed in the transmigration of the soul, and the peepul tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharva Veda.[17] Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later like Dharma, Karma etc. trace their root to the Vedas.[18] Early Vedic society consisted of largely pastoral groups, with late Harappan urbanization having been abandoned.[19] After the time of the Rigveda, Aryan society became increasingly agricultural and was socially organized around the four varnas, or social classes. In addition to the Vedas, the principal texts of Hinduism, the core themes of the Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are said to have their ultimate origins during this period.[20] The Mahabharata remains, today, the longest single poem in the world.[21] The events described in the Ramayana are from a later period of history than the events of the Mahabharata.[22] The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture in archaeological contexts.[]

The swastika is a major element of Hindu iconography.

The Kuru kingdom[23] corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted Grey Ware cultures and to the beginning of the Iron Age in northwestern India, around 1000 BCE, as well as with the composition of the Atharvaveda, the first Indian text to mention iron, as yma ayas, literally "black metal." The Painted Grey Ware culture spanned much of northern India from about 1100 to 600 BCE.[] The Vedic Period also established republics such as Vaishali, which existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE. The later part of this period corresponds with an increasing movement away from the previous tribal system towards the establishment of kingdoms, called mahajanapadas.

History of India

Mahajanapadas
In the later Vedic Age, a number of small kingdoms or city states had covered the subcontinent, many mentioned in Vedic, early Buddhist and Jaina literature as far back as 1000 BCE. By 500 BCE, sixteen monarchies and "republics" known as the MahajanapadasKasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala, Matsya (or Machcha), Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, and Kambojastretched across the Indo-Gangetic Plain from modern-day Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharastra. This period saw the second major rise of urbanism in India after the Indus Valley Civilization. Many smaller clans mentioned within early literature seem to have been present across the rest of the subcontinent. Some of these kings were hereditary; other states elected their rulers. The educated speech at that time was Sanskrit, while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as Prakrits. Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced to four major ones by 500/400 BCE, by the time of Gautama Buddha. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha.[24] The 9th and 8th centuries BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads.[]:183 Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas).[25] The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death.[26]

Gautama Buddha undertaking extreme ascetic practices before his enlightenment on the bank of river Phalgu in Bodh Gaya, Bihar.

Detail of a leaf with, The Birth of Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism), from the Kalpa Sutra, c.1375-1400.

Increasing urbanization of India in 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or shramana movements which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals.[27] Mahavira (c. 549477 BCE), proponent of Jainism, and Buddha (c. 563-483), founder of Buddhism were the most prominent icons of this movement. Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara, and the concept of liberation.[28] Buddha found a Middle Way that ameliorated the extreme asceticism found in the Sramana religions.[29] Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism.[30] However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and scholars believe Parshva, accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to

History of India

7 have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the shramana movement.[31]

The Mahajanapadas were the sixteen most powerful kingdoms and republics of the era, located mainly across the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains, however there were a number of smaller kingdoms stretching the length and breadth of Ancient India.

Nalanda is considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. It was the center of Buddhist learning and research in the world from 450 to 1193 CE.

Persian and Greek conquests

In 530 BCE Cyrus, King of the Persian Achaemenid Empire crossed the Hindu-Kush mountains to seek tribute from the tribes of Kamboja, Gandhara and the trans-India region.[32] By 520 BCE, during the reign of Darius I of Persia, much of the northwestern subcontinent (present-day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. The area remained under Persian control for two centuries.[33] During this time India supplied mercenaries to the Persian army then fighting in Greece.[32]

Asia in 323 BCE, the Nanda Empire and Gangaridai Empire in relation to Alexander's Empire and neighbors.

History of India Under Persian rule the famous city of Takshashila became a center where both Vedic and Iranian learning were mingled.[34] The impact of Persian ideas was felt in many areas of Indian life. Persian coinage and rock inscriptions were copied by India. However, Persian ascendency in northern India ended with Alexander the Great's conquest of Persia in 327 BCE.[35] By 326 BCE, Alexander the Great had conquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Empire and had reached the northwest frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. There he defeated King Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes (near modern-day Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab.[36] Alexander's march east put him in confrontation with the Nanda Empire of Magadha and the Gangaridai Empire of Bengal. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies at the Ganges River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas River) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, and learning about the might of Nanda Empire, was convinced that it was better to return. The Persian and Greek invasions had important repercussions on Indian civilization. The political systems of the Persians were to influence future forms of governance on the subcontinent, including the administration of the Mauryan dynasty. In addition, the region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan and northwest Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian, and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, Greco-Buddhism, which lasted until the 5th century CE and influenced the artistic development of Mahayana Buddhism.

Maurya Empire
The Maurya Empire (322185 BCE), ruled by the Mauryan dynasty, was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military empire in ancient India. The empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya in Magadha what is now Bihar.[37] The empire flourished under the reign of Ashoka the Great.[38] At its greatest extent, it stretched to the north to the natural boundaries of the Himalayas and to the east into what is now Assam. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, annexing Balochistan and much of what is now Afghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces. The empire was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors Maurya Empire under Ashoka the Great Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it excluded extensive unexplored tribal and forested regions near Kalinga which were subsequently taken by Ashoka. Like every state, the Maurya Empire needed to have a unified administrative apparatus. Ashoka ruled the Maurya Empire for 37 years from 268 BCE until he died in 232 BCE.[39] During that time, Ashoka pursued an active foreign policy aimed at setting up a unified state.[40] However, Ashoka became involved in a war with the state of Kalinga which is located on the western shore of the Bay of Bengal.[41] This war forced Ashoka to abandon his attempt at a foreign policy which would unify the Maurya Empire.[42]

History of India

During the Mauryan Empire slavery developed rapidly and significant amount of written records on slavery are found.[43] The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society. However, the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government.[44] Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, usury was customary with loans made at the recognized interest rate of 15% per annum. Ashoka's reign propagated Buddhism. In this regard Ashoka established many Buddhist monuments. Indeed, Ashoka put a strain on the economy and the government by his strong support of Buddhism. Ashokan pillar at Vaishali, 3rd century BCE. towards the end of his reign he "bled the state coffers white with his generous gifts to promote the promulation of Buddha's teaching.[45] As might be expected, this policy caused considerable opposition within the government. This opposition rallied around Sampadi, Ashoka's grandson and heir to the throne.[46] Religious opposition to Ashoka also arose among the orthodox Brahmanists and the adherents of Jainism.[47] Chandragupta's minister Chanakya wrote the Arthashastra, one of the greatest treatises on economics, politics, foreign affairs, administration, military arts, war, and religion produced in Asia. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are primary written records of the Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Asoka at Sarnath, is the national emblem of India.

Early Middle Kingdoms The Golden Age

Ancient India during the rise of theSunga and Satavahana empires.

The Kharavela Empire, now in Odisha.

Kushan Empire and Western Satraps of Ancient India in the north along with Pandyans and Early Cholas in southern India.

Gupta Empire

The middle period was a time of cultural development. The Satavahana dynasty, also known as the Andhras, ruled in southern and central India after around 230 BCE. Satakarni, the sixth ruler of the Satvahana dynasty, defeated the Sunga Empire of north India. Afterwards, Kharavela, the warrior king of Kalinga,[48] ruled a vast empire and was responsible for the propagation of Jainism in the Indian subcontinent.[48] The Kharavelan Jain empire included a maritime empire with trading routes linking it to Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Borneo, Bali, Sumatra, and Java. Colonists from Kalinga settled in Sri Lanka, Burma, as well as the Maldives and Maritime Southeast Asia. The Kuninda Kingdom was a small Himalayan state that survived from around the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. The Kushanas migrated from Central Asia into northwestern India in the middle of the 1st

History of India century CE and founded an empire that stretched from Tajikistan to the middle Ganges. The Western Satraps (35-405 CE) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India. They were the successors of the Indo-Scythians and contemporaries of the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent and the Satavahana (Andhra) who ruled in central and southern India. Different dynasties such as the Pandyans, Cholas, Cheras, Kadambas, Western Gangas, Pallavas, and Chalukyas, dominated the southern part of the Indian peninsula at different periods of time. Several southern kingdoms formed overseas empires that stretched into Southeast Asia. The kingdoms warred with each other and the Deccan states for domination of the south. The Kalabras, a Buddhist dynasty, briefly interrupted the usual domination of the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas in the south.

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Northwestern hybrid cultures

The northwestern hybrid cultures of the subcontinent included the Indo-Greeks, the Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians, and the Indo-Sassinids. The first of these, the Indo-Greek Kingdom, was founded when the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius invaded the region in 180 BCE, extending his rule over various parts of present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan. Lasting for almost two centuries, the kingdom was ruled by a succession of more than 30 Greek kings, who were often in conflict with each other. The Indo-Scythians were a branch of the Indo-European Sakas (Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia, first into Bactria, subsequently into Sogdiana, The founder of the Indo-Greek Kashmir, Arachosia, and Gandhara, and finally into India. Their kingdom lasted Kingdom, Demetrius I "the Invincible" (205171 BCE). from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. Yet another kingdom, the Indo-Parthians (also known as the Pahlavas), came to control most of present-day Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, after fighting many local rulers such as the Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises, in the Gandhara region. The Sassanid empire of Persia, who was contemporaneous with the Gupta Empire, expanded into the region of present-day Balochistan in Pakistan, where the mingling of Indian culture and the culture of Iran gave birth to a hybrid culture under the Indo-Sassanids.

Kushan Empire
The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises, about the middle of the 1st century CE. By the time of his grandson, Kanishka, (whose era is thought to have begun c. 127 CE), they had conquered most of northern India, at least as far as Saketa and Pataliputra, in the middle Ganges Valley, and probably as far as the Bay of Bengal.[49] They played an important role in the establishment of Buddhism in India and its spread to Central Asia and China. By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating; their last known great emperor being Vasudeva I (c. 190-225 CE).

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Roman trade with India

Roman trade with India started around 1 CE, during the reign of Augustus and following his conquest of Egypt, which had been India's biggest trade partner in the West. The trade started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE kept increasing, and according to Strabo (II.5.12.[50]), by the time of Augustus, up to 120 ships set sail every year from Myos Hormos on the Red Sea to India. So much gold was used for this trade, and apparently recycled by the Kushans for their own coinage, that Pliny the Elder (NH VI.101) complained about the drain of specie to India: "India, China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million sesterces from our empire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is what our luxuries and women cost us. For what percentage of these imports is intended for sacrifices to the gods or the spirits of the dead?" Pliny, Historia Naturae 12.41.84.[51] The maritime (but not the overland) trade routes, harbours, and trade items are described in detail in the 1st century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

Coin of the Roman emperor Augustus found at the Pudukottai, South India.

Gupta rule
The Classical Age refers to the period when much of the Indian subcontinent was reunited under the Gupta Empire (c. 320550 CE).[52][53] This period has been called the Golden Age of India[54] and was marked by extensive achievements in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture.[55] The decimal numeral system, including the concept of zero, was invented in India during this period.[56] The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors in India.[57] The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture, sculpture, and painting.[58] The Gupta period Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I, depicted on produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, a coin of their son Samudragupta, 335380 CE. Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields.[59] Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, Maritime Southeast Asia, and Indochina. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulersChandragupta I (c. 319335), Samudragupta (c. 335376), and Chandragupta II (c. 376415) brought much of India under their leadership.[60] They successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the Hunas, who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century, with their capital at Bamiyan.[61] However, much of the Deccan and southern India were largely unaffected by these events in the north.[62][63]

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Late Middle Kingdoms The Late-Classical Age

Pala Empire under Dharmapala Pala Empire under Devapala

The "Late-Classical Age"[64] in India began after the end of the Gupta Empire[64] and the collapse Harsha Empire in the 7th century CE[64], and ended with the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in the south in the 13th century, due to pressure from Islamic invaders[65] to the north. This period produced some of India's finest art, considered the epitome of classical development, and the development of the main spiritual and philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. King Harsha of Kannauj succeeded in reuniting northern India during his reign in the 7th century, after the collapse of the Gupta dynasty. His kingdom collapsed after his death.

Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola c. 1030 C.E.

Central Asian and North Western Indian Buddhism weakened in the 6th century after the White Hun invasion, who followed their own religions such as Tengri, and Manichaeism. Muhammad bin Qasim's invasion of Sindh in 711 CE witnessed further decline of Buddhism. The Chach Nama records many instances of conversion of stupas to mosques such as at Nerun[66] In 7th century CE, Kumrila Bhaa formulated his school of Mimamsa philosophy and defended the position on Vedic rituals against Buddhist attacks. Scholars note Bhaa's contribution to the decline of Buddhism.[67] His dialectical success against the Buddhists is confirmed by Buddhist historian Tathagata, who reports that Kumrila defeated disciples of Buddhapalkita, Bhavya, Dharmadasa, Dignaga and others.[68] Ronald Inden writes that by 8th century BCE symbols of Hindu gods "replaced the Buddha at Badami Chalukya Empire the imperial centre and pinnacle of the cosmo-political system, the image or symbol of the Hindu god comes to be housed in a monumental temple and given increasingly elaborate imperial-style puja worship".[69] Although Buddhism did not disappear from India for several centuries after the eighth, royal proclivities for the cults of Vishnu and Shiva weakened Buddhism's position within the sociopolitical context and helped make possible its decline.[70]

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From the 7th to the 9th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa,the Eastern Ganga dynasty of Odisha, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. The Sena dynasty would later assume control of the Pala Empire, and the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into various states. These were the first of the Rajput states, a series of kingdoms which managed to survive in some form for almost a millennium, until Indian independence from the British. The first recorded Rajput kingdoms emerged in Rajasthan in the 6th century, and small Rajput dynasties later ruled much of northern India. One Gurjar[71][72] Rajput of the Chauhan clan, Prithvi Raj Chauhan, was known for bloody conflicts against the advancing Islamic sultanates. The Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century.

The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again from Kalyani between 970 and 1190. The Pallavas of Kanchipuram were their contemporaries further to the south. With the decline of the Chalukya empire, their feudatories, the Hoysalas of Halebidu, Kakatiyas of Warangal, Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, and a southern branch of the Kalachuri, divided the vast Chalukya empire amongst themselves around the middle of 12th century. The Chola Empire at its peak covered much of the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Rajaraja Chola I conquered all of peninsular south India and parts of Sri Lanka. Rajendra Chola I's navies went even further, occupying coasts from Burma to Vietnam,[73] the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Lakshadweep (Laccadive) islands, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula in Southeast Asia and the Pegu islands. Later during the middle period, the Pandyan Empire emerged in Tamil Nadu, as well as the Chera Kingdom in parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. By 1343, last of these dynasties had ceased to exist, giving rise to the Vijayanagar empire. The ports of south India were engaged in the Indian Ocean trade, chiefly involving spices, with the Roman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the east.[74][75] Literature in local vernaculars and spectacular architecture flourished until about the beginning of the 14th century, when southern expeditions of the sultan of Delhi took their toll on these kingdoms. The Hindu Vijayanagar Empire came into conflict with the Islamic Bahmani Sultanate, and the clashing of the two systems caused a mingling of the indigenous and foreign cultures that left lasting cultural influences on each other.

The Kanauj Triangle was the focal point of empires the Rashtrakutas of Deccan, the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, and the Palas of Bengal.

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The Islamic Sultanates

After conquering Persia, the Arab Umayyad Caliphate incorporated parts of what is now Pakistan around 720. The Muslim rulers were keen to invade India,[76] a rich region with a flourishing international trade and the only known diamond mines in the world.[77] In 712, Arab Muslim general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered most of the Indus region in modern day Pakistan for the Umayyad empire, incorporating it as the "As-Sindh" province with its capital at Al-Mansurah, 72km (45mi) north of modern Hyderabad in Sindh, Pakistan. After several wars, the Hindu Rajput clans defeated the Arabs at the Battle of Rajasthan, Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, has the second largest halting their expansion and containing them at Sindh in pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Pakistan.[78] Many short-lived Islamic kingdoms (sultanates) Hagia Sophia. under foreign rulers were established across the north western subcontinent over a period of a few centuries. Additionally, Muslim trading communities flourished throughout coastal south India, particularly on the western coast where Muslim traders arrived in small numbers, mainly from the Arabian peninsula. This marked the introduction of a third Abrahamic Middle Eastern religion, following Judaism and Christianity, often in puritanical form. Later, the Bahmani Sultanate and Deccan sultanates, founded by Turkic rulers, flourished in the south. The Vijayanagara Empire rose to prominence by the end of the 13th century as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions. The empire dominated all of Southern India and fought off invasions from the five established Deccan Sultanates.[79] The empire reached its peak during the rule of Krishnadevaraya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious.[80] The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalinga, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south.[81] It lasted until 1646, though its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates. As a result, much of the territory of the former Vijaynagar Empire were captured by Deccan Sultanates, and the remainder was divided into many states ruled by Hindu rulers.

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Delhi Sultanate
In the 12th and 13th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Rajput holdings.[82] The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximately equal in extent to the ancient Gupta Empire, while the Khilji dynasty conquered most of central India but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the intermingling of the local speakers of Sanskritic Prakrits with immigrants speaking Persian, Turkic, and Arabic under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultana (12361240).

A Turco-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timur (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi.[83] The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins, after Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the sayyids, scholars, and the other Muslims; 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day.[84]

Qutub Minar is the world's tallest brick minaret, commenced by Qutb-ud-din Aybak of the Slave dynasty.

Early modern period

Mughal Empire
In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan from Fergana Valley (modern day Uzbekistan), swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, covering modern day Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.[85] However, his son Humayun was defeated by the Afghan warrior Sher Shah Suri in the year 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to Kabul. After Sher Shah's death, his son Islam Shah Suri and the Hindu king Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, who had won 22 battles against Afghan rebels and forces of Akbar, from Punjab to Bengal and had established a secular Hindu rule in North India from Delhi till 1556. Akbar's forces defeated and killed Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat on 6 November 1556. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600; it went into a slow decline after 1707. The Mughals suffered sever blow
Extent of the Mughal Empire in 1700.

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16

due to invasions from Marathas and Afghans due to which the Mughal dynasty were reduced to puppet rulers by 1757. The remnants of the Mughal dynasty were finally defeated during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also called the 1857 War of Independence. This period marked vast social change in the subcontinent as the Hindu majority were ruled over by the Mughal emperors, most of whom showed religious tolerance, liberally patronising Hindu culture. The famous emperor Akbar, who was the grandson of Babar, tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus. However, later emperors such as Aurangazeb tried to establish complete Muslim dominance, and as a Taj Mahal, built by the Mughals result several historical temples were destroyed during this period and taxes imposed on non-Muslims. During the decline of the Mughal Empire, several smaller states rose to fill the power vacuum and themselves were contributing factors to the decline. In 1739, Nader Shah, emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal army at the huge Battle of Karnal. After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne.[86] The Mughals were perhaps the richest single dynasty to have ever existed. During the Mughal era, the dominant political forces consisted of the Mughal Empire and its tributaries and, later on, the rising successor states - including the Maratha Empire - which fought an increasingly weak Mughal dynasty. The Mughals, while often employing brutal tactics to subjugate their empire, had a policy of integration with Indian culture, which is what made them successful where the short-lived Sultanates of Delhi had failed. Akbar the Great was particularly famed for this. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the jizya tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local maharajas, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating a unique Indo-Saracenic architecture. It was the erosion of this tradition coupled with increased brutality and centralization that played a large part in the dynasty's downfall after Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively non-pluralistic policies on the general population, which often inflamed the majority Hindu population.

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Post-Mughal period
Maratha Empire The post-Mughal era was dominated by the rise of the Maratha suzerainty as other small regional states (mostly late Mughal tributary states) emerged, and also by the increasing activities of European powers (see colonial era below). There is no doubt that the single most important power to emerge in the long twilight of the Mughal dynasty was the Maratha Empire.[87] The Maratha kingdom was founded and consolidated by Shivaji, a Maratha aristocrat of the Bhonsle clan who was determined to establish Hindavi Swarajya (self-rule of Hindu people). By the 18th century, it had transformed itself into the Maratha Empire under the rule of the Peshwas (prime ministers). Gordon explains how the Maratha systematically took control over the Malwa plateau in 1720-1760. They started with annual raids, collecting ransom from villages and towns while the declining Mughal Empire retained nominal Political map of Indian subcontinent in 1758. The control. However in 1737, the Marathas defeated a Mughal army Maratha Empire (orange) was the last Hindu empire in their capital, Delhi inteslf, and as a result, the Mughal emperor of India. ceded Malwa to them. The Marathas continued their military campaigns against Mughals, Nizam, Nawab of Bengal and Durrani Empire to further extend their boundaries. They built an efficient system of public administration known for its attention to detail. It succeeded in raising revenue in districts that recovered from years of raids, up to levels previously enjoyed by the Mughals. The cornerstone of the Maratha rule in Malwa rested on the 60 or so local tax collectors (kamavisdars) who advanced the Maratha ruler '(Peshwa)' a portion of their district revenues at interest.[88] By 1760, the domain of the Marathas stretched across practically the entire subcontinent.[89] The defeat of Marathas by British in three Anglo-Maratha Wars brought end to the empire by 1820. The last peshwa, Baji Rao II, was defeated by the British in the Third Anglo-Maratha War.

Sikh Empire (North-west) The Punjabi kingdom, ruled by members of the Sikh religion, was a political entity that governed the region of modern-day Punjab. The empire, based around the Punjab region, existed from 1799 to 1849. It was forged, on the foundations of the Khalsa, under the leadership of Maharaja Ranjit Singh (17801839) from an array of autonomous Punjabi Misls. He consolidated many parts of northern India into a kingdom. He primarily used his highly disciplined Sikh army that he trained and equipped to be the equal of a European force. Ranjit Singh proved himself to be a master strategist and selected well qualified generals for his army. In Harmandir Sahib or The Golden Temple is culturally stages, he added the central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and the most significant place of worship for the Sikhs. Kashmir, the Peshawar Valley, and the Derajat to his kingdom. His came in the face of the powerful British East India Company.[90][] At its peak, in the 19th century, the empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the north, to Sindh in the south, and Himachal in the east. This was among the last areas of the subcontinent to be conquered by the British. The first and second Anglo-Sikh war marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire.

History of India Other kingdoms There were several other kingdoms which ruled over parts of India in the later medieval period prior to the British occupation. However, most of them were bound to pay regular tribute to the Marathas.[89] The rule of Wodeyar dynasty which established the Kingdom of Mysore in southern India in around 1400 CE by was interrupted by Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan in the later half of 18th century. Under their rule, Mysore fought a series of wars sometimes against the combined forces of the British and Marathas, but mostly against the British, with Mysore receiving some aid or promise of aid from the French. The Nawabs of Bengal had become the de facto rulers of Bengal following the decline of Mughal Empire. However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried six expeditions in Bengal from 1741 to 1748 as a result of which Bengal became a vassal state of Marathas. Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and declared himself Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1724. It was ruled by a hereditary Nizam from 1724 until 1948. Both Mysore and Hyderabad became princely states in British India. Around the 18th century, the modern state of Nepal was formed by Gurkha rulers.

18

Colonial era
In 1498, Vasco da Gama successfully discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce.[91] The Portuguese soon set up trading posts in Goa, Daman, Diu and Bombay. The next to arrive were the Dutch, the Britishwho set up a trading post in the west coast port of Surat[92] in 1619and the French. The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Although these continental European powers controlled various coastal regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they eventually lost all their territories in India to the British islanders, with the exception of the French outposts of Pondichry and Chandernagore, the Dutch port of Travancore, and the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman and Diu.

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Company rule in India

In 1617 the British East India Company was given permission by Mughal Emperor Jahangir to trade in India.[93] Gradually their increasing influence led the de jure Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar to grant them dastaks or permits for duty free trade in Bengal in 1717.[94] The Nawab of Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah, the de facto ruler of the Bengal province, opposed British attempts to use these permits. The First Carnatic War extended from 1746 until 1748 and was the result of colonial competition between France and Britain, two of the countries involved in the War of Austrian Succession. Following the capture of a few French ships by the British fleet in India, French troops attacked and captured the British city of Madras located on the east coast of India on 21 September 1746. Among the prisoners captured at Madras was Robert Clive himself. The war was eventually ended by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle which ended the War of Austrian Succession in 1748. In 1749, the Second Carnatic War broke out as the result of a war between a son, Nasir Jung, and a grandson, Muzaffer Jung, of the deceased Nizam-ul-Mulk of Hyderabad to take over Nizam's thone in Hyderabad. The French supported Muzaffer Jung in this civil war. Consequently, the British supported Nasir Jung in this conflict.

Map of India in 1857 at the end of Company rule.

Meanwhile, however, the conflict in Hyderabad provided Chanda Sahib with an opportunity to take power as the new Nawab of the territory of Arcot. In this conflict, the French supported Chandra Sahib in his attempt to become the new Nawab of Arcot. The British supported the son of the deposed incumbent Nawab, Anwaruddin Muhammad Khan, against Chanda Sahib. In 1751, Robert Clive led a British armed force and captured Arcot to reinstate the incumbent Nawab. The Second Carnatic War finally came to an end in 1754 with the Treaty of Pondicherry. In 1756, the Seven Years War broke out between the great powers of Europe, and India became a theatre of action, where it was called the Third Carnatic War. Early in this war, armed forces under the French East India Company captured the British base of Calcutta in north-eastern India. However, armed forces under Robert Clive later recaptured Calcutta and then pressed on to capture the French settlement of Chandannagar in 1757. This led to the Battle of Plassey on 23 June 1757, in which the Bengal Army of the East India Company, led by Robert Clive, defeated the French-supported Nawab's forces. This was the first real political foothold with territorial implications that the British acquired in India. Clive was appointed by the company as its first 'Governor of Bengal' in 1757.[95] This was combined with British victories over the French at Madras, Wandiwash and Pondichry that, along with wider British successes during the Seven Years War, reduced French influence in India. Thus as a result of the three Carnatic Wars, the British East India Company gained exclusive control over the entire Carnatic region of India.[96] The British East India Company extended its control over the whole of Bengal. After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the company acquired the rights of administration in Bengal from Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II; this marked the beginning of its formal rule, which within the next century engulfed most of India and extinguished the Moghul rule and dynasty.[97] The East India Company monopolized the trade of Bengal. They introduced a land taxation system called the Permanent Settlement which introduced a feudal-like structure in Bengal, often with zamindars set in place. By the 1850s, the East India Company controlled most of the Indian sub-continent, which included present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh. Their policy was sometimes summed up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage of the enmity festering between various princely states and social and religious groups.[98]

History of India The Hindu Ahom Kingdom of North-east India first fell to Burmese invasion and then to British after Treaty of Yandabo in 1826.

20

The rebellion of 1857 and its consequences

The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers employed by the British East India in northern and central India against the Company's rule. The rebels were disorganized, had differing goals, and were poorly equipped, led, and trained, and had no outside support or funding. They were brutally suppressed and the British government took control of the Company and eliminated many of the grievances that caused it. The government also was determined to keep full control so that no rebellion of such size would ever happen again. It favoured the princely states (that helped suppress the rebellion), and tended to favour Muslims (who were less rebellious) against the Hindus who dominated the rebellion.[99] In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown, which began to administer most of India as a number of provinces; the John Company's lands were controlled directly, while it had considerable indirect influence over the rest of India, which consisted of the Princely states ruled by local royal families. There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only 21 had actual state governments, and only three were large (Mysore, Hyderabad and Kashmir). They were absorbed into the independent nation in 1947-48.[100]

British Raj
Reforms
When the Lord Curzon (Viceroy 1899-1905) took control of higher education and then split the large province of Bengal into a largely Hindu western half and "Eastern Bengal and Assam," a largely Muslim eastern half. The British goal was efficient administration but Hindus were outraged at the apparent "divide and rule" strategy." When the Liberal party in Britain came to power in 1906 he was removed. The new Viceroy Gilbert Minto and the new Secretary of State for India John Morley consulted with Congress leader Gopal Krishna Gokhale. The British Indian Empire at its greatest extent The Morley-Minto reforms of 1909 provided for Indian membership of (in a map of 1909). The princely states under the provincial executive councils as well as the Viceroy's executive British suzerainty are in yellow. council. The Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged from 25 to 60 members and separate communal representation for Muslims was established in a dramatic step towards representative and responsible government. Bengal was reunified in 1911.[101] Meanwhile the Muslims for the first time began to organize, setting up the All India Muslim League in 1906. It was not a mass party but was designed to protect the interests of the aristocratic Muslims, especially in the north west. It was internally divided by conflicting loyalties to Islam, the British, and India, and by distrust of Hindus.[102]

Famines
During the British Raj, famines in India, often attributed to failed government policies, were some of the worst ever recorded, including the Great Famine of 187678 in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died[103] and the Indian famine of 18991900 in which 1.25 to 10 million people died.[103] The Third Plague Pandemic started in China in the middle of the 19th century, spreading plague to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone.[104] Despite persistent diseases and famines, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at about 125 million in 1750, had reached 389 million by 1941.[105]

History of India

21

The Indian independence movement

The numbers of British in India were small, yet they were able to rule two-thirds of the subcontinent directly and exercise considerable leverage over the princely states that accounted for the remaining one-third of the area. There were 674 of the these states in 1900, with a population of 73 million, or one person in five. In general, the princely states were strong supporters of the British regime, and the Raj left them alone. They were finally closed down in 1947-48.[106] The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Muhammad councillors to advise the British viceroy, in 1861; the first Indian was Ali Jinnah, Bombay, 1944. appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils with Indian members were also set up. The councillors' participation was subsequently widened into legislative councils. The British built a large British Indian Army, with the senior officers all British, and many of the troops from small minority groups such as Gurkhas from Nepal and Sikhs. The civil service was increasingly filled with natives at the lower levels, with the British holding the more senior positions.[107] From 1920 leaders such as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. Some others adopted a militant approach that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle; revolutionary activities against the British rule took place throughout the Indian sub-continent. The Gandhi-led independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent methods like non-cooperation, civil disobedience and economic resistance. These movements succeeded in bringing independence to the new dominions of India and Pakistan in 1947.

Independence and partition

Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the years. The Muslims had always been a minority within the subcontinent, and the prospect of an exclusively Hindu government made them wary of independence; they were as inclined to mistrust Hindu rule as they were to resist the foreign Raj, although Gandhi called for unity between the two groups in an astonishing display of leadership. The British, extremely weakened by the Second World War, promised that they would leave and participated in the formation of an interim government. The British Indian territories gained independence in 1947, after being partitioned into the Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan. Following the controversial division of pre-partition Punjab and Bengal, rioting broke out between Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in these provinces and spread to several other parts of India, leaving some 500,000 dead.[] Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations ever recorded in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively).[] In 1971, Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan and East Bengal, seceded from Pakistan.

Historiography
In recent decades there have been four main schools of historiography regarding India: Cambridge, Nationalist, Marxist, and subaltern. The once common "Orientalist" approach, with its the image of a sensuous, inscrutable, and wholly spiritual India, has died out in serious scholarship.[108] The "Cambridge School," led by Anil Seal,[109] Gordon Johnson,[110] Richard Gordon, and David A. Washbrook,[111] downplays ideology.[112] The Nationalist school has focused on Congress, Gandhi, Nehru and high level politics. It highlighted the Mutiny of 1857 as a war of liberation, and Gandhi's 'Quit India' begun in 1942, as defining historical events. More recently, Hindu nationalists have created a version of history for the schools to support their demands for "Hindutva"

History of India ("Hinduness") in Indian society.[113] The Marxists have focused on studies of economic development, landownership, and class conflict in precolonial India and of deindustrialization during the colonial period. The Marxists portrayed Gandhi's movement as a device for the bourgeois elite to harness popular, potentially revolutionary forces for its own ends.[114] The "subaltern school," was begun in the 1980s by Ranajit Guha and Gyan Prakash.[115] It focuses attention away from the elites and politicians to "history from below," looking at the peasants using folklore, poetry, riddles, proverbs, songs, oral history and methods inspired by anthropology. It focuses on the colonial era before 1947 and typically emphasizes caste and downplays class, to the annoyance of the Marxist school.[116]

22

Gallery

Chowmahalla Palace in Hyderabad

Charminar at Old City in Hyderabad

References
[1] [2] [3] [6] [7] G. Bongard-Levin, A History of India (Progress Publishers: Moscow, 1979) p. 11. Romila Thapar, A History of India (Penguin Books: New York, 1966) p. 23. Romila Thapar, A History of India, p. 24. See map on page 263 Parth R. Chauhan. Distribution of Acheulian sites in the Siwalik region (http:/ / www. assemblage. group. shef. ac. uk/ issue7/ chauhan. html#distribution). An Overview of the Siwalik Acheulian & Reconsidering Its Chronological Relationship with the Soanian A Theoretical Perspective. [8] http:/ / www. hindustantimes. com/ India-news/ NewDelhi/ Indus-Valley-2-000-years-older-than-thought/ Article1-954601. aspx [10] Indian Archaeology, A Review. 1958-1959. Excavations at Alamgirpur. Delhi: Archaeol. Surv. India, pp. 5152. [13] G. Bongard-Levin, A History of India: Part 1 (Progressive Books: Moscow, 1979) p. 51. [14] Romila Thapar, A History of India: Part 1, pp. 29-30. [17] Singhal, K. C; Gupta, Roshan. The Ancient History of India, Vedic Period: A New Interpretation. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. ISBN 8126902868. P. 150-151. [18] *Day, Terence P. (1982). The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature. Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. P. 42-45. ISBN 0-919812-15-5. [19] India: Reemergence of Urbanization (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-46838/ India). Retrieved on 12 May 2007. [21] Romila Thapar, A History of India Part 1, p. 31. [22] Romila Thapar, A History of India Part 1, p. 32. [23] M. Witzel, Early Sanskritization. Origins and development of the Kuru State. B. Klver (ed.), Recht, Staat und Verwaltung im klassischen Indien. The state, the Law, and Administration in Classical India. Mnchen : R. Oldenbourg 1997, 27-52 = Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, vol. 1,4, December 1995, (http:/ / ejvs. laurasianacademy. com) [28] Flood, Gavin. Olivelle, Patrick. 2003. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Malden: Blackwell. pg. 273-4. "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterize later Indian religions. The

History of India
renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history....Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara - the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana - the goal of human existence....." [29] Laumakis, Stephen. An Introduction to Buddhist philosophy. 2008. p. 4 [30] Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths I.B.Tauris : London ISBN 1-86064-148-2 - Jainism's major teacher is the Mahavira, a contemporary of the Buddha, and who died approximately 526 BC. Page 114 [31] Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths I.B.Tauris : London ISBN 1-86064-148-2 - "The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira." Page 115 [32] Romila Thapar, A History of India: Part 1, p. 58. [34] Romila Thapar, A History of India, p. 59. [35] Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times (Charles Scribner's Sons Publishing: New York, 1966) p. 357. [37] Romila Thapar, A History of India: Volume 1, p. 70. [38] G. Bongard-Levin, A History of India: Volume 1, pp. 66. [39] Romila Thapar, A History of India: Volume 1, p. 88. [40] G. Bongard-Levin, A History of India: Volume 1, p. 67. [41] Romila Thapar, A History of India, p. 72. [42] G. Bongard-Levin, A History of India, p. 67. [43] G. Bongard, A History of India, p. 91. [44] Romila Thapar, A History of India, p. 78. [45] G. Bongard-Levin, A History of India: Volume 1, p. 80. [46] G. Bongard-Levin, A History of India, p. 80. [47] G. Bongard-Levin, A History of India: Volume 1, p. 108. [48] Agrawal, Sadananda (2000): r Khravela, Sri Digambar Jain Samaj, Cuttack [49] Sims-Williams and Cribb (1995-1996), pp. 175-176. [50] "At any rate, when Gallus was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the Nile as far as Syene and the frontiers of Ethiopia, and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos to India, whereas formerly, under the Ptolemies, only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise." Strabo II.5.12. Source (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Strabo/ 2E1*. html) [51] "minimaque computatione miliens centena milia sestertium annis omnibus India et Seres et paeninsula illa imperio nostro adimunt: tanti nobis deliciae et feminae constant. quota enim portio ex illis ad deos, quaeso, iam vel ad inferos pertinet?" Pliny, Historia Naturae 12.41.84. [61] Iaroslav Lebedynsky, "Les Nomades", p172. [62] Early History of India, p 339, Dr V. A. Smith; See also Early Empire of Central Asia (1939), W. M. McGovern. [63] Ancient India, 2003, p 650, Dr V. D. Mahajan; History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p 50, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar. [64] Michaels 2004, p.41. [65] Michaels 2004, p.43. [66] Schimmel, Annemarie Schimmel, Religionen - Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, Brill Academic Publishers, 1 January 1980, ISBN 978-90-04-06117-0, pg. 4 [67] Sheridan, Daniel P. "Kumarila Bhatta", in Great Thinkers of the Eastern World, ed. Ian McGready, New York: Harper Collins, 1995, pp. 198-201. ISBN 0-06-270085-5. [68] Arnold, Daniel Anderson. Buddhists, Brahmins, and Belief: Epistemology in South Asian Philosophy of religion, p. 4. Columbia University Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0-231-13281-7. [69] Inden, Ronald. "Ritual, Authority, And Cycle Time in Hindu Kingship." In JF Richards, ed., Kingship and Authority in South Asia. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998, p.67, 55 [70] Holt, John. The Buddhist Visnu. Columbia University Press, 2004, p.12,15 [74] Miller, J. Innes. (1969). The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641. Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books. 1998. ISBN 0-19-814264-1. [75] Search for India's ancient city (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 4970452. stm). BBC News. Retrieved on 22 June 2007. [77] http:/ / www. indianscience. org/ essays/ 22-%20E--Gems%20& %20Minerals%20F. pdf [78] History (http:/ / books. google. co. th/ books?id=mHLB4m75pisC& pg=PA198& lpg=PA198& dq=arabs+ defeated+ rajasthan& source=bl& ots=E8_YoKMEB_& sig=KZQqifwSNuU-OOKkWYPl-_8zk4w& hl=en& sa=X& ei=yGobUNilKo7NrQf12ICoCg& redir_esc=y#v=onepage& q=arabs defeated rajasthan& f=false) [80] From the notes of Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes about Krishnadevaraya: A king who was perfect in all things (Hampi, A Travel Guide 2003, p. 31.) [82] Battuta's Travels: Delhi, capital of Muslim India (http:/ / www. sfusd. k12. ca. us/ schwww/ sch618/ Ibn_Battuta/ Battuta's_Trip_Seven. html) [83] Timur - conquest of India (http:/ / www. gardenvisit. com/ travel/ clavijo/ timurconquestofindia. htm)

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History of India
[85] The Islamic World to 1600: Rise of the Great Islamic Empires (The Mughal Empire) (http:/ / www. ucalgary. ca/ applied_history/ tutor/ islam/ empires/ mughals/ ) [86] Iran in the Age of the Raj (http:/ / www. avalanchepress. com/ Soldier_Shah. php) [88] Stewart N. Gordon, "The Slow Conquest: Administrative Integration of Malwa into the Maratha Empire, 1720-1760," Modern Asian Studies, Jan 1977, 11#1 pp 1-40 [89] The Rediscovery of India: A New Subcontinent (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=XRpFol4AnO0C& pg=PA133& lpg=PA133& dq=marathas+ they+ were+ either+ masters+ directly+ or+ they+ took+ tribute& source=bl& ots=u8fCv6tT9S& sig=1Cj9lxYXUtzM5CbCztnts-iTyVA& hl=en& sa=X& ei=ms4UUNzSLcLRrQfYo4DICg& ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=marathas they were either masters directly or they took tribute& f=false) Cite: "Swarming up from the Himalayas, the Marathas now ruled from the Indus and Himalayas in the north to the south tip of the peninsula. They were either masters directly or they took tribute." [90] Gulcharan Singh, "Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the Principles of War," USI Journal, July 1981, Vol. 111 Issue 465, pp 184-192 [91] From: Oliver J. Thatcher, ed., The Library of Original Sources (Milwaukee: University Research Extension Co., 1907), Vol. V: 9th to 16th Centuries, pp. 26-40. [93] From: James Harvey Robinson, ed., Readings in European History, 2 Vols. (Boston: Ginn and Co., 1904-1906), Vol. II: From the opening of the Protestant Revolt to the Present Day, pp. 333335. [96] Lawrence James, Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India (1997) pp 30-44 [98] H. V. Bowen, The Business of Empire: The East India Company and Imperial Britain, 1756-1833 (2008) [99] Christopher Hibbert, The Great Mutiny: India 1857 (1980) [100] Wilhelm von Pochhammer, India's road to nationhood: a political history of the subcontinent (1981) ch 57 [101] S. A. Wolpert, Morley and India, 1906-1910, (1967) [102] Satya Narayan Mishra, "Muslim Backwardness and Birth of the Muslim League," Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society, Jan 2007, Vol. 55 Issue 1/2, pp 71-83 [103] Davis, Mike. Late Victorian Holocausts. 1. Verso, 2000. ISBN 1-85984-739-0 pg 7 [104] Plague (http:/ / www. who. int/ vaccine_research/ diseases/ zoonotic/ en/ index4. html). World Health Organization. [105] Reintegrating India with the World Economy (http:/ / www. petersoninstitute. org/ publications/ chapters_preview/ 98/ 1iie2806. pdf). Peterson Institute for International Economics. [106] Lawrence James, Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India (2000) pp 322-40 [107] Anil Chandra Banerjee, A Constitutional History of India 1600-1935 (1978) p 171-3 [108] Gyan Prakesh, "Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Perspectives from Indian Historiography" Comparative Studies in Society and History (1990), 32 : pp 383-408 [109] Anil Seal, The Emergence of Indian Nationalism: Competition and Collaboration in the Later Nineteenth Century (1971) [110] Gordon Johnson, Provincial Politics and Indian Nationalism: Bombay and the Indian National Congress 1880-1915 (2005) [111] Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook, eds. Religious Cultures in Early Modern India: New Perspectives (2011) [112] Aravind Ganachari, "Studies in Indian Historiography: 'The Cambridge School,'" Indica, March 2010, 47#1, pp 70-93 [113] Latha Menon, "Coming to Terms with the Past: India," History Today, Aug 2004, 54#8 pp 28-30 [114] Amiya Kumar Bagchi, "Writing Indian History in the Marxist Mode in a Post-Soviet World," Indian Historical Review, Jan 1993, Vol. 20 Issue 1/2, pp 229-244, [115] Gyan Prakash, "Subaltern studies as postcolonial criticism," American Historical Review, Dec 1994, 99#5 pp 1475-1500 [116] John Roosa, "When the Subaltern Took the Postcolonial Turn," Journal of the Canadian Historical Association, 2006, Vol. 17 Issue 2, pp 130-147

24

Sources
Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism. Past and present, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press

Further reading
Bandyopadhyay, Sekhar. From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India (2010) Basham, A. L., ed. The Illustrated Cultural History of India (Oxford University Press, 2007) Brown, Judith M. Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy (2nd ed. 1994) online (http://www. questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59677250) Danilou, Alain (2003). A Brief History of India ISBN 0-89281-923-5 Guha, Ramachandra. India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy (2007), 890pp; since 1947 James, Lawrence. Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India (2000)

History of India Keay, John (2000). India: A History (http://books.google.com/books?id=3aeQqmcXBhoC). New York, USA: Grove Press. ISBN0-8021-3797-0. Kulke, Hermann and Dietmar Rothermund. A History of India. (4th ed 2004) online (http://www.questia.com/ PM.qst?a=o&d=108019139) Mcleod, John. The History of India] (2002) excerpt and text search (http://books.google.com/ books?id=DAwmUphO6eAC) Mansingh, Surjit The A to Z of India (2010), a concise historical encyclopedia Metcalf, Barbara D. and Thomas R. Metcalf. A Concise History of Modern India (2006) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Modern-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521682258/) Peers, Douglas M. India under Colonial Rule: 1700-1885 (2006), 192pp Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire (The New Cambridge History of India) (1996) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/Mughal-Empire-Cambridge-History-India/dp/0521566037/) Rothermund, Dietmar. An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991 (http://books.google. com/books?id=7cZ_oJGWWK0C) (1993) Sharma, R.S., India's Ancient Past, (Oxford University Press, 2005) Sarkar, Sumit. Modern India, 1885-1947 (2002) Singhal, D.P. A History of the Indian People. (1983) Smith, Vincent. The Oxford History of India (3rd ed. 1958), old-fashioned Spear, Percival. The History of India (1958 and later editions) online edition (http://www.questia.com/PM. qst?a=o&d=5797476) Stein, Burton. A History of India (1998) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/ 0631205462/) Tapan, Habib, and Irfan Raychaudhuri, eds. The Cambridge Economic History of India; Volume 1: c. 1200 - c. 1750 (1984), essays by scholars Dharma Kumar and Meghnad Desai, eds. The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 2, c.1751-c.1970 (2nd ed. 2010), 1114pp of scholarly articles Thapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 (2004) excerpt and text search (http://books.google. com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC) Thompson, Edward, and G.T. Garratt. Rise and Fulfilment of British Rule in India (1934) 690 pages; scholarly survey, 1599-1933 excerpt and text search (http://books.google.com/books?id=93fnssiWvjoC) Tomlinson, B. R. The Economy of Modern India, 1860-1970 (The New Cambridge History of India) (1996) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/Economy-Modern-1860-1970-Cambridge-History/dp/ 0521589398/) Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India. (6th ed. 1999)

25

Historiography
Bannerjee, Dr. Gauranganath (1921). India as known to the ancient world (http://www.archive.org/stream/ indiaasknowntoan00banerich#page/n3/mode/2up). Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press, London. Bayly, C. A. "State and Economy in India over Seven Hundred Years," Economic History Review, (Nov 1985), 38#4 pp 583596, online (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-0289.1985.tb00391.x/full) Bose, Mihir. "India's Missing Historians: Mihir Bose Discusses the Paradox That India, a Land of History, Has a Surprisingly Weak Tradition of Historiography," History Today 57#9 (2007) pp 34+. online (http://www. questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5023376478) Elliot, Henry Miers; John Dowson (186777). The History of India, as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan Period (http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf?file=80201010&ct=0). London: Trbner and Co.

History of India

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Online sources
The Imperial Gazetteer of India (26 vol, 190831), highly detailed description of all of India in 1901. online edition (http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/)

External links
History of India (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/Society_and_Culture/History//) at the Open Directory Project

Vedic period

Outline of South Asian history History of Indian subcontinent

The Vedic period (or Vedic age) was a period in history during which the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed. The time span of the period is uncertain. Philological and linguistic evidence indicates that the Rigveda, the oldest of the Vedas, was composed roughly between 1700 and 1100 BCE, also referred to as the early Vedic period.[1] The end of the period is commonly estimated to have occurred about 500 BCE, and 150 BCE has been suggested as a terminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit literature.[2] Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by oral tradition alone,[3] and a literary tradition set in only in post-Vedic times. Despite the difficulties in dating the period, the Vedas can safely be assumed to be several thousands of years old. The associated culture, sometimes referred to as Vedic civilization, was probably centred early on in the northern and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent, but has now spread and constitutes the basis of contemporary Indian culture. After the end of the Vedic period, the Mahajanapadas period in turn gave way to the Maurya Empire (from ca. 320 BC), the golden age of classical Sanskrit literature.

History
See also Rigvedic tribes The Rig Veda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus. The Rig Veda describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices (akratu) or obey the commandments of gods (avrata). Their speech is described as mridhra which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, scornful or abusive. Other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations. However, many modern scholars connect the Dasas and Dasyus to Iranian tribes

Geography of the Rig Vedic culture, with river names; the extent of the Swat and Cemetery H cultures are also indicated.

Dahae

and

Dahyu

and

Vedic period

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believe that Dasas and Dasyus were early IndoAryan immigrants who arrived into the subcontinent before the Vedic Aryans.[4][5] Internecine military conflicts between the various tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the Rig Veda. Most notable of such conflicts was the Battle of Ten Kings which took place on the banks of the river Parushni (modern day Ravi). The battle was fought between the tribe Bharatas, led by their chief Sudas, against a confederation of ten tribes Puru, Yadu, Turvasha, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Map of northern India in the later Vedic age. River Indus is shown by its Sanskrit name Sindhu. The location of Vedic shakhas is labelled in green. Thar desert is in orange. Bhalanas, Paktha, Siva, Vishanin.[6] Bharatas lived around the upper regions of the river Saraswati, while Purus, their western neighbours, lived along the lower regions of Saraswati. The other tribes dwelt northwest of the Bharatas in the region of Punjab.[7] Division of the waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war.[6] The confederation of tribes tried to inundate the Bharatas by opening the embankments of Ravi, yet Sudas emerged victorious in the Battle of Ten Kings.[8] Purukutsa, the chief of Purus, was killed in the battle and the Bharatas and the Purus merged into a new tribe Kuru after the war.[7] In the 11th century BCE, as Rig Veda took its final form, the Vedic society transitioned from seminomadic life to settled agriculture. This transition led to increased competition and conflicts over resources such as land and water. The Gangetic plains had remained out of bounds to the Vedic tribes because of thick forest cover. However, after 1000 BCE, the use of iron axes and ploughs became widespread and the jungles could be cleared with ease. This enabled the Vedic Aryans to extend their kingdoms along the Gangetic plains and ushered the later Vedic age.[9] Anga (in modern day West Bengal), a small kingdom to the east of Magadha, formed the eastern boundary of the Vedic culture.[10] Yadavas expanded towards the south and settled in Mathura. To the south of their kingdom was Vatsa which was governed from its capital Kausambi. The Narmada River and parts of North Western Deccan formed the southern limits.[11][12] With the expansion of settlements the centre of the Vedic civilization shifted east. Many of the old tribes coalesced to form larger political units.[13] The newly formed states struggled for supremacy and started displaying imperial ambitions.[14] The most famous of new religious sacrifices that arose in this period was the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). This sacrifice involved setting a consecrated horse free to roam the kingdoms for a year. The horse was followed by a chosen band of warriors. The kingdoms and chiefdoms in which the horse wandered had to pay homage or prepare to battle the king to whom the horse belonged. This sacrifice put considerable pressure on interstate relations in this era.[15] By the sixth century BCE, the political units consolidated into large kingdoms called Mahajanapadas. The process of urbanization had begun in these kingdoms and commerce and travel, even over regions separated by large distances became easy.[16] The end of Vedic India is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of Pini marks a final apex in the codification of Sutra texts, and at the same time the beginning of Classical Sanskrit.[17] The invasion of Darius I of the Indus valley in the early 6th century BC marks the beginning of outside influence, continued in the kingdoms of the Indo-Greeks.[18]

Vedic period

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Political organization
Vedic aryans were organised into tribes rather than kingdoms. The chief of a tribe was called a rajan. The autonomy of the rajan was restricted by the tribal councils called sabha and samiti. The two bodies were, in part, responsible for the governance of the tribe. The rajan could not accede to the throne without their approval. The distinction between the two bodies is not clear. Arthur Llewellyn Basham, a noted historian and indologist, theorises that sabha was a meeting of great men in the tribe, whereas, samiti was a meeting of all free tribesmen. Some tribes had no hereditary chiefs and were directly governed by the tribal councils. Rajan had a rudimentary court which was attended by courtiers (sabhasad) and chiefs of septs (gramani). The main responsibility of the rajan was to protect the tribe. He was aided by several functionaries, including the purohita (chaplain), the senani (army chief), dutas (envoys) and spash (spies).[19] Purohita performed ceremonies and spells for success in war and prosperity in peace.[20] In the later Vedic period, the tribes had consolidated into little kingdoms, which had a capital and a rudimentary administrative system.[21] Rajan was seen as the custodian of social order and the protector of rashtra (polity). Hereditary kingship started emerging and competitions like chariot races, cattle raids, and game of dice, which previously decided who was worthy of becoming a king, became nominal. Rituals in this era exalted the status of the king over his people. He was occasionally referred to as samrat (supreme ruler). Rajan's increasing political power enabled him to gain greater control over the productive resources. The voluntary gift offering (bali) became compulsory, however, there was no organised system of taxation. Sabha and samiti are still mentioned in later Vedic texts, though, with increasing power of king, their influence declined.[22] By the end of the later Vedic age, different kinds of political systems such as monarchical states (rajya), oligarchical states (gana or sangha), and tribal principalities had emerged in India.[22]

Economy
Economy in the Rig Vedic period was sustained by a combination of pastoralism and agriculture.[23] There are references, in the Rig Veda, to leveling of field, seed processing, and storage of grains in large jars. War booty was also a major source of wealth.[24] Economic exchanges were conducted by gift giving, particularly to kings (bali) and priests (dana), and barter using cattle as a unit of currency. While gold is mentioned in some hymns, there is no indication of the use of coins. Metallurgy is not mentioned in the Rig Veda, but the word ayas and instruments made from it such as razors, bangles, axes are mentioned. One verse mentions purification of ayas. Some scholars believe that ayas refers to iron and the words dham and karmara refer to ironwelders.[25] Panis in some hymns refers to merchants, in others to stingy people who hid their wealth and did not perform Vedic sacrifices. Some scholars suggest that Ceramic goblet from Navdatoli, Malwa, Panis were semitic traders, but the evidence for this is slim.[7] Professions of 1300 BC. warriors, priests, cattlerearers, farmers, hunters, barbers, vintners and crafts of chariotmaking, cartmaking, carpentry, metal working, tanning, making of bows, sewing, weaving, making mats of grass and reed are mentioned in the hymns of Rig Veda. Some of these might have needed fulltime specialists.[25] There are references to boats and oceans. The book X of the Rig Veda refers to both eastern and western oceans. Individual property ownership did not exist and clans as a whole enjoyed rights over lands and herds. Enslavement (dasa, dasi) in the course of war or as a result of nonpayment of debt is mentioned. However, slaves worked in households rather than productionrelated activities.[24]

Vedic period The transition of Vedic society from seminomadic life to settled agriculture in the later Vedic age lead to an increase in trade and competition for resources.[26] Agriculture dominated the economic activity along the Ganges valley during this period.[27] Agricultural operations grew in complexity and usage of iron implements (krishnaayas or shyamaayas, literally black metal or dark metal) increased. Crops of wheat, rice, and barley were cultivated. New crafts and occupations such as carpentry, leather work, tanning, pottery, astrology, jewellery, dying, and vintnery arose.[28] Apart from copper, bronze, and gold, later Vedic texts also mention tin, lead, and silver.[29]

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Culture
Society
Rig Vedic society was relatively egalitarian in the sense that a distinct hierarchy of socioeconomic classes or castes was absent.[30][24] However, political hierarchy was determined by rank, where rajan stood at the top and dasi at the bottom.[24] The words Brahamana and Kshatriya occur in various family books of the Rig Veda, but they are not associated with the term varna. The words Vaishya and Shudra are absent. Verses of the Rig Veda, such as 3.44-45, indicate the absence of strict social hierarchy and the existence of social mobility:[4] O, Indra, fond of soma, would you make me the protector of people, or would you make me a king, would you make me a sage who has drunk soma, would you impart to me endless wealth. The Vedic household was patriarchal and patrilineal. The institution of marriage was important and different types of marriages monogamy, polygyny and polyandry are mentioned in the Rig Veda. Both women sages and female gods were known to Vedic Aryans. However, hymns attributable to female sages are few and female gods were not as important as male ones. Women could choose their husbands and could remarry if their husbands died or disappeared.[24] While the wife enjoyed a respectable position, she was subordinate to her husband.[23] People consumed milk, milk products, grains, fruits and vegetables. Meat eating is mentioned, however, cows are labelled aghnya (not to be killed). Clothes of cotton, wool and animal skin were worn.[24] Soma and sura were popular drinks in the Rig Vedic society, of which soma was sanctified by religion. Flute (vana), lute (vina), harp, cymbals, and drums were the musical instruments played and a heptatonic scale was used.[23] Dancing, dramas, chariot racing, and gambling were other popular pastimes.[24] The emergence of monarchical states in the later Vedic age, led to a distancing of the rajan from the people and the emergence of a varna hierarchy. The society was divided into four social groups Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The later Vedic texts fixed social boundaries, roles, status and ritual purity for each of the groups. The Shatapatha Brahmana associates the Brahmana with purity of parentage, good conduct, glory, teaching or protecting people; Kshatriya with strength, fame, ruling, and warfare; Vaishya with material prosperity and productionrelated activities such as cattle rearing and agriculture; Shudras with the service of the higher varnas. The effects of Rajasuya sacrifice depended on the varna of the sacrificer. Rajasuya endowed Brahmana with lustre, Kshatriya with valour, Vaishya with procreative power and Shudra with stability. The hierarchy of the top three varnas is ambiguous in the later Vedic texts. Panchavamsha Brahmana and verse 13.8.3.11 of the Shatapatha Brahmana place Kshatriya over Brahmana and Vaishya, whereas, verse 1.1.4.12 places Brahmana and Vaishya over the Kshatriya and Shudra. The Purusha sukta visualized the four varnas as hierarchical, but interrelated parts of an organic whole.[31] Despite the increasing social stratification in the later Vedic times, hymns like Rig Veda IX.112, suggest some amount of social mobility: "I am a reciter of hymns, my father a physician, and my mother grinds (corn) with stones. We desire to obtain wealth in various actions."[32][33] Household became an important unit in the later Vedic age. The variety of households of the Rig Vedic era gave way to an idealized household which was headed by a grihapati. The relations between husband and wife, father and son were hierarchically organised and the women were relegated to subordinate and docile roles. Polygyny was more common than polyandry and texts like Tattiriya Samhita indicate taboos around menstruating women. Various professions women took to are mentioned in the later Vedic texts. Women tended to cattle, milked cows, carded

Vedic period wool; were weavers, dyers, and corn grinders. Women warriors such as Vishphala, who lost a leg in battle, are mentioned. Two female philosophers are mentioned in the Upanishads.[34] Patrick Olivelle, in his translation of the Upanishads, writes that "the fact that these women are introduced without any attempt to justify or to explain how women could be engaged in theological matters suggests the relatively high social and religious position of at least women of some social strata during this period."[35]

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Religion
Main articles: Historical Vedic religion The Vedic forms of belief are the precursor to modern Hinduism.[36] Texts considered to date to the Vedic period are mainly the four Vedas, but the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the older Upanishads as well as the oldest Shrautasutras are also considered to be Vedic. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17 Shrauta priests and the purohitas. The rishis, the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda, were considered inspired poets and seers (in post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally existing Veda, rauta means "what is heard").
A steel engraving from the 1850s, which depicts the creative activities of Prajapati, a Vedic deity who presides over procreation and protection of life.

The mode of worship was the performance of sacrifices (Yajna) which included the chanting of Rigvedic verses (see Vedic chant), singing of Samans and 'mumbling' of sacrificial mantras (Yajus). Yajna involved sacrifice and sublimation of the havana smagri (herbal preparations) in the fire accompanied by the chanting of the Vedic mantras. The sublime meaning of the word yajna is derived from the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of worship of deities (devapujana), unity (sagatikaraa) and charity (dna).[37] An essential element was the sacrificial fire - the divine Agni - into which oblations were poured, as everything offered into the fire was believed to reach God. People prayed for abundance of rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining 'heaven'. Vedic people believed in the transmigration of the soul and the peepul tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharva Veda.[38] Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later like Dharma, Karma etc. trace their root to the Vedas.[39] The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra, Agni (the sacrificial fire), and Soma and some deities of social order such as MitraVaruna, Aryaman, Bhaga and Amsa, further nature deities such as Surya (the Sun), Vayu (the wind), Prithivi (the earth). Goddesses included Ushas (the dawn), Prithvi and Aditi (the mother of the Aditya gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially Saraswati, were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship between humans and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common Indo-Iranian religion remain visible, especially in the Soma cult and the fire worship, both of which are preserved in Zoroastrianism. Ethics in the Vedas are based on the concepts of Satya and Rta. Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute.[40] Whereas, ta is the expression of Satya, which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it.[41] Conformity with ta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment. Vedic religion evolved into the Hindu paths of Yoga and Vedanta, a religious path considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas, interpreting the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman. These post-Vedic systems of thought, along with later texts like Upanishads, epics (namely Gita of Mahabharat), have been fully preserved and form the basis of modern

Vedic period Hinduism. The ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are preserved in the conservative rauta tradition.

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Literature
The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata: 1. Rigvedic text: The Rigveda is by far the most archaic of the Vedic texts preserved, and it retains many common Indo-Iranian elements, both in language and in content, that are not present in any other Vedic texts. Its creation must have taken place over several centuries or millennia. 2. Mantra language texts: This period includes both the mantra and prose language of the Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda Khilani, the Samaveda Samhita (containing some 75 mantras not in the Rigveda), and the mantras An early 19th century manuscript of Rigveda of the Yajurveda. Many of these texts are largely derived from the (padapatha) in Devanagari. The Vedic accent is marked Rigveda, but have undergone certain changes, both by linguistic by underscores and vertical overscores in red. change and by reinterpretation. Conspicuous changes include change of vishva "all" by sarva, and the spread of the kuru- verbal stem (for Rigvedic krno-). This is the time of the early Iron Age in north-western India, corresponding to the Black and Red Ware (BRW) culture, and the kingdom of the Kurus, dating from ca. the 10th century BC. 3. Samhita prose texts: This period marks the beginning of the collection and codification of a Vedic canon. An important linguistic change is the complete loss of the injunctive. The Brahmana part ('commentary' on mantras and ritual) of the Black Yajurveda (MS, KS, TS) belongs to this period. Archaeologically, the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture from ca. 900 BC corresponds, and the shift of the political centre from the Kurus to the Pancalas on the Ganges. 4. Brahmana prose texts: The Brahmanas proper of the four Vedas belong to this period, as well as the Aranyakas, the oldest of the Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB) and the oldest Shrautasutras (BSS, VadhSS). 5. Sutra language texts: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit leading up to c. 500 BC, comprising the bulk of the rauta and Grhya Sutras, and some Upanishads (e.g. KathU, MaitrU). Videha (N. Bihar) as a third political centre is established.

References
Citations
[1] Oberlies (1998:155) gives an estimate of 1100 BC for the youngest hymns in book 10. Estimates for a terminus post quem of the earliest hymns are more uncertain. Oberlies (p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 17001100 [2] Flood 2003, p.68. [4] Singh 2008, p.192. [5] Kulke & Rothermund 1998, p.38. [6] Reddy 2011, p.103. [7] Basham 2008, p.32. [8] Kulke & Rothermund 1998, pp.3738. [9] Kulke & Rothermund 1998, pp.3940. [10] [11] [12] [13] Basham 208, p.40. Basham 208, p.41. Majumdar 1998, p.65. Singh 2008, p.200.

Vedic period
[14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] Majumdar 1998, p.66. Basham 2008, p.42. Olivelle 1998, pp.xxviiixxix. Fortson 2011, p.208. Sen 1999, pp.117120. Majumdar 1977, p.45. Basham 2008, pp.3334. Basham 2008, p.41. Singh 2008, pp.200201. Basham 2008, p.35. Singh 2008, p.191. Singh 2008, p.190. Kulke & Rothermund 1998, p.40. Olivelle & 1998 xxvii. Singh 2008, pp.198199. Basham 2008, pp.4243. Staal 2008, p.54. Singh 2008, pp.201203. Singh 2008, p.204. Olivelle 1998, p.xxvi. Singh 2008, pp.204206. Olivelle 1998, p.xxxvi.

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[36] Stephanie W. Jamison and Michael Witzel in Arvind Sharma, editor, The Study of Hinduism. University of South Carolina Press, 2003, page 65: "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradiction in terms since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion - at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism." [37] Nigal, S.G. Axiological Approach to the Vedas. Northern Book Centre, 1986. P. 81. ISBN 81-85119-18-x. [38] Singhal, K. C; Gupta, Roshan. The Ancient History of India, Vedic Period: A New Interpretation. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. ISBN 8126902868. P. 150-151. [39] *Day, Terence P. (1982). The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature. Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. P. 42-45. ISBN 0-919812-15-5. [40] Krishnananda. Swami. A Short History of Religious and Philosophic Thought in India, Divine Life Society. p. 21 [41] Holdrege (2004:215). Panikkar (2001:350-351) remarks: "ta is the ultimate foundation of everything; it is "the supreme", although this is not to be understood in a static sense. [...] It is the expression of the primordial dynamism that is inherent in everything...."

Bibliography
Basham, A. L. (2008), The Wonder That Was India: A survey of the history and culture of the Indian sub-continent before the coming of the Muslims (http://books.google.com/books?id=6OF-PwAACAAJ), Scholarly Publishing Office, University of Michigan, ISBN978-1-59740-599-7 Flood, Gavin (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism (http://books.google.com/ books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C), Malden, MA: Blackwell, ISBN1-4051-3251-5 Fortson, Benjamin W. (2011), Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction (http://books.google. com/books?id=bSxHgej4tKMC&pg=PA208), John Wiley & Sons, ISBN978-1-4443-5968-8 Griswold, Hervey De Witt (1971), The Religion of the igveda (http://books.google.com/ books?id=Vhkt5K1fw2wC&pg=PA331), Motilal Banarsidass Publ., ISBN978-81-208-0745-7 Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1977), Ancient India (http://books.google.com/books?id=XNxiN5tzKOgC), Motilal Banarsidass Publ., ISBN978-81-208-0436-4 Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (1998), A History of India (http://books.google.com/ books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC), Routledge, ISBN978-0-415-32920-0 Olivelle, Patrick (1998), Upanisads (http://books.google.com/books?id=f9-2jV7sRuEC), Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0-19-283576-5 Reddy, K. Krishna (2011), Indian History (http://books.google.com/books?id=X4j7Nf_MU24C& pg=SL1-PA103), Tata McGraw-Hill Education, ISBN978-0-07-132923-1

Vedic period Sen, S. N. (1999), Ancient Indian History And Civilization (http://books.google.com/ books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA117), New Age International, ISBN978-81-224-1198-0 Singh, Upinder (2008), A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century (http://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA184), Pearson Education India, ISBN978-81-317-1120-0 Staal, Frits (2008), Discovering the Vedas: Orgins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights (http://books.google.com/ books?id=HcE23SjLX8sC), Penguin Books India, ISBN978-0-14-309986-4 Winternitz, Moriz; Sarma, Vuppala Srinivasa (1981), A history of Indian literature: Introduction, Veda, epics, purnas and tantras (http://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA102), Motilal Banarsidass Publ., ISBN978-81-208-0264-3

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Further reading
R. C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker (editors): The History and Culture of the Indian People. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951 R.C. Majumdar et al. An Advanced History of India, MacMillan, 1967. Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak "The Arctic Home in the Vedas", Messrs Tilak Bros., 1903

External links
Restoration of Vedic Wisdom (http://www.quantumyoga.org/Movement for the Restoration .pdf) (pdf), Patrizia Norelli-Bachelet

Historical Vedic religion

The religion of the Vedic period (1500 BC to 500 BC[1]) (also known as Vedism, Vedic Brahmanism, ancient Hinduism or, in a context of Indian antiquity, simply Brahmanism[2]) is a historical predecessor of modern Hinduism.[3] Its liturgy is reflected in the mantra portion of the four Vedas,[4] which are compiled in Sanskrit. The religious practices centered on a clergy administering rites. This mode of worship is largely unchanged today within Hinduism; however, only a small fraction of conservative rautins continue the tradition of oral recitation of hymns learned solely through the oral tradition.

Map of northern India in the late Vedic period. The location of Vedic shakhas is labelled in green. Thar desert is in orange

History
Texts dating to the Vedic period, composed in Vedic Sanskrit, are mainly the four Vedic Samhitas, but the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and some of the older Upanishads (Bhadrayaka, Chndogya, Jaiminiya Upanishad

Historical Vedic religion Brahmana) are also placed in this period. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17 rauta priests and the purohitas. According to traditional views, the hymns of the Rigveda and other Vedic hymns were divinely revealed to the rishis, who were considered to be seers or "hearers" (ruti means "what is heard") of the Veda, rather than "authors". In addition the Vedas are said to be "apaurashaya", a Sanskrit word meaning "uncreated by man" and which further reveals their eternal non-changing status. The mode of worship was worship of the elements like fire and rivers, worship of heroic gods like Indra, chanting of hymns and performance of sacrifices. The priests performed the solemn rituals for the noblemen (Kshatriyas) and wealthy commoners Vaishyas. People prayed for abundance of children, rain, cattle (wealth), long life and an afterlife in the heavenly world of the ancestors. This mode of worship has been preserved even today in Hinduism, which involves recitations from the Vedas by a purohita (priest), for prosperity, wealth and general well-being. However, the primacy of Vedic deities has been seconded to the deities of Puranic literature. The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BC, Vedic religion gradually metamorphosizing into the various schools of Hinduism, which further evolved into Puranic Hinduism.[5] However aspects of the historical Vedic religion survived in corners of the Indian subcontinent, such as Kerala where the Nambudiri Brahmins continue the ancient rauta rituals, which are considered extinct in all other parts.

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Rituals
Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include, among others:[6] The Soma rituals, which involved the extraction, utility and consumption of Soma: The Agnistoma or Soma sacrifice Fire rituals involving oblations (havir): The Agnihotra or oblation to Agni, a sun charm, The Agnicayana, the sophisticated ritual of piling the fire altar. The New and Full Moon as well as the Seasonal (Cturmsya) sacrifices The royal consecration (Rajasuya) sacrifice The Ashvamedha or A Yajna dedicated to the glory, wellbeing and prosperity of the Rashtra the nation or empire[7] The Purushamedha or symbolic sacrifice of a man, imitating that of the cosmic Purusha, cf. Purusha Sukta as well as, in its rauta form, the Ashvamedha. The "sacrifice" is symbolic, the text clearly indicating that the participant is to be released. The rituals and charms referred to in the Atharvaveda are concerned with medicine and healing practices.[8] The Hindu rites of cremation are seen since the Rigvedic period; while they are attested from early times in the Cemetery H culture, there is a late Rigvedic reference invoking forefathers "both cremated (agnidagdh-) and uncremated (nagnidagdha-)".(RV 10.15.14)[9][10]
A rauta yajna being performed.

Historical Vedic religion

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Pantheon
Though a large number of devatas are named in the Rig Veda only 33 devas are counted, eleven each of earth, space and heaven.[11] The Vedic pantheon knows two classes, Devas and Asuras. The Devas (Mitra, Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga, Amsa, etc.) are deities of cosmic and social order, from the universe and kingdoms down to the individual. The Rigveda is a collection of hymns to various deities, most notably heroic Indra, Agni the sacrificial fire and messenger of the gods, and Soma, the deified sacred drink of the Indo-Iranians.[12] Also prominent is Varuna (often paired with Mitra) and the group of "All-gods", the Vishvadevas.[13]

Philosophy
Vedic philosophy primarily begins with the later part of Rig Veda, which was compiled before 1100 BCE.[14] Most of philosophy of the Rig Veda is contained in the sections Purusha sukta and Nasadiya Sukta.[15] The Purusha Sukta gives a description of the spiritual unity of the cosmos. It espouses Panentheism by presenting nature of reality as both immanent and transcendent.[16] From this reality the sukta holds that original creative will (identified as Viswakarma, Hiranyagarbha or Prajapati) proceeds, by which this vast universe is projected in space and time.[15] The Purusha Sukta, in the seventh verse, proclaims the organic inseparability of the constituents of society. The Nasadiya sukta is thought to be the earliest account of skepticism in India.[17] It holds the Absolute to be both existence and non-existence[18] and beyond all conception. The atarudrya of Yajurveda shatters the extra-cosmic notion of Absolute (Rudra) and identifies it with both the good and the bad, the beautiful and the ugly, the right and the wrong, the positive and the negative, the high and the low, the conceivable and the inconceivable, the mortal and the immortal, existence and non-existence.[19] Ethics in the Vedas are based on the concepts of Satya and Rta. Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute.[20] Whereas, ta is the expression of Satya, which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it.[21] Conformity with ta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment. Concept of Yajna or sacrifice is also enunciated in the Purusha sukta where reaching Absolute itself is considered a transcendent sacrifice when viewed from the point of view of the individual.[16] Vedic people believed in the transmigration of the soul and the peepul tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharva Veda.[22] Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later like Dharma, Karma etc. trace their root to the Vedas.[23] While the term ahimsa is not officially mentioned, one passage in the Rig Veda reads, "Do not harm anything."[24] Major Philosophers of this era were Rishis Narayana, Kanva, Rishaba, Vamadeva, and Angiras.[25] (See also philosophers of Vedic age)

Interpretations of Vedic Mantras

Mimamsa philosophers argue that there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the Vedas or a god to validate the rituals.[26] Mimamsa argues that the gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. To that regard, the power of the mantras is what is seen as the power of gods.[27] Adi Shankara interpreted Vedas as being non-dualistic or monistic.[28] However, Arya Samaj holds the view that the Vedic mantras tend to monotheism.[29] Even the earlier Mandalas of Rig Veda (books 1 and 9) contains hymns which are thought to have a tendency toward monotheism.[30] Often quoted isolated pada 1.164.46 of the Rig Veda states (trans. Griffith): Indra mitra varuamaghnimhuratho divya sa suparo gharutmn, eka sad vipr bahudh vadantyaghni yama mtarivnamhu "They call him Indra, Mitra, Varua, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutmn. To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Mtarivan".

Historical Vedic religion Moreover, the verses of 10.129 and 10.130, deal with the one being (kam st). The verse 10.129.7 further confirms this (trans. Griffith): iym vsi yta babhva / ydi v dadh ydi v n / y asya dhyaka param vyman / s ag veda ydi v n vda "He, the first origin of this creation, whether he formed it all or did not, He who surveys it all from his highest heaven, he verily knows it, or perhaps even he does not"

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Yoga
The Vedic Samhitas contain references to ascetics, and ascetic practices known as (tapas) are referenced in the Brhmaas (900 BCE and 500 BCE), early commentaries on the Vedas.[31] The Rig Veda, earliest of the Hindu scripture mentions the practice.[32] Robert Schneider and Jeremy Fields write, "Yoga asanas were first prescribed by the ancient Vedic texts thousands of years ago and are said to directly enliven the body's inner intelligence."[33] Certainly breath control and curbing the mind was practiced since the Vedic times.[34] It is believed that yoga was fundamental to Vedic ritual, especially to chanting the sacred hymns[35] While the actual term "yoga" first occurs in the Katha Upanishad[36] and later in the Shvetasvatara Upanishad,[37] an early reference to meditation is made in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the earliest Upanishad (c. 900 BCE).[38] Yoga is discussed quite frequently in the Upanishads, many of which predate Patanjali's Sutras.[39] A Rig Vedic cosmogonic myth declares an ascetic with "folded legs, soles turned upwards" as per his name.[40]

Post-Vedic religions
An article related to

Hinduism

Hindu History

Hinduism portal Hindu Mythology portal

Vedic religion was followed by Upanishads which gradually evolved into Vedanta, which is regarded by some as the primary institution of Hinduism. Vedanta considers itself "the purpose or goal [end] of the Vedas."[41] The philosophy of Vedanta (lit. The end of the Vedas"), transformed the Vedic worldview to monistic one. This led to the development of tantric metaphysics and gave rise to new forms of yoga, such as jnana yoga and bhakti yoga.[42] There are also conservative schools which continue portions of the historical Vedic religion largely unchanged until today (see rauta, Nambudiri).[43] During the formative centuries of Vedanta, traditions that supported it and which opposed the same, emerged. These were the stika and nstika.[44] Hinduism is an umbrella term for astika traditions in India (see History of Hinduism).[44] Puranas, Sanskrit epics[45]

Historical Vedic religion the classical schools of Hindu philosophy Shaivism Vaishnavism Bhakti Shaktism rauta traditions, maintaining much of the original form of the Vedic religion.

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Vedic Brahmanism of Iron Age India is believed by some to have co-existed, at least in eastern North India, and closely interacted with the non-Vedic (nastika) ramana traditions.[46][47][48][49] These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, but movements with mutual influences with Brahmanical traditions.[46] Following are the religions that evolved out of the Sramana tradition:[50][51] Jainism, traditionally from the 8th century BCE during Parshva's time. There are Jaina references to 22 pre-historic Tirthankaras. In this view, Jainism peaked at the time of Mahavira (traditionally put in the 6th Century BCE).[52][53] Buddhism, (traditionally put) from c. 500 BC; declined in India over the 5th to 12th centuries in favor of Puranic Hinduism.[54]

Notes
[1] INITIATION OF RELIGIONS IN INDIA (http:/ / www. ancient. eu. com/ article/ 238/ ) [2] The Encyclopdia Britannica of 2005 uses all of "Vedism", "Vedic Brahmanism" and "Brahmanism", but reserves "Vedism" for the earliest stage, predating the Brahmana period, and defines "Brahmanism" as "religion of ancient India that evolved out of Vedism. It takes its name both from the predominant position of its priestly class, the Brahmans, and from the increasing speculation about, and importance given to, Brahman, the supreme power." [3] Stephanie W. Jamison and Michael Witzel in Arvind Sharma, editor, The Study of Hinduism. University of South Carolina Press, 2003, page 65: "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradiction in terms since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism." [5] Krishnananda. Swami. A Short History of Religious and Philosophic Thought in India, Divine Life Society. p. 42 [6] Prasoon, (Prof.) Shrikant. Indian Scriptures. Pustak Mahal (11 August 2010). Ch.2, Vedang, Kalp. ISBN 978-81-223-1007-8. [7] Ralph Thomas Hotchkin Griffith, The Texts of the White Yajurveda. Translated with a Popular Commentary (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=HAHqvUGHO6cC& printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage& q=& f=false) (1899), 1987 reprint: Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi, ISBN 81-215-0047-8. [8] Bloomfield Maurice. Hymns of the Atharva Veda. Kessinger Publishing (1 June 2004). P. 1-8. ISBN 1419125087. [9] Dudi, Amar Singh. Ancient India History. Neha Publishers and Distributors (10 January 2012). Ch. 9. Vedic Religion, Rituals. ISBN 978-93-80318-16-5. [10] Sabir, N. Heaven Hell OR??. Publisher: Xlibris (7 October 2010). P. 155. ISBN 1453550119. [11] Singhal, K. C; Gupta, Roshan. The Ancient History of India, Vedic Period: A New Interpretation. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. ISBN 8126902868. P. 150. [12] "Botany of Haoma" (http:/ / www. iranicaonline. org/ articles/ haoma-i), from Encyclopdia Iranica. Accessed 15 June 2012 [13] Renou, Louis. L'Inde Classique, vol. 1, p. 328, Librairie d'Ameriqe et d'Orient. Paris 1947, reprinted 1985. ISBN 2-7200-1035-9. [14] Oberlies (1998:155) gives an estimate of 1100 BC for the youngest hymns in book 10. Estimates for a terminus post quem of the earliest hymns are more uncertain. Oberlies (p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 17001100 [15] Krishnananda. Swami. A Short History of Religious and Philosophic Thought in India, Divine Life Society. p. 18-19. [16] The Purusha Sukta in Daily Invocations (http:/ / www. swami-krishnananda. org/ invoc/ in_pura. html) by Swami Krishnananda [17] Patri, Umesh and Prativa Devi. " Progress of Atheism in India: A Historical Perspective (http:/ / www. positiveatheism. org/ india/ s1990a22. htm)". Atheist Centre 19401990 Golden Jubilee. Vijayawada, February 1990. Retrieved 2007-04-02. [18] Nasadiya Sukta (http:/ / www. apamnapat. com/ articles/ Suktas003. html) translated by Ralph T.H. Griffith. [19] The significance of Satarudriya in Daily Invocations (http:/ / www. swami-krishnananda. org/ invoc/ in_sat. html) by Swami Krishnananda [20] Krishnananda. Swami. A Short History of Religious and Philosophic Thought in India, Divine Life Society. p. 21 [21] Holdrege (2004:215). Panikkar (2001:350351) remarks: "ta is the ultimate foundation of everything; it is "the supreme", although this is not to be understood in a static sense. [...] It is the expression of the primordial dynamism that is inherent in everything...." [22] Singhal, K. C; Gupta, Roshan. The Ancient History of India, Vedic Period: A New Interpretation. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. ISBN 8126902868. P. 150-151. [23] *Day, Terence P. (1982). The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature. Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. P. 42-45. ISBN 0-919812-15-5.

Historical Vedic religion

[24] The Hindu history By Akshoy Kumar Mazumdar [25] P. 285 Indian sociology through Ghurye, a dictionary By S. Devadas Pillai [29] Light of Truth (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20091028114133/ http:/ / www. geocities. com/ Athens/ Ithaca/ 3440/ chapterseven. html) by Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Chapter 7 [30] Macdonell, Arthur Anthony. Vedic Mythology. Forgotten Books (23 May 2012). P. 17. ISBN 1440094365. [31] Flood, p. 94. [32] P. 51 The Complete Idiot's Guide to Yoga By Joan Budilovsky, Eve Adamson [33] P. 170 Total Heart Health By Robert H. Schneider, Jeremy Z. Fields [34] P. 531 The Yoga Tradition By Georg Feuerstein [35] P. 538 The Yoga Tradition By Georg Feuerstein [36] Flood, p. 95. [37] P. 99 The Wisdom of the Vedas By Jagadish Chandra Chatterji [38] "...which states that, having become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self (atman), within oneself." Flood, pp. 9495. [39] P. 132 A Student's Guide to A2 Religious Studies for the OCR Specification By Michael Wilcockson [40] P. 164 The Doctrine of the Upaniads and the Early Buddhism By Hermann Oldenberg, Shridhar B. Shrotri [41] Robert E. Hume, Professor Emeritus of History of Religions at the Union Theological Seminary, wrote in Random House's The American College Dictionary (1966): "It [Vednta] is concerned with the end of the Vedas, both chronologically and teleologically." [42] "Patanjalis Yoga Darsana The Hatha Yoga Tradition," (http:/ / www. inforefuge. com/ patanjali-yoga-darsana-hatha-yoga) InfoRefuge. [43] Kelkar, Siddharth. UNESCOs leg-up for city Veda research (http:/ / www. expressindia. com/ latest-news/ unescos-legup-for-city-veda-research/ 280908/ ). Express India. Retrieved 16 June 2012. [44] * [45] Encyclopdia Britannica s.v. Hindu philosophy: "The great epic Mahabharata represents the attempt of Vedic Brahmanism to adjust itself to the new circumstances reflected in the process of the aryanization (integration of Aryan beliefs, practices, and institutions) of the various non-Aryan communities." [46] S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East and West (1972): "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times." [47] Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 81-208-0815-0 Page 18. "There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed to much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times." [48] Dr. Kalghatgi, T. G. 1988 In: Study of Jainism, Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur [49] P.S. Jaini, (1979), The Jaina Path to Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, p. 169 "Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism" [50] Jain, Arun. 2008. Faith & philosophy of Jainism. p. 210. [51] Svarghese, Alexander P. 2008. India : History, Religion, Vision And Contribution To The World. p. 259-60. [52] Helmuth von Glasenapp,Shridhar B. Shrotri. 1999. Jainism: an Indian religion of salvation. P.24. "Thus not only nothing, from the philosophical and the historical point of view, comes in the way of the supposition that Jainism was established by Parsva around 800 BCE, but it is rather confirmed in everything that we know of the spiritual life of that period." [53] Dundas, Paul. 2002. The Jains. P.17. "Jainism, then, was in origin merely one component of a north Indian ascetic culture that flourished in the Ganges basin from around the eighth or seventh centuries BCE." [54] "Buddhism". (2009). In Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved 26 November 2009, from Encyclopdia Britannica Online Library Edition.

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Vedic priesthood

39

Vedic priesthood
Priests of the Vedic religion are officiants of the yajna service. As persons trained for the ritual and proficient in its practice, they were called tvij ("regularly-sacrificing"). As members of a social class, they were generically known as vipra ("sage") or kavi ("seer"). Specialization of roles attended the elaboration and development of the ritual corpus over time. Eventually a full complement of sixteen tvijas became the custom for major ceremonies. The sixteen consisted of four chief priests and their assistants.

Chief priests
The older references uniformly indicate the hot as the presiding priest, with perhaps only the adhvaryu as his assistant in the earliest times. The phrase "seven hotars" is found more than once in the Rgveda. RV 2.1.2 enumerates them as the hot, pot, ne, agndh, prashst (meaning the maitrvaruna), adhvaryu and brahman (meaning the brhmancchamsin). The hot was the reciter of invocations and litanies. These could consist of single verses (ca), strophes (triples called tca or pairs called pragtha), or entire hymns (sukta), drawn from the gveda. As each phase of the ritual required an invocation, the hot had a leading or presiding role. The adhvaryu was in charge of the physical details of the sacrifice (in particular the adhvara, a term for the Somayajna). According to Monier-Williams, the adhvaryu "had to measure the ground, to build the altar, to prepare the sacrificial vessels, to fetch wood and water, to light the fire, to bring the animal and immolate it," among other duties. Each action was accompanied by supplicative or benedictive formulas (yajus), drawn from the yajurveda. Over time, the role of the adhvaryu grew in importance, and many verses of the gveda were incorporated, either intact or adapted, into the texts of the yajurveda. The udgt was a chanter of hymns set to melodies (sman) drawn from the smaveda. This was a specialized role in the major soma sacrifices: a characteristic function of the udgt was to sing hymns in praise of the invigorating properties of soma pavamna, the freshly pressed juice of the soma plant. The brahman was superintendent of the entire performance, and responsible for correcting mistakes by means of supplementary invocations. The rgvedic Brahmanas, Aitareya and Kausitaki, specify seven hotrakas to recite shastras (litanies): hot, brhmancchamsin, maitrvaruna, pot, ne, agndh and acchvka. They also carry a legend to explain the origin of the offices of the subrahmanya and the grvastut.

Brahman
A similar attempt at symmetry, as well as an attempt to inflate the importance of the Atharvaveda, was a claim (in the Gopatha Brahmana) that this veda was the province of the brahman: allegedly, just as specific vedas were associated with the other three chief priests, the Atharvaveda was the fourth and presumably superior veda for the fourth and senior most of the chief priests. This theoretical fancy had no basis in fact or likelihood, as the Atharvaveda made no contribution to the liturgy of the solemn high rituals. In practice, the brahman function was usually performed by a bahvca ("one who has many verses", i.e. a Rgvedin), suggesting a historical split of the duties of the hot in the development of the brahman as a distinct role.[citation needed] Note that the Vedic accent is distinctive in this case, the name of the priest is brahmn, as opposed to (and morphologically derived from) the term brhman "sacred utterance" (and hence "Universal Soul", etc.).

Vedic priesthood

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Purohita
The requirements of the fully developed ritual were rigorous enough that only professional priests could perform them adequately. Thus, whereas in the earliest times, the true sacrificer, or intended beneficiary of the rite, might have been a direct participant, in Vedic times he was only a sponsor, the yajamna, with the hot or brahman taking his stead in the ritual. In this seconding lay the origins of the growing importance of the purohita (literally, "one who is placed in front"), a term originally for a domestic chaplain, especially of a prince. It was not unusual for a purohita to be the hot or brahman at a sacrifice for his master, besides conducting other more domestic (ghya) rituals for him also. In latter days, with the disappearance of vedic ritual practice, purohita has become a generic term for "priest".

The Wedding of Satyabhama and Krishna from Bhagavata Purana

Assistants
In the systematic expositions of the shrauta sutras, [1] which date to the fifth or sixth century BCE, the assistants are classified into four groups associated with each of the four chief priests, although the classifications are artificial and in some cases incorrect: With the hot: the maitrvaruna the acchvka the grvastut (praising the Soma stones) With the udgt: the prastot (who chants the Prastva) the pratihart ("averter") the subrahmanya With the adhvaryu: the pratiprastht the ne the unnet (who pours the Soma juice into the receptacles ) With the brahman: the brhmancchamsin the agndh (priest who kindles the sacred fire) the pot ("purifier") This last classification is incorrect, as the formal assistants of the brahman were actually assistants of the hot and the adhvaryu.Wikipedia:Please clarify

Vedic priesthood

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Philological comparisons
Comparison with the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, a distinct religion with the same origins, shows the antiquity of terms for priests such as atharvan (cognate to Avestan athravan) and hotar (Av. zaotar) "invoker, sacrificer". While hotar/zaotar is well understood, the original meaning of atharvan/athravan is unknown. The word atharvan appears in the Rig Veda (e.g., in RV 6.16.13 where Agni is said to have been churned by Atharvan from the mind of every poet). In the Younger Avesta appears in a context that suggests "missionary," perhaps by metathesis from Indo-Iranian *arthavan "possessing purpose." In the Upanishads, the term appears for example in atharvngiras, a compound of atharvan and angiras, either two eponymous rishis or their family names. In present-day Indian Zoroastrian (Parsi) tradition the word athornan is used to distinguish the priesthood from the laity (the behdin). These subdivisions (in the historical Indian context, castes), and the terms used to describe them, are relatively recent developments specific to Indian Zoroastrians and although the words themselves are old, the meaning that they came to have for the Parsis are influenced by their centuries-long coexistence with Hinduism. It appears then that the Indian Zoroastrian priests re-adopted the older athravan (in preference to the traditional, and very well attested derivative asron) for its similarity to Hinduism's arthavan, which the Parsi priests then additionally assumed was derived from Avestan atar "fire". This folk-etymology, which may "have been prompted by what is probably a mistaken assumption of the importance of fire in the ancient Indo-Iranian religion" (Boyce, 1982:16). There is no evidence to sustain the supposition that the division of priestly functions among the Hotar, the Udgatar and the Adhvaryu is comparable to the Celtic priesthood as reported by Strabo, with the Druids as high priests, the Bards doing the chanting and the Vates performing the actual sacrifice.

Notes
[1] Shnkhyana SS 13.4.1, svalyana SS 4.1.4-6.

External links
e-learning of Basic Vedic Mantras & rituals from Home for Brahmins (http://swadharmam.blogspot.in) Online Vedic Courses through Video Conferencing by Vedic Priests The Turning-Point in a Living Tradition (http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs1001/1001a.txt)

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Vedic mythology
Vedic mythology refers to the mythological aspects of the historical Vedic religion and Vedic literature, most notably alluded to in the hymns of the Rigveda. The central myth at the base of Vedic ritual surrounds Indra who, inebriated with Soma, slays the dragon (ahi) Vrtra, freeing the rivers, the cows and Dawn. It has directlyWikipedia:Disputed statement contributed to the evolution and development of later Hinduism and Hindu mythology.

Vedic mythology
Vedic lore contains numerous elements which are common to Indo-European mythological traditions, like the mythologies of Persia, Greece, and Rome, and that of the Celtic, Germanic and Slavic peoples. The Vedic god Indra in part corresponds to Dyaus Pitar, the Sky Father, Zeus and Jupiter. The deity Yama, the lord of the dead, is Yima of Persian mythology. Vedic hymns refer to these and other deities, often 33, consisting of 8 Vasus, 11 Rudras, 12 Adityas, and the late Rigvedic Prajapati. These deities belong to the 3 dimensions of the universe/heavens, the earth, and the intermediate space. Some major deities of the Vedic tradition include Indra, Surya, Agni, Vayu, Varuna, Mitra, Aditi, Yama, Soma, Ushas, Sarasvati, Prithvi, and Rudra.[]

The Vedas in Puranic mythology

The Vishnu Purana attributes the current arrangement of four Vedas to the mythical sage Vedavyasa.[1] Puranic tradition also postulates a single original Veda that, in varying accounts, was divided into three or four parts. According to the Vishnu Purana (3.2.18, 3.3.4 etc.) the original Veda was divided into four parts, and further fragmented into numerous shakhas, by Vishnu in the form of Vyasa, in the Dvapara Yuga; the Vayu Purana (section 60) recounts a similar division by Vyasa, at the urging of Brahma. The Bhagavata Purana (12.6.37) traces the origin of the primeval Veda to the syllable aum, and says that it was divided into four at the start of Dvapara Yuga, because men had declined in age, virtue and understanding. In a differing account Bhagavata Purana (9.14.43) attributes the division of the primeval veda (aum) into three parts to the monarch Pururavas at the beginning of Treta Yuga.It also describes that the myth of jasmebo is inevitable in the Kali Yuga. Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva constitute the "Four Vedas".[2] The Rig Veda (mantras) is a collection of inspired songs or hymns and is a main source of information on the Rig Vedic civilization. The Sama Veda (songs) is purely a liturgical collection of melodies (saman). The hymns in the Sama Veda, used as musical notes, were almost completely drawn from the Rig Veda and have no distinctive lessons of their own. The Yajur Veda (rituals) is also a liturgical collection and was made to meet the demands of a ceremonial religion. The Atharva Veda (spells) is completely different from the other three Vedas and is next in importance to Rig-Veda with regard to history and sociology.

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References Further reading

1. Buitenen, J. A. B. van; Dimmitt, Cornelia (1978). Classical Hindu mythology: a reader in the Sanskrit Puranas (http://books.google.com/books?id=ZBUHAAAAQAAJ&). Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN0-87722-122-7. 2. Wilkins, W.J. (1882). Hindu mythology, Vedic and Purnic (http://books.google.com/ books?id=ZBUHAAAAQAAJ&). Thacker, Spink & co. 3. Williams, George (2001). Handbook of Hindu Mythology (http://books.google.com/ books?id=SzLTWow0EgwC&). ABC-Clio Inc. ISBN1-57607-106-5.

Rigvedic deities
There are 1028 hymns in the Rigveda, most of them dedicated to specific deities. Indra, a heroic god, slayer of Vrtra and destroyer of the Vala, liberator of the cows and the rivers; Agni the sacrificial fire and messenger of the gods; and Soma the ritual drink dedicated to Indra are the most prominent deities. Invoked in groups are the Vishvedevas (the "all-gods"), the Maruts, violent storm gods in Indra's train and the Ashvins, the twin horsemen. There are two major groups of gods, the Devas and the Asuras. Unlike in later Vedic texts and in Hinduism, the Asuras are not yet demonized, Mitra and Varuna being their most prominent members. Aditi is the mother both of Agni and of the Adityas or Asuras, led by Mitra and Varuna, with Aryaman, Bhaga, Ansa and Daksha. Surya is the personification of the Sun, but Savitr, Vivasvant, the Ashvins and the Rbhus, semi-divine craftsmen, also have aspects of solar deities. Other natural phenomena deified include Vayu, (the wind), Dyaus and Prithivi (Heaven and Earth), Dyaus continuing Dyeus, the chief god of the Proto-Indo-European religion, and Ushas (the dawn), the most prominent goddess of the Rigveda, and Apas (the waters). Rivers play an important role, deified as goddesses, most prominently the Sapta Sindhu and the Sarasvati River. Yama is the first ancestor, also worshipped as a deity, and the god of the underworld and death. Vishnu and Rudra, the prominent deities of later Hinduism (Rudra being an early form of Shiva) are present as marginal gods. The names of Indra, Mitra, Varuna and the Nasatyas are also attested in a Mitanni treaty, suggesting that the some of the religion of the Mitannis was very close to that of the Rigveda.

Deities by prominence
List of Rigvedic deities by number of dedicated hymns, after Griffith (1888). Some dedications are to paired deities, such as Indra-Agni, Mitra-Varuna, Soma-Rudra, here counted doubly. Indra 289 Agni 218 Soma 123 (most of them in the Soma Mandala) Vishvadevas 70 the Asvins 56 Varuna 46 [1]

the Maruts 38 Mitra 28[1]

Rigvedic deities Ushas 21 Vayu (Wind) 12 Savitr 11 the Rbhus 11 Pushan 10 the Apris 9 Brhaspati 8 Surya (Sun) 8 Dyaus and Prithivi (Heaven and Earth) 6, plus 5.84 dedicated to Earth alone Apas (Waters) 6 Adityas 6 Vishnu 6 Brahmanaspati 6 Rudra 5 Dadhikras 4 the Sarasvati River / Sarasvati 3 Yama Parjanya (Rain) 3 Vc (Speech) 2 (mentioned 130 times, deified e.g. in 10.125) Vastospati 2 Vishvakarman 2 Manyu 2 Kapinjala (the Heathcock, a form of Indra) 2

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Minor deities (one single or no dedicated hymn) Manas (Thought), prominent concept, deified in 10.58 Dakshina (Reward for priests and poets), prominent concept, deified in 10.107 Jnanam (Knowledge), prominent concept, deified in 10.71 Purusha ("Cosmic Man" of the Purusha sukta 10.90) Aditi Bhaga Vasukra Atri Apam Napat Ksetrapati Ghrta Nirrti Asamati Urvasi Pururavas Vena Aranyani Mayabheda Tarksya Tvastar

Saranyu

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References
[1] Noel Seth,"Man's Relation to God in the Varuna Hymns," in the St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Ed. George Menachery, Vol.III, 2010, pp.4 ff.

Ralph T.H. Griffith, Hymns of the Rigveda (1888).

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Indus Valley Civilization

Bronze Age
Chalcolithic

Near East (3600-1200 BC)

Caucasus, Anatolia, Levant, Indus valley, Mesopotamia, Elam, Jiroft Bronze Age collapse

Europe (3200-600 BC)

Aegean (Minoan) Caucasus (Maykop culture) Basarabi culture Coofeni culture Pecica culture Otomani culture Wietenberg culture Catacomb culture Srubna culture Beaker culture Unetice culture Tumulus culture Urnfield culture Hallstatt culture Atlantic Bronze Age Bronze Age Britain Nordic Bronze Age Romanian Bronze Age Southeastern European Bronze Age Italian Bronze Age

Indian Subcontinent (3300-1200 BC) China (3000-700 BC) Korea (800-300 BC) Upper Oxus (2300-1700 BC)
arsenical bronze writing, literature sword, chariot Iron Age

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (33001300 BCE; mature period 26001900 BCE) in the northwestern region[1] of the Indian subcontinent,[2][3] Flourishing around the Indus River basin, the civilization[4][5][6]</ref> extended east into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley[7] and the upper reaches Ganges-Yamuna Doab;[8][] it extended west to the Makran coast of Balochistan, north to northeastern Afghanistan and south to Daimabad in Maharashtra. The civilization was spread over some 1,260,000km, making it the largest known ancient civilization. The Indus Valley is one of the world's earliest urban civilizations, along with its contemporaries, Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. At its peak, the Indus Civilization may have had a population of well over five million. Inhabitants of

Indus Valley Civilization the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in handicraft (carnelian products, seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin). The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and multistoried houses. The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization, as the first of its cities to be unearthed was located at Harappa, excavated in the 1920s in what was at the time the Punjab province of British India (now in Pakistan).[9] Excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999.[10] There were earlier and later cultures, often called Early Harappan and Late Harappan, in the same area of the Harappan Civilization. The Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from these cultures. Up to 1999, over 1,056 cities and settlements have been found, out of which 96 have been excavated,[] mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river and its tributaries. Among the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa, Lothal, Mohenjo-daro (UNESCO World Heritage Site), Dholavira, Kalibanga, and Rakhigarhi.[] The Harappan language is not directly attested and its affiliation is uncertain since the Indus script is still undeciphered. A relationship with the Dravidian or Elamo-Dravidian language family is favored by a section of scholars.[11]Wikipedia:Citing sources[12]

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Discovery and excavation

The ruins of Harrappa were first described in 1842 by Charles Masson in his Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan, and the Punjab, where locals talked of an ancient city extending "thirteen cosses" (about 25 miles), but no archaeological interest would attach to this for nearly a century.[13] In 1856, General Alexander Cunningham, later director general of the archeological survey of northern India, visited Harappa where the British engineers John and William Brunton were laying the East Indian Railway Company line connecting the cities of Karachi and Lahore. John wrote: "I was much exercised in my mind how we were to get ballast for the line of the railway". They were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines, Extent and major sites of the Indus Valley Civilization. The shaded called Brahminabad. Visiting the city, he found it full area does not include recent excavations. of hard well-burnt bricks, and, "convinced that there was a grand quarry for the ballast I wanted", the city of Brahminabad was reduced to ballast.[] A few months later, further north, John's brother William Brunton's "section of the line ran near another ruined city, bricks from which had already been used by villagers in the nearby village of Harappa at the same site. These bricks now provided ballast along 93 miles (150km) of the railroad track running from Karachi to Lahore".[]

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In 187275 Alexander Cunningham published the first Harappan seal (with an erroneous identification as Brahmi letters).[14] It was half a century later, in 1912, that more Harappan seals were discovered by J.Fleet, prompting an excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert Marshall in 192122 and resulting in the discovery of the civilization at Harappa by Sir John Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vats, and at Mohenjo-daro by Rakhal Das Banerjee, E.J.H.MacKay, Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, with the Great Bath in the front and Sir John Marshall. By 1931, much of Mohenjo-Daro had been excavated, but excavations continued, such as that led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, director of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1944. Among other archaeologists who worked on IVC sites before the partition of the subcontinent in 1947 were Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc Aurel Stein. Following the Partition of India, the bulk of the archaeological finds were inherited by Pakistan where most of the IVC was based, and excavations from this time include those led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler in 1949, archaeological adviser to the Government of Pakistan. Outposts of the Indus Valley civilization were excavated as far west as Sutkagan Dor in Baluchistan, as far north as at Shortugai on the Amu Darya (the river's ancient name was Oxus) in current Afghanistan, as far east as at Alamgirpur, Uttar Pradesh, India and as far south as at Malwan, Surat Dist., India.[15]

Chronology
The mature phase of the Harappan civilization lasted from c. 2600 to 1900 BCE. With the inclusion of the predecessor and successor culturesEarly Harappan and Late Harappan, respectivelythe entire Indus Valley Civilization may be taken to have lasted from the 33rd to the 14th centuries BCE. Two terms are employed for the periodization of the IVC: Phases and Eras.[16][17] The Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, and Late Harappan phases are also called the Regionalisation, Integration, and Localisation eras, respectively, with the Regionalization era reaching back to the Neolithic Mehrgarh II period. "Discoveries at Mehrgarh changed the entire concept of the Indus civilization", according to Ahmad Hasan Dani, professor emeritus at Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad. "There we have the whole sequence, right from the beginning of settled village life."[18]
Date range 70005500 BCE 55003300 33002600 33002800 28002600 Phase Mehrgarh I (aceramic Neolithic) Mehrgarh II-VI (ceramic Neolithic) Early Harappan Harappan 1 (Ravi Phase) Harappan 2 (Kot Diji Phase, Nausharo I, Mehrgarh VII) Era Early Food Producing Era Regionalisation Era 5500-2600

Indus Valley Civilization

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Mature Harappan (Indus Valley Civilization) Harappan 3A (Nausharo II) Harappan 3B Harappan 3C Late Harappan (Cemetery H); Ochre Coloured Pottery Harappan 4 Harappan 5 Painted Gray Ware, Northern Black Polished Ware (Iron Age) Indo-Gangetic Tradition Localisation Era Integration Era

26001900 26002450 24502200 22001900 19001300 19001700 17001300 1300300

Geography
The Indus Valley Civilization extended west to the Makran coast of Balochistan, east to Uttar Pradesh, the north to northeastern Afghanistan and south to Maharashtra.[19] The geography of the Indus Valley put the civilizations that arose there in a highly similar situation to those in Egypt and Peru, with rich agricultural lands being surrounded by highlands, desert, and ocean. Recently, Indus sites have been discovered in Pakistan's northwestern Frontier Province as well. Other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan while smaller isolated colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Gujarat. Coastal settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor[20] in Western Baluchistan to Lothal[21] in Gujarat. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan,[22] in the Gomal River valley in northwestern Pakistan,[23] at Manda,Jammu on the Beas River near Jammu,[24] India, and at Alamgirpur on the Hindon River, only 28km from Delhi.[25] Indus Valley sites have been found most often on rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast,[26] for example, Balakot,[27] and on islands, for example, Dholavira.[28] There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with the Hakra channel in Pakistan and the seasonal Ghaggar River in India. Many Indus Valley (or Harappan) sites have been discovered along the Ghaggar-Hakra beds.[7] Among them are: Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Sothi, Kalibangan, and Ganwariwala.[29] According to J. G. Shaffer and D. A. Lichtenstein,[30] the Harappan Civilization "is a fusion of the Bagor, Hakra, and Koti Dij traditions or 'ethnic groups' in the Ghaggar-Hakra valley on the borders of India and Pakistan".[7] According to some archaeologists, more than 500 Harappan sites have been discovered along the dried up river beds of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries,[31] in contrast to only about 100 along the Indus and its tributaries;[32] consequently, in their opinion, the appellation Indus Ghaggar-Hakra civilisation or Indus-Saraswati civilisation is justified. However, these politically inspired arguments are disputed by other archaeologists who state that the Ghaggar-Hakra desert area has been left untouched by settlements and agriculture since the end of the Indus period and hence shows more sites than found in the alluvium of the Indus valley; second, that the number of Harappan sites along the Ghaggar-Hakra river beds have been exaggerated and that the Ghaggar-Hakra, when it existed, was a tributary of the Indus, so the new nomenclature is redundant.[33] "Harappan Civilization" remains the correct one, according to the common archaeological usage of naming a civilization after its first findspot.

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Early Harappan
The Early Harappan Ravi Phase, named after the nearby Ravi River, lasted from circa 3300 BCE until 2800 BCE. It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley to the west, and predates the Kot Diji Phase (2800-2600 BCE, Harappan 2), named after a site in northern Sindh, Pakistan, near Mohenjo Daro. The earliest examples of the Indus script date from around 3000 BCE.[] The mature phase of earlier village cultures is represented by Rehman Dheri and Amri in Pakistan.[34] Kot Diji (Harappan 2) represents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan, with the citadel representing centralised authority and an increasingly urban quality of life. Another town of this stage was found at Kalibangan in India on the Hakra River.[35] Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials, including lapis lazuli and other materials for bead-making. Villagers had, by this time, domesticated numerous crops, including peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton, as well as animals, including the water buffalo. Early Harappan communities turned to large urban centres by 2600 BCE, from where the mature Harappan phase started.

Mature Harappan
By 2600 BCE, the Early Harappan communities had been turned into large urban centres. Such urban centres include Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-Daro in modern day Pakistan, and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and Lothal in modern day India. In total, more than 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Indus Rivers and their tributaries.

Cities
A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus Valley Civilization making them the first urban centres in the region. The quality of municipal town planning suggests the knowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal governments which placed a high priority on hygiene, or, alternatively, accessibility to the means of religious ritual. As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and the recently partially excavated Rakhigarhi, this urban plan included the world's first known urban sanitation systems: see hydraulic engineering of the Indus Valley Computer-aided reconstruction of coastal Civilization. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes Harappan settlement at Sokhta Koh near Pasni, Pakistan obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. The house-building in some villages in the region still resembles in some respects the house-building of the Harappans.[36] The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today. The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected the Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts.[citation needed]

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The purpose of the citadel remains debated. In sharp contrast to this civilization's contemporaries, Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, no large monumental structures were built. There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or templesor of kings, armies, or priests. Some structures are thought to have been granaries. Found at one city is an enormous well-built bath (the "Great Bath"), which may have been a public bath. Although the citadels were walled, it is far from clear that these structures were defensive. They may have been built to divert flood waters. Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with others pursuing the same occupation in well-defined neighbourhoods. Materials from distant regions were used in the cities for constructing seals, beads and other objects. Among the artifacts discovered were beautiful glazed faence beads. Steatite seals have images of animals, people (perhaps gods), and other types of inscriptions, including the yet un-deciphered writing system of the Indus Valley Civilization. Some of the seals were used to stamp clay on trade goods and most probably had other uses as well.

So-called "Priest King" statue, Mohenjo-Daro, late Mature Harappan period, National Museum, Karachi, Pakistan

Although some houses were larger than others, Indus Civilization cities were remarkable for their apparent, if relative, egalitarianism. All the houses had access to water and drainage facilities. This gives the impression of a society with relatively low wealth concentration, though clear social levelling is seen in personal adornments.

Authority and governance

Archaeological records provide no immediate answers for a center of power or for depictions of people in power in Harappan society. But, there are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented. For instance, the extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artifacts as evident in pottery, seals, weights and bricks. These are the major assumptions: There was a single state, given the similarity in artifacts, the evidence for planned settlements, the standardised ratio of brick size, and the establishment of settlements near sources of raw material. There was no single ruler but several: Mohenjo-daro had a separate ruler, Harappa another, and so forth. Harappan society had no rulers, and everybody enjoyed equal status.

Technology
The people of the Indus Civilization achieved great accuracy in measuring length, mass, and time. They were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures. A comparison of available objects indicates large scale variation across the Indus territories. Their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal, was approximately 1.704mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the Bronze Age. Harappan engineers followed the decimal division of measurement for all practical purposes, including the measurement of mass as revealed by their hexahedron weights.[37]

Indus Valley seals, British Museum

Indus Valley Civilization These chert weights were in a ratio of 5:2:1 with weights of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 units, with each unit weighing approximately 28grams, similar to the English Imperial ounce or Greek uncia, and smaller objects were weighed in similar ratios with the units of 0.871. However, as in other cultures, actual weights were not uniform throughout the area. The weights and measures later used in Kautilya's Arthashastra (4th century BCE) are the same as those used in Lothal.[38] Harappans evolved some new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The engineering skill of the Harappans was remarkable, especially in building docks. In 2001, archaeologists studying the remains of two men from Mehrgarh, Pakistan, made the discovery that the people of the Indus Valley Civilization, from the early Harappan periods, had knowledge of proto-dentistry. Later, in April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence for the drilling of human teeth in vivo (i.e., in a living person) was found in Mehrgarh. Eleven drilled molar crowns from nine adults were discovered in a Neolithic graveyard in Mehrgarh that dates from 7,500-9,000 years ago. According to the authors, their discoveries point to a tradition of proto-dentistry in the early farming cultures of that region.[39] A touchstone bearing gold streaks was found in Banawali, which was probably used for testing the purity of gold (such a technique is still used in some parts of India).[40]

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Arts and crafts

Various sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry, and anatomically detailed figurines in terracotta, bronze, and steatite have been found at excavation sites. A number of gold, terra-cotta and stone figurines of girls in dancing poses reveal the presence of some dance form. Also, these terra-cotta figurines included cows, bears, monkeys, and dogs. The animal depicted on a majority of seals at sites of the mature period has not been clearly identified. Part bull, part zebra, with a majestic horn, it has been a source of speculation. As yet, there is insufficient evidence to substantiate claims that the image had religious or cultic significance, but the prevalence of the image raises the question of whether or not the animals in images of the IVC are religious symbols.[41] Sir John Marshall is known to have reacted with surprise when he saw the famous Indus bronze statuette of a slender-limbed dancing girl in Mohenjo-Daro: When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were prehistoric; they seemed to completely upset all established ideas about early art, and culture. Modeling such as this was unknown in the ancient The "dancing girl of Mohenjo Daro" world up to the Hellenistic age of Greece, and I thought, therefore, that some mistake must surely have been made; that these figures had found their way into levels some 3000 years older than those to which they properly belonged.... Now, in these statuettes, it is just this anatomical truth which is so startling; that makes us wonder whether, in this all-important matter, Greek artistry could possibly have been anticipated by the sculptors of a far-off age on the banks of the Indus.
[citation needed]

Many crafts "such as shell working, ceramics, and agate and glazed steatite bead making" were used in the making of necklaces, bangles, and other ornaments from all phases of Harappan sites and some of these crafts

Indus Valley Civilization are still practised in the subcontinent today.[42] Some make-up and toiletry items (a special kind of combs (kakai), the use of collyrium and a special three-in-one toiletry gadget) that were found in Harappan contexts still have similar counterparts in modern India.[] Terracotta female figurines were found (ca. 2800-2600 BCE) which had red colour applied to the "manga" (line of partition of the hair).[] Seals have been found at Mohenjo-Daro depicting a figure standing on its head, and another sitting cross-legged in what some call a yoga-like pose (see image, the so-called Pashupati, below).
Chanhudaro. Fragment of Large Deep Vessel, circa 2500 B.C.E. Red pottery with red and black slip-painted decoration, 415/166 in. (12.515.5 cm). Brooklyn Museum

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This figure, sometimes known as a Pashupati, has been variously identified. Sir John Marshall identified a resemblance to the Hindu god, Shiva.[43] If this can be validated, it would be evidence that some aspects of Hinduism predate the earliest texts, the Veda. A harp-like instrument depicted on an Indus seal and two shell objects found at Lothal indicate the use of stringed musical instruments. The Harappans also made various toys and games, among them cubical dice (with one to six holes on the faces), which were found in sites like Mohenjo-Daro.[44]

Trade and transportation

The Indus civilization's economy appears to have depended significantly on trade, which was facilitated by major advances in transport technology. The IVC may have been the first civilization to use wheeled transport.[45] These advances may have included bullock carts that are identical to those seen throughout South Asia today, as well as boats. Most of these boats were probably small, flat-bottomed craft, perhaps driven by sail, similar to those one can see on the The docks of ancient Lothal as they are today Indus River today; however, there is secondary evidence of seagoing craft. Archaeologists have discovered a massive, dredged canal and what they regard as a docking facility at the coastal city of Lothal in western India (Gujarat state). An extensive canal network, used for irrigation, has however also been discovered by H.-P. Francfort. During 43003200 BCE of the chalcolithic period (copper age), the Indus Valley Civilization area shows ceramic similarities with southern Turkmenistan and northern Iran which suggest considerable mobility and trade. During the Early Harappan period (about 32002600 BCE), similarities in pottery, seals, figurines, ornaments, etc. document intensive caravan trade with Central Asia and the Iranian plateau.[46]

Indus Valley Civilization Judging from the dispersal of Indus civilization artifacts, the trade networks, economically, integrated a huge area, including portions of Afghanistan, the coastal regions of Persia, northern and western India, and Mesopotamia. There is some evidence that trade contacts extended to Crete and possibly to Egypt.[47] There was an extensive maritime trade network operating between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations as early as the middle Harappan Phase, with much commerce being handled by "middlemen merchants from Dilmun" (modern Bahrain and Failaka located in the Persian Gulf).[48] Such long-distance sea trade became feasible with the innovative development of plank-built watercraft, equipped with a single central mast supporting a sail of woven rushes or cloth. Several coastal settlements like Sotkagen-dor (astride Dasht River, north of Jiwani), Sokhta Koh (astride Shadi River, north of Pasni), and Balakot (near Sonmiani) in Pakistan along with Lothal in India testify to their role as Harappan trading outposts. Shallow harbors located at the estuaries of rivers opening into the sea allowed brisk maritime trade with Mesopotamian cities.

54

Subsistence
Some post-1980 studies indicate that food production was largely indigenous to the Indus Valley. It is known that the people of Mehrgarh used domesticated wheats and barley,[49] and the major cultivated cereal crop was naked six-row barley, a crop derived from two-row barley (see Shaffer and Liechtenstein 1995, 1999). Archaeologist Jim G. Shaffer (1999: 245) writes that the Mehrgarh site "demonstrates that food production was an indigenous South Asian phenomenon" and that the data support interpretation of "the prehistoric urbanization and complex social organization in South Asia as based on indigenous, but not isolated, cultural developments". Others, such as Dorian Fuller, however, indicate that it took some 2000 years before Middle Eastern wheat was acclimatised to South Asian conditions.

Writing system
Between 400 and as many as 600 distinct Indus symbols[50] have been found on seals, small tablets, ceramic pots and more than a dozen other materials, including a "signboard" that apparently once hung over the gate of the inner citadel of the Indus city of Dholavira. Typical Indus inscriptions are no more than four or five characters in length, most of which (aside from the Dholavira "signboard") are tiny; the longest on a single surface, which is less than 1inch (2.54cm) square, is 17 signs long; the longest on any object (found on three different faces of a mass-produced object) has a length of 26 symbols.

Ten Indus Scripts, dubbed "Signboard", Dholavira

While the Indus Valley Civilization is generally characterized as a literate society on the evidence of these inscriptions, this description has been challenged by Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel (2004)[51] who argue that the Indus system did not encode language, but was instead similar to a variety of non-linguistic sign systems used extensively in the Near East and other societies. Others have claimed on occasion that the symbols were exclusively used for economic transactions, but this claim leaves unexplained the appearance of Indus symbols on many ritual objects, many of which were mass-produced in moulds. No parallels to these mass-produced inscriptions are known in any other early ancient civilizations.[52] In a 2009 study by P. N. Rao et al. published in Science, computer scientists, comparing the pattern of symbols to various linguistic scripts and non-linguistic systems, including DNA and a computer programming language, found that the Indus script's pattern is closer to that of spoken words, supporting the hypothesis that it codes for an as-yet-unknown language.[53][54]

Indus Valley Civilization Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel have disputed this finding, pointing out that Rao et al. did not actually compare the Indus signs with "real-world non-linguistic systems" but rather with "two wholly artificial systems invented by the authors, one consisting of 200,000 randomly ordered signs and another of 200,000 fully ordered signs, that they spuriously claim represent the structures of all real-world non-linguistic sign systems".[55] Farmer et al. have also demonstrated that a comparison of a non-linguistic system like medieval heraldic signs with natural languages yields results similar to those that Rao et al. obtained with Indus signs. They conclude that the method used by Rao et al. cannot distinguish linguistic systems from non-linguistic ones.[56] The messages on the seals have proved to be too short to be decoded by a computer. Each seal has a distinctive combination of symbols and there are too few examples of each sequence to provide a sufficient context. The symbols that accompany the images vary from seal to seal, making it impossible to derive a meaning for the symbols from the images. There have, nonetheless, been a number of interpretations offered for the meaning of the seals. These interpretations have been marked by ambiguity and subjectivity.[56]:69 Photos of many of the thousands of extant inscriptions are published in the Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions (1987, 1991, 2010), edited by Asko Parpola and his colleagues. The final, third, volume, republished photos taken in the 1920s and 1930s of hundreds of lost or stolen inscriptions, along with many discovered in the last few decades. Formerly, researchers had to supplement the materials in the Corpus by study of the tiny photos in the excavation reports of Marshall (1931), MacKay (1938, 1943), Wheeler (1947), or reproductions in more recent scattered sources.

55

Religion
Some Indus valley seals show swastikas, which are found in other religions worldwide, especially in Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. The earliest evidence for elements of Hinduism are alleged to have been present before and during the early Harappan period.[57] Phallic symbols interpreted as the much later Hindu Shiva lingam have been found in the Harappan remains.[58][59]

The so-called Shiva Pashupati seal

Many Indus valley seals show animals. One motif shows a horned figure seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position and surrounded by animals was named by early excavators Pashupati (lord of cattle), an epithet of the later Hindu gods Shiva and Rudra.[60][61][62] According to Iravatham Mahadevan symbols 47 and 48 of his Indus script glossary The Indus Script: Texts, Concordance and Tables (1977), representing seated human-like figures, could describe Hindu deity Murugan.[63]

Swastika Seals from the Indus Valley Civilization preserved at the British Museum

Indus Valley Civilization In view of the large number of figurines found in the Indus valley, some scholars believe that the Harappan people worshipped a Mother goddess symbolizing fertility, a common practice among rural Hindus even today.[64] However, this view has been disputed by S. Clark who sees it as an inadequate explanation of the function and construction of many of the figurines.[65] There are no religious buildings or evidence of elaborate burials. If there were temples, they have not been identified.[66] However, House - 1 in HR-A area in Mohenjadaro's Lower Town has been identified as a possible temple.[67] In the earlier phases of their culture, the Harappans buried their dead; however, later, especially in the Cemetery H culture of the late Harrapan period, they also cremated their dead and buried the ashes in burial urns. It is possible that a temple exists to the East of the great bath, but the site has not been excavated. There is a Buddhist reliquary mound on the site and permission has not been granted to move it.[68] Until there is sufficient evidence, speculation about the religion of the IVC is largely based on a retrospective view from a much later Hindu perspective.[41] Ram Prasad Chanda, who supervised Indus Valley Civilisation excavations, states[69] that, Not only the seated deities on some of the Indus seals are in Yoga posture and bear witness to the prevalence of Yoga in the Indus Valley Civilisation in that remote age, the standing deities on the seals also show Kayotsarga (a standing or sitting posture of meditation) position. The Kayotsarga posture is peculiarly Jain. It is a posture not of sitting but of standing. In the Adi Purana Book XV III, the Kayotsarga posture is described in connection with the penance of Rsabha, also known as Vrsabha.[70] Christopher Key Chappel also notes some other possible links with Jainism.[71] Seal 420, unearthed at Mohenjodaro portrays a person with 3 or possibly 4 faces. Jain iconography frequently depicts its Tirthankaras with four faces, symbolizing their presence in all four directions. This four-faced attribute is also true of many Hindu gods, important among them being Brahma, the chief creator deity.[72] In addition, Depictions of a bull appear repeatedly in the artifacts of the Indus Valley. Lannoy, Thomas McEvilley and Padmanabh Jaini have all suggested that the abundant use of the bull image in the Indus Valley civilization indicates a link with Rsabha, whose companion animal is the bull. This seal can be interpreted in many ways, and authors such as Christopher Key Chappel and Richard Lannoy support the Jain interpretation.[71]

56

Collapse and Late Harappan

Around 1800 BCE, signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. In 1953, Sir Mortimer Wheeler proposed that the decline of the Indus Civilization was caused by the invasion of an Indo-European tribe from Central Asia called the "Aryans". As evidence, he cited a group of 37 skeletons found in various parts of Mohenjo-Daro, and passages in the Vedas referring to battles and forts. However, scholars soon started to reject Wheeler's theory, since the skeletons belonged to a period after the city's abandonment and none were found near the citadel. Subsequent examinations of the skeletons by Kenneth Kennedy in 1994 showed that the marks on the skulls were caused by erosion, and not violent aggression.[] Today, many scholars believe that the collapse of the Indus Civilization was caused by drought and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia.[] It has also been suggested that immigration by new peoples, deforestation, floods, or changes in the course of the river may have contributed to the collapse of the IVC.[73] Previously, it was also believed that the decline of the Harappan civilization led to an interruption of urban life in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Indus Valley Civilization did not disappear suddenly, and many elements of the Indus Civilization can be found in later cultures. Current archaeological data suggest that material culture classified as Late Harappan may have persisted until at least c. 1000-900 BCE and was partially contemporaneous with the Painted Grey Ware culture.[] Harvard archaeologist Richard Meadow points to the late Harappan settlement of Pirak, which thrived continuously from 1800 BCE to the time of the invasion of Alexander the Great in 325 BCE.[]

Indus Valley Civilization Recent archaeological excavations indicate that the decline of Harappa drove people eastward. After 1900 BCE, the number of sites in India increased from 218 to 853. Excavations in the Gangetic plain show that urban settlement began around 1200 BCE, only a few centuries after the decline of Harappa and much earlier than previously expected.[] Archaeologists have emphasized that, just as in most areas of the world, there was a continuous series of cultural developments. These link "the so-called two major phases of urbanization in South Asia".[] A possible natural reason for the IVC's decline is connected with climate change that is also signalled for the neighbouring areas of the Middle East: The Indus valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the monsoon at that time. Alternatively, a crucial factor may have been the disappearance of substantial portions of the Ghaggar Hakra river system. A tectonic event may have diverted the system's sources toward the Ganges Plain, though there is complete uncertainty about the date of this event, as most settlements inside Ghaggar-Hakra river beds have not yet been dated. The actual reason for decline might be any combination of these factors. New geological research is now being conducted by a group led by Peter Clift, from the University of Aberdeen, to investigate how the courses of rivers have changed in this region since 8000 years ago, to test whether climate or river reorganizations are responsible for the decline of the Harappan. A 2004 paper indicated that the isotopes of the Ghaggar-Hakra system do not come from the Himalayan glaciers, and were rain-fed instead, contradicting a Harappan time mighty "Sarasvati" river.[74] A research team led by the geologist Liviu Giosan of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution also concluded that climate change in form of the easterward migration of the monsoons led to the decline of the IVC.[75] The team's findings were published in PNAS in May 2012.[76][77] According to their theory, the slow eastward migration of the monsoons across Asia initially allowed the civilization to develop. The monsoon-supported farming led to large agricultural surpluses, which in turn supported the development of cities. The IVC residents did not develop irrigation capabilities, relying mainly on the seasonal monsoons. As the monsoons kept shifting eastward, the water supply for the agricultural activities dried up. The residents then migrated towards the Ganges basin in the east, where they established smaller villages and isolated farms. The small surplus produced in these small communities did not allow development of trade, and the cities died out.[78]

57

Legacy
In the aftermath of the Indus Civilization's collapse, regional cultures emerged, to varying degrees showing the influence of the Indus Civilization. In the formerly great city of Harappa, burials have been found that correspond to a regional culture called the Cemetery H culture. At the same time, the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture expanded from Rajasthan into the Gangetic Plain. The Cemetery H culture has the earliest evidence for cremation; a practice dominant in Hinduism today.

Historical context and linguistic affiliation

The IVC has been tentatively identified with the toponym Meluhha known from Sumerian records. It has been compared in particular with the civilizations of Elam (also in the context of the Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis) and with Minoan Crete (because of isolated cultural parallels such as the ubiquitous goddess worship and depictions of bull-leaping).[79] The mature (Harappan) phase of the IVC is contemporary to the Early to Middle Bronze Age in the Ancient Near East, in particular the Old Elamite period, Early Dynastic to Ur III Mesopotamia, Prepalatial Minoan Crete and Old Kingdom to First Intermediate Period Egypt. After the discovery of the IVC in the 1920s, it was immediately associated with the indigenous Dasyu inimical to the Rigvedic tribes in numerous hymns of the Rigveda. Mortimer Wheeler interpreted the presence of many unburied corpses found in the top levels of Mohenjo-Daro as the victims of a warlike conquest, and famously stated that "Indra stands accused" of the destruction of the IVC. The association of the IVC with the city-dwelling Dasyus remains alluring because the assumed timeframe of the first Indo-Aryan migration into India corresponds neatly with the period of decline of the IVC seen in the archaeological record. The discovery of the advanced, urban IVC

Indus Valley Civilization however changed the 19th century view of early Indo-Aryan migration as an "invasion" of an advanced culture at the expense of a "primitive" aboriginal population to a gradual acculturation of nomadic "barbarians" on an advanced urban civilization, comparable to the Germanic migrations after the Fall of Rome, or the Kassite invasion of Babylonia. This move away from simplistic "invasionist" scenarios parallels similar developments in thinking about language transfer and population movement in general, such as in the case of the migration of the proto-Greek speakers into Greece, or the Indo-Europeanization of Western Europe. It was often suggested that the bearers of the IVC corresponded to proto-Dravidians linguistically, the breakup of proto-Dravidian corresponding to the breakup of the Late Harappan culture.[80] Today, the Dravidian language family is concentrated mostly in southern India and northern Sri Lanka, but pockets of it still remain throughout the rest of India and Pakistan (the Brahui language), which lends credence to the theory. Finnish Indologist Asko Parpola concludes that the uniformity of the Indus inscriptions precludes any possibility of widely different languages being used, and that an early form of Dravidian language must have been the language of the Indus people. However, in an interview with the Deccan Herald on 12 August 2012, Asko Parpola clarified his position by admitting that Sanskrit-speakers had contributed to the Indus Valley Civilization.[81] Proto-Munda (or Para-Munda) and a "lost phylum" (perhaps related or ancestral to the Nihali language)[82] have been proposed as other candidates. The civilization is sometimes referred to as the Indus Ghaggar-Hakra civilization or Indus-Sarasvati civilization by Hindutva groups.[] or the Indus-Sarasvati civilization.[83][84]

58

Developments in July 2010

On 11 July, heavy floods hit Haryana in India and damaged the archaeological site of Jognakhera, where ancient copper smelting were found dating back almost 5,000 years. The Indus Valley Civilization site was hit by almost 10 feet of water as the Sutlej Yamuna link canal overflowed.[85]

Notes and references

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] http:/ / www. harappa. com/ har/ indus-saraswati. html http:/ / uk. encarta. msn. com/ encyclopedia_761556839/ indus_valley_civilization. html http:/ / www. mohenjodaro. net/ mohenjodaroessay. html The civilization is sometimes referred to as the Indus Ghaggar-Hakra civilization or the Indus-Sarasvati civilization. The appellation Indus-Sarasvati is based on the possible identification of the Ghaggar-Hakra River with the Sarasvati River of the Nadistuti sukta in the Rig Veda, but this usage is disputed on linguistic and geographical grounds.<ref name="Ching 2006 2832"> [5] McIntosh 2001, p.24. [7] See map on page 263 [8] Indian Archaeology, A Review. 1958-1959. Excavations at Alamgirpur. Delhi: Archaeol. Surv. India, pp. 5152. [13] Note that the coss, a measure of distance used from Vedic period to Mughal times, is approximately . [14] Cunningham, A., 1875. Archaeological Survey of India, Report for the Year 1872-73, 5: 105-8 and pl. 32-3. Calcutta: Archaeological Survey of India. [32] e.g. [36] It has been noted that the courtyard pattern and techniques of flooring of Harappan houses has similarities to the way house-building is still done in some villages of the region. [41] Keay, John, India, a HIstory. New York: Grove Press, 2000. [43] Marshall, Sir John. Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilisation, 3 vols, London: Arthur Probsthain, 1931 [45] Hasenpflug, Rainer, The Inscriptions of the Indus civilization Norderstedt, Germany, 2006. [47] The Hindus, Wendy Doniger, 2010, Oxford University Press, p.67, ISBN 97801995933347 [50] Wells, B. An Introduction to Indus Writing. Early Sites Research Society (West) Monograph Series, 2, Independence MO 1999 [52] These and other issues are addressed in [54] Indus Script Encodes Language, Reveals New Study of Ancient Symbols (http:/ / newswise. com/ articles/ view/ 551380/ ) Newswise, Retrieved on 5 June 2009. [55] A Refutation of the Claimed Refutation of the Non-linguistic Nature of Indus Symbols: Invented Data Sets in the Statistical Paper of Rao et al. (Science, 2009) (http:/ / www. safarmer. com/ Refutation3. pdf) Retrieved on 19 September 2009.

Indus Valley Civilization

[56] 'Conditional Entropy' Cannot Distinguish Linguistic from Non-linguistic Systems (http:/ / www. safarmer. com/ more. on. Rao. pdf) Retrieved on 19 September 2009. [57] The BBC names a bath and phallic symbols of the Harappan civilization as features of the "Prehistoric religion (3000-1000BCE)". [66] Thapar, Romila, Early India: From the Origins to 1300, London, Penguin Books, 2002 [67] McIntosh, Jane. (2008) The Ancient Indus Valley : New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. Page 84,276 [68] Wolpert, Stanley, India, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1991 [69] In his article "Mohen-jo-Daro: Sindh 5000 Years Ago" in Modern Review (August, 1932) [70] Patil, Bal In: Jaya Gommatesa, Hindi Granth Karyalay : Mumbai, 2006 ISBN 81-88769-10-X [71] Christopher Key Chappel (1993), Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions SUNY Press ISBN 0-7914-1497-3 Pp. 6-9 [73] Knipe, David. Hinduism. San Francisco: Harper, 1991 [80] Indus Writing Analysis by Asko Parpola (http:/ / www. harappa. com/ script/ parpola0. html) [81] Sanskrit has also contributed to Indus Civilization, Deccan Herald, 12 August 2012 (http:/ / www. deccanherald. com/ content/ 79062/ sanskrit-has-contributed-indus-civilisation. html) [83] http:/ / www. ms. uky. edu/ ~sohum/ sanskrit/ yogavasishtha/ backup/ doc_z_otherlang_english/ sarasvati. html [84] http:/ / www. webpages. uidaho. edu/ ngier/ lalpaper. htm

59

References

Bibliography
Allchin, Bridget (1997). Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early Archaeology of South Asia. New York: Viking. Allchin, Raymond (ed.) (1995). The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States. New York: Cambridge University Press. Aronovsky, Ilona; Gopinath, Sujata (2005). The Indus Valley. Chicago: Heinemann. Basham, A. L. (1967). The Wonder That Was India. London: Sidgwick & Jackson. pp.1114. Chakrabarti, D. K. (2004). Indus Civilization Sites in India: New Discoveries. Mumbai: Marg Publications. ISBN81-85026-63-7. Dani, Ahmad Hassan (1984). Short History of Pakistan (Book 1). University of Karachi. Dani, Ahmad Hassan; Mohen, J-P. (eds.) (1996). History of Humanity, Volume III, From the Third Millennium to the Seventh Century BC. New York/Paris: Routledge/UNESCO. ISBN0-415-09306-6. Gupta, S. P. (1996). The Indus-Saraswati Civilization: Origins, Problems and Issues. Delhi: Pratibha Prakashan. ISBN81-85268-46-0. Gupta, S. P. (ed.) (1995). The lost Sarasvati and the Indus Civilisation. Jodhpur: Kusumanjali Prakashan. Kathiroli; et al. (2004). "Recent Marine Archaeological Finds in Khambhat, Gujarat". Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology (1): 141149. Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998). Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-577940-1. Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991). "The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan and Western India". Journal of World Prehistory 5 (4): 164. doi: 10.1007/BF00978474 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00978474). Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark; Heuston, Kimberly (2005). The Ancient South Asian World. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-517422-4. Kirkpatrick, Naida (2002). The Indus Valley. Chicago: Heinemann. Lahiri, Nayanjot (ed.) (2000). The Decline and Fall of the Indus Civilisation. Delhi: Permanent Black. ISBN81-7530-034-5. Lal, B. B. (1998). India 1947-1997: New Light on the Indus Civilization. New Delhi: Aryan Books International. ISBN81-7305-129-1. Lal, B. B. (1997). The Earliest Civilisation of South Asia (Rise, Maturity and Decline). Lal, B. B. (2002). The Sarasvati flows on. McIntosh, Jane (2001). A Peaceful Realm: The Rise And Fall of the Indus Civilization. Boulder: Westview Press. ISBN0-8133-3532-9.

Indus Valley Civilization Mughal, Mohammad Rafique (1997). Ancient Cholistan, Archaeology and Architecture. Ferozesons. ISBN969-0-01350-5. Parpola, Asko (19 May 2005). "Study of the Indus Script" (http://www.harappa.com/script/indusscript.pdf). (50th ICES Tokyo Session) Possehl, Gregory (2002). The Indus Civilisation. Walnut Creek: Alta Mira Press. Rao, Shikaripura Ranganatha (1991). Dawn and Devolution of the Indus Civilisation. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan. ISBN81-85179-74-3. Shaffer, Jim G. (1995). "Cultural tradition and Palaeoethnicity in South Asian Archaeology". In George Erdosy (ed.). Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia. Berlin u.a.: de Gruyter. ISBN3-11-014447-6. Shaffer, Jim G. (1999). "Migration, Philology and South Asian Archaeology". In Bronkhorst and Deshpande (eds.). Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia. Cambridge: Harvard University, Dept. of Sanskrit and Indian Studies. ISBN1-888789-04-2. Shaffer, Jim G. (1992). "The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age". In R. W. Ehrich (ed.). Chronologies in Old World Archaeology (Second ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Witzel, Michael (February 2000). "The Languages of Harappa" (http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/ IndusLang.pdf). Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. Rita P. Wright, The Ancient Indus: Urbanism Economy and Society, Case Studies in Early Societies, Cambridge University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-521-57652-9

60

External links
Harappa and Indus Valley Civilization at harappa.com (http://www.harappa.com) An invitation to the Indus Civilization (Tokyo Metropolitan Museum) (http://pubweb.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/indus/ english/index.html) Cache of Seal Impressions Discovered in Western India (http://www.upenn.edu/researchatpenn/article. php?674&soc)

List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilization

61

List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilization

The list of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilization refers to the technological and civilizational achievements of the Indus Valley Civilisation, a lost civilization which flourished in the Bronze Age around the Indus River basin in what is today mainly Pakistan and northwest portions of the Republic of India. It is also called the Harappan Civilization, after one of its the centres, Harappa.

The extent of Indus Valley Civilization.

Inventions
Button, ornamental: Buttonsmade from seashellwere used in the Indus Valley Civilization for ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE.[1] Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pierced into them so that they could be attached to clothing by using a thread.[1] Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old."[2] Ruler: The oldest preserved measuring rod is a copper-alloy bar Computer-aided reconstruction of Harappan which was found by the German Assyriologist Eckhard Unger while coastal settlement in Pakistan on the westernmost outreaches of the civilization excavating at Nippur (pictured below). The bar dates from c. 2650 [] BC. and Unger claimed it was used as a measurement standard. Rulers made from Ivory were in use by the Indus Valley Civilization in what today is Pakistan and some parts of Western India prior to 1500 BCE.[3] Excavations at Lothal (2400 BCE) have yielded one such ruler calibrated to about 1/16 of an inchless than 2 millimeters.[3] Ian Whitelaw (2007) holds that 'The Mohenjo-Daro ruler is divided into units corresponding to 1.32inches (33.5mm) and these are marked out in decimal subdivisions with amazing accuracyto within 0.005 of an inch. Ancient bricks found throughout the region have dimensions that correspond to these units.'[4] Stepwell: Earliest clear evidence of the origins of the stepwell is found in the Indus Valley Civilization's archaeological site at Mohenjodaro in Pakistan [5] and Dholavira, India.[6] The three features of stepwells in the subcontinent are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BCE, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious importance into one structure.[5] The early centuries immediately before the common era saw the Buddhists and the Jains of India adapt the stepwells into their architecture.[5] Both the wells and the form of ritual bathing reached other parts of the world with Buddhism.[5]

List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilization Rock-cut step wells in the subcontinent date from 200-400 CE.[7] Subsequently the wells at Dhank (550-625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 CE) were constructed.[7]

62

References
[1] Hesse, Rayner W. & Hesse (Jr.), Rayner W. (2007). Jewelrymaking Through History: An Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. 35. ISBN 0-313-33507-9. [2] McNeil, Ian (1990). An encyclopaedia of the history of technology. Taylor & Francis. 852. ISBN 0-415-01306-2. [3] Whitelaw, page 14 [4] Whitelaw, page 15 [5] Livingston & Beach, 20 [6] The Lost River by Michel Danino. Penguin India 2010 [7] Livingston & Beach, page xxiii

Sources
Basham, A. L. (2001) [1967]. The Wonder That was India. Third revised edition. New Delhi: Rupa & co. ISBN 0-283-99257-3. Bell, John (2000). Strings, Hands, Shadows: A Modern Puppet History. Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0-89558-156-6. Brown, W. Norman (1964). "The Indian Games of Pachisi, Chaupar, and Chausar". Expedition, 32-35. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. 32 (35). Dales, George (1974). "Excavations at Balakot, Pakistan, 1973". Journal of Field Archaeology 1 (1-2): 322 [10]. doi: 10.2307/529703 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/529703). JSTOR 529703 (http://www.jstor.org/stable/ 529703). Davreu, Robert (1978). "Cities of Mystery: The Lost Empire of the Indus Valley". The Worlds Last Mysteries. (second edition). Sydney: Readers Digest. ISBN 0-909486-61-1 Encyclopedia of Indian Archaeology (Volume 1). Edited by Amalananda Ghosh (1990). Massachusetts: Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-09264-1. Ghosh, S.; Massey, Reginald; and Banerjee, Utpal Kumar (2006). Indian Puppets: Past, Present and Future. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 81-7017-435-X. Iwata, Shigeo (2008), "Weights and Measures in the Indus Valley", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, Springer, 22542255, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2. Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2000). Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology. (Illustrated edition). New York: Springer. ISBN 306461587. Koppel, Tom (2007). Ebb and Flow: Tides and Life on Our Once and Future Planet. Dundurn Press Ltd. ISBN 1-55002-726-3. Lowie, Robert H. (2007) [1940]. An Introduction To Cultural Anthropology. Masterson Press. ISBN 1-4067-1765-7. Livingston, Morna & Beach, Milo (2002). Steps to Water: The Ancient Stepwells of India. Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 1-56898-324-7. McIntosh, Jane (2007). The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives. Illustrated edition. California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-907-4. Nejat, Karen Rhea Nemet. (1998). Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-29497-6. Possehl, Gregory L. (2002). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Maryland: Rowman Altamira. ISBN 0-7591-0172-8. Pruthi, Raj (2004). Prehistory and Harappan Civilization. New Delhi: APH Publishing Corp. ISBN 81-7648-581-0.

List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilization Rao, K. Anantharama (2000). Vision 21st Century. India: Vidya Publishing House [Michigan: University of Michigan]. ISBN 81-87699-00-0 Robinson, Dindy & Estes, Rebecca (1996). World Cultures Through Art Activities. New Hampshire: Libraries Unlimited. ISBN 1-56308-271-3. Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1992). "Part 2: South Asian Cartography: 15. Introduction to South Asian Cartography". The History of Cartography - Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies (Volume 2 Book 1). Edited by J.B. Harley and David Woodward. New York: Oxford University Press USA. ISBN 0-226-31635-1. Upadhyaya, Bhagwat Saran (1954). The Ancient World. Andhra Pradesh: The Institute of Ancient Studies Hyderabad. Varadpande, Manohar Laxman (2005). History of Indian Theatre. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. ISBN 81-7017-430-9. Whitelaw, Ian (2007). A Measure of All Things: The Story of Man and Measurement. Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-37026-1.

63

List of Indus Valley Civilization sites

This is a List of Indus Valley Civilization sites.
Site Alamgirpur Balakot District Meerut District Mansehra District Fatehabad Hisar District Saharanpur [1] District Bharuch District Fatehabad District Nawabshah District Kutch District Province/State Uttar Pradesh Hazara Country India Pakistan Image Excavations/Findings Impression of cloth on trough Earliest evidence of furnace, seaport

Balu, Haryana Banawali Bargaon

Haryana Haryana Uttar Pradesh

Indian India India

Earliest evidence of garlic.

[]

Barley, terracotta figure of plough

Bhagatrav

Gujarat

India

Bhirrana

Haryana

India

Graffiti of a dancing girl on pottery, which resembles dancing girl statue found at Mohenjo-daro Bead making factory, use of lipstick, without a citadel [2] only Indus site

Chanhudaro

Sindh

Pakistan

Dholavira

Gujarat

India

Figure of chariot tied to a pair of bullocks and driven by a nude human, Water harvesting and number of reservoirs, use of rocks for constructions a sculpture of a bronze chariot, 45cm long and 16cm wide, yoked to two oxen, driven by a man 16cm high [3] standing in it; and three other bronze sculptures. Largest burial site of IVC, with 65 burials, found in India

Daimabad Late Harappan

Ahmadnagar District

Maharashtra

India

Farmana Ganeriwala Gola Dhoro Harappa

Rohtak District

Haryana Punjab Gujarat

India Pakistan India Pakistan

Production of shell bangles, semi precious beads etc. Granaries, coffin burial, Lot of artefacts, Important IVC Town, First town which is Excavated and studied in detail

Sahiwal District

Punjab

List of Indus Valley Civilization sites

64
India

Hulas

Saharanpur District Hanumangarh District Kutch District

Uttar Pradesh

Kalibangan

Rajasthan

India

Baked/burnt bangles, fire altars, small circular pits containing large urns and accompanied by pottery Ware House, Industrial area, gold, copper, semi precious stone, shell objects and weight hoards Salt production centre, by evaporating sea water []

Khirasara

Gujarat

India

Kerala-no-dhoro or Padri Kot Bala

Kutch District

Gujarat

India

Lasbela District Khairpur District Fatehabad District Rajkot District Sukkur District Larkana District Mehsana District Ahmedabad District Jammu District

Balochistan

Pakistan

Kot Diji

Sindh

Pakistan

Kunal, Haryana

Haryana

India

Earliest Pre-Harappan site, Copper smelting. Small port

[]

Kuntasi Lakhueen-jo-daro Larkana

Gujarat Sindh Sindh

India Pakistan Pakistan

Loteshwar

Gujarat

India

Ancient archeological site

[4]

Lothal

Gujarat

India

Bead making factory, dockyard, button seal, fire altars, painted jar, earliest cultivation of rice (1800 BC) Northern Most Harappan site in Himalayan foodhills [6] Southern Most Harappan site in India [5]

Manda,Jammu

Jammu & Kashmir Gujarat Uttar Pradesh

India

Malwan Mandi Mehrgarh Mitathal

Surat District

India India Pakistan India

Bolan District Bhiwani District Larkana District

Balochistan Haryana

Earliest agricultural community

Mohenjo-Daro

Sindh

Pakistan

Great Bath (the biggest bath ghat), Great granary, Bronze dancing girl, Bearded man, terracotta toys, Bull seal, Pashupati seal, three cylindrical seals of the Mesopotamian type, a piece of woven cloth

Mundigak

Kandahar Province

Kandahar

Afghanistan

Nausharo Ongar Pir Shah Jurio Pirak Rakhigarhi Hisar District Karachi

Balochistan Sindh Sindh Balochistan Haryana

Pakistan Pakistan Pakistan Pakistan India Terrecotta wheels, toys,figuries,pottery. Large site, partially excavated. Seaport

Rangpur

Ahmedabad District

Gujarat

India

Rehman Dheri

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

Pakistan

List of Indus Valley Civilization sites

65
Gujarat Punjab India India

Rojdi Rupar

Rajkot District Rupnagar District Baghpat District Kutch District

Sanauli

[7]

Uttar Pradesh

India

Burial site with 125 burials found

Shikarpur, [8] Gujarat Shortugai Sothi Surkotada Sutkagan Dor

Gujarat

India

Food habit details of Harappans

Afghanistan Haryana Kutch District Gujarat Balochistan India India Pakistan Bones of a horse (only site) Bangles of clay, Western most known site of IVC [9]

References
[1] Archeological Survey of India Publication:Indian Archeology 1963-64 A Review (http:/ / asi. nic. in/ nmma_reviews/ Indian Archaeology 1963-64 A Review. pdf) [3] (http:/ / www. rhinoresourcecenter. com/ pdf_files/ 121/ 1218186467. pdf) [5] India Archeology 1976-77, A Review. Archeological Survey of India.Page 19. [7] Archeological Survey of India (http:/ / asi. nic. in/ asi_exca_2007_sanauli. asp) [8] Department of Archeology and Ancient History, Maharaja Sayyajirao University, Baroda. Excavations at Shikarpur,Gujarat 2008-2009. (http:/ / www. harappa. com/ goladhoro/ Shikarpur-2008-2009. pdf)

Bronze Age

66

Bronze Age

Diffusion of metallurgy in Europe and Asia Minor. The darkest areas are the oldest.

Bronze Age
Chalcolithic

Near East (3600-1200 BC)

Caucasus, Anatolia, Levant, Indus valley, Mesopotamia, Elam, Jiroft Bronze Age collapse

Europe (3200-600 BC)

Aegean (Minoan) Caucasus (Maykop culture) Basarabi culture Coofeni culture Pecica culture Otomani culture Wietenberg culture Catacomb culture Srubna culture Beaker culture Unetice culture Tumulus culture Urnfield culture Hallstatt culture Atlantic Bronze Age Bronze Age Britain Nordic Bronze Age Romanian Bronze Age Southeastern European Bronze Age Italian Bronze Age

Indian Subcontinent (3300-1200 BC) China (3000-700 BC) Korea (800-300 BC) Upper Oxus (2300-1700 BC)

Bronze Age

67
arsenical bronze writing, literature sword, chariot Iron Age

The Bronze Age is a period characterized by the use of copper and its alloy bronze and proto-writing, and other features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second principal period of the three-age Stone-Bronze-Iron system, as proposed in modern times by Christian Jrgensen Thomsen, for classifying and studying ancient societies. An ancient civilization can be in the Bronze Age either by smelting its own copper and alloying with tin, or by trading for bronze from production areas elsewhere. Copper-tin ores are rare, as reflected in the fact that there were no tin bronzes in western Asia before the third millennium BC. Worldwide, the Bronze Age generally followed the Neolithic period, but in some parts of the world, the Copper Age served as a transition from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age. Although the Iron Age generally followed the Bronze Age, in some areas, the Iron Age intruded directly on the Neolithic from outside the region except for Sub-Saharan Africa where it was developed independently.[1] Bronze Age cultures differed in their development of the first writing. According to archaeological evidence, cultures in Egypt (hieroglyphs), the Near East (cuneiform), China (oracle bone script)and the Mediterranean, with the Mycenaean culture (Linear B)had viable writing systems.

History
The term "Bronze Age" ultimately derives from the Ages of Man, the stages of human existence on the Earth according to Greek mythology. Of these, modern historians categorize the Golden Age and Silver Age as mythical, but consider the Bronze Age and Iron Age historically valid. The overall period is characterized by the full adoption of bronze in many regions, though the place and time of the introduction and development of bronze technology was not universally synchronous.[2] Man-made tin bronze technology requires set production techniques. Tin must be mined (mainly as the tin ore cassiterite) and smelted separately, then added to molten copper to make the bronze alloy. The Bronze Age was a time of heavy use of metals and of developing trade networks (See Tin sources and trade in ancient times).

Near East
Southeast Asia / Middle East The Bronze Age in the ancient Near East began with the rise of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC. Cultures in the ancient Near East (often called, "the cradle of civilization") practised intensive year-round agriculture, developed a writing system, invented the potter's wheel, created a centralized government, law codes, and empires, and introduced social stratification, slavery, and organized warfare. Societies in the region laid the foundations for astronomy and mathematics.

Bronze Age Near East timeline Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details

68

Age sub-divisions The Ancient Near East Bronze Age can be divided as follows:
Near East Bronze Age Divisions The archetypal Bronze Age divisions of the Near East have a well-established triadic clearness of expression. The period dates and phase ranges are [3][4][5] solely applicable to the Near East, but not applicable universally. Early Bronze Age (EBA) 3300 - 2100 BC 3300 - 3000 : EBA I 3000 - 2700 : EBA II 2700 - 2200 : EBA III 2200 - 2100 : EBA IV Middle Bronze Age (MBA) Also, Intermediate Bronze Age (IBA) 2100 - 1550 BC 2100 - 2000 : MBA I 2000 - 1750 : MBA II A 1750 - 1650 : MBA II B 1650 - 1550 : MBA II C Late Bronze Age (LBA) 1550 - 1200 BC 1550 - 1400 : LBA I 1400 - 1300 : LBA II A 1300 - 1200 : LBA II B (Bronze Age collapse)

Bronze Age Mesopotamia In Mesopotamia, the Mesopotamia Bronze Age begins about 2900 BC and ends with the Kassite period. The usual tripartite division into an Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age is not used. Instead, a division primarily based on art-historical and historical characteristics is more common. The cities of the Ancient Near East housed several tens of thousands of people. Ur in the Middle Bronze Age and Babylon in the Late Bronze Age similarly had large populations. The earliest mention of Babylonia appears on a tablet from the reign of Sargon of Akkad in the 23rd century BC. The Amorite dynasty established the city-state of Babylon in the 19th century BC. Over 100 years later, it briefly took over the other city-states and formed the first Babylonian empire during what is also called the Old Babylonian Period. Babylonia adopted the written Semitic Akkadian language for official use. By that time, the Sumerian language was no longer spoken, but was still in religious use. The Akkadian and Sumerian traditions played a major role in later Babylonian culture, and the region, even under outside rule, remained an important cultural center throughout the Bronze and Early Iron Age. Persian Plateau Persian Bronze Age

69

Late 3rd Millennium BC silver cup from Marvdasht, Fars, with linear-Elamite inscription.

Elam was an ancient civilization located to the east of Mesopotamia. In the Old Elamite period (Middle Bronze Age), Elam consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau, centered in Anshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered in Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands. Its culture played a crucial role in the Gutian Empire and especially during the Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded it. The Oxus civilization[6] was a Bronze Age Central Asian culture dated to ca. 23001700 BC and centered on the upper Amu Darya (Oxus). In the Early Bronze Age the culture of the Kopet Dag oases and Altyn-Depe developed a proto-urban society. This corresponds to level IV at Namazga-Depe. Altyn-Depe was a major centre even then. Pottery was wheel-turned. Grapes were grown. The height of this urban development was reached in the Middle Bronze Age c. 2300 BC, corresponding to level V at Namazga-Depe.[7] This Bronze Age culture is called the

Bronze Age BactriaMargiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC). The Kulli culture,[8][9] similar to those of the Indus Valley Civilization, was located in southern Balochistan (Gedrosia) ca. 2500 - 2000 BC. Agriculture was the economical base of this people. At several places dams were found, providing evidence for a highly developed water management system. Konar Sandal is associated with the hypothesized "Jiroft culture", a 3rd millennium BC culture postulated on the basis of a collection of artifacts confiscated in 2001. Anatolia The Hittite Empire was established in Hattusa in northern Anatolia from the 18th century BC. In the 14th century BC, the Hittite Kingdom was at its height, encompassing central Anatolia, southwestern Syria as far as Ugarit, and upper Mesopotamia. After 1180 BC, amid general turmoil in the Levant associated with the sudden arrival of the Sea Peoples, the kingdom disintegrated into several independent "Neo-Hittite" city-states, some of which survived until as late as the 8th century BC. Arzawa in Western Anatolia during the second half of the second millennium BC likely extended along southern Anatolia in a belt that reaches from near the Turkish Lakes Region to the Aegean coast. Arzawa was the western neighborsometimes a rival and sometimes a vassalof the Middle and New Hittite Kingdoms. The Assuwa league was a confederation of states in western Anatolia that was defeated by the Hittites under an earlier Tudhaliya I, around 1400 BC. Arzawa has been associated with the much more obscure Assuwa generally located to its north. It probably bordered it, and may even be an alternative term for it (at least during some periods). Levant Mediterranean Bronze Age

70

Chalcolithic copper mine in Timna Valley, Negev Desert, Israel.

Ebla experienced an apogee from ca. 1850 to 1600 BC. The first known ruler of Ebla in this period was Megum, an Ensi (governor) for Ur III during the reign of Amar-Sin of Ur. Ibbit-Lim was the first attested king. Ebla is mentioned in texts from Alalakh from ca. 1750 BC. The city was destroyed again in the turbulent period of 16501600 BC, by a Hittite king (Mursili I or Hattusili I). This is attested to only by the fragmentary Hurro-Hittite Song of Release.

Bronze Age Amorite kingdoms, ca. 20001600 BC, arose in Mari, Yamkhad, Qatna, Assyria,[10] Isin, Larsa, and also Babylon. This era ended in northern Mesopotamia with the expulsion of the Amorite dominated Babylonians from Assyria by King Adasi c. 1720 BC, and in the south with the Hittite sack of Babylon (c. 1595 BC), which brought new ethnic groupsparticularly Kassitesto the forefront in southern Mesopotamia. From the 15th century BC onward, the term Amurru is usually applied to the region extending north of Canaan as far as Kadesh on the Orontes. The Mitanni was a loosely organized state in northern Syria and south-east Anatolia from ca. 1500 BC1300 BC. Founded by an Indo-Aryan ruling class that governed a predominately Hurrian population, Mitanni came to be a regional power after the Hittite destruction of Kassite Babylon created a power vacuum in Mesopotamia. At its beginning, Mitanni's major rival was Egypt under the Thutmosids. However, with the ascent of the Hittite empire, Mitanni and Egypt made an alliance to protect their mutual interests from the threat of Hittite domination. At the height of its power, during the 14th century BC, it had outposts centered around its capital, Washukanni, which archaeologists have located on the headwaters of the Khabur River. Eventually, Mitanni succumbed to Hittite, and later Assyrian attacks, and was reduced to a province of the Middle Assyrian Empire. The earliest known Ugarit contact with Egypt (and the first exact dating of Ugaritic civilization) comes from a carnelian bead identified with the Middle Kingdom pharaoh Senusret I, 1971 BC1926 BC. A stela and a statuette from the Egyptian pharaohs Senusret III and Amenemhet III have also been found. However, it is unclear at what time these monuments got to Ugarit. Amarna letters from Ugarit ca. 1350 BC records one letter each from Ammittamru I, Niqmaddu II, and his queen. From the 16th to the 13th century BC Ugarit remained in constant touch with Egypt and Cyprus (named Alashiya). The Aramaeans are a Northwest Semitic semi-nomadic and pastoralist people who originated in what is now modern Syria (Biblical Aram) during the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age. Large groups migrated to Mesopotamia where they intermingled with the native Akkadian (Assyrian and Babylonian) population. The Aramaeans never had a unified empire; they were divided into independent kingdoms all across the Near East. After the Bronze Age collapse, their political influence was confined to a number of Syro-Hittite states, which were entirely absorbed into the Neo-Assyrian Empire by the 8th century BC. Ancient Egypt Early Bronze dynasties In Ancient Egypt, the Bronze Age begins in the Protodynastic period, c. 3150 BC. The archaic early Bronze Age of Egypt, known as the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt,[11][12] immediately follows the unification of Lower and Upper Egypt, c. 3100 BC. It is generally taken to include the First and Second Dynasties, lasting from the Protodynastic Period of Egypt until about 2686 BC, or the beginning of the Old Kingdom. With the First Dynasty, the capital moved from Abydos to Memphis with a unified Egypt ruled by an Egyptian god-king. Abydos remained the major holy land in the south. The hallmarks of ancient Egyptian civilization, such as art, architecture and many aspects of religion, took shape during the Early Dynastic period. Memphis in the Early Bronzee Age was the largest city of the time. The Old Kingdom of the regional Bronze Age[11] is the name given to the period in the 3rd millennium BC when Egypt attained its first continuous peak of civilization in complexity and achievement the first of three "Kingdom" periods, which mark the high points of civilization in the lower Nile Valley (the others being Middle Kingdom and the New Kingdom). The First Intermediate Period of Egypt,[13] often described as a "dark period" in ancient Egyptian history, spanned about 100 years after the end of the Old Kingdom from about 2181 to 2055 BC. Very little monumental evidence survives from this period, especially from the early part of it. The First Intermediate Period was a dynamic time when rule of Egypt was roughly divided between two competing power bases: Heracleopolis in Lower Egypt and Thebes in Upper Egypt. These two kingdoms would eventually come into conflict, with the Theban kings conquering the north, resulting in reunification of Egypt under a single ruler during the second part of the 11th Dynasty.

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Bronze Age Middle Bronze dynasties The Middle Kingdom of Egypt lasted from 2055 to 1650 BC. During this period, the Osiris funerary cult rose to dominate Egyptian popular religion. The period comprises two phases: the 11th Dynasty, which ruled from Thebes and the 12th[14] and 13th Dynasties centered around el-Lisht. The unified kingdom was previously considered to comprise the 11th and 12th Dynasties, but historians now at least partially consider the 13th Dynasty to belong to the Middle Kingdom. During the Second Intermediate Period,[15] Ancient Egypt fell into disarray for a second time, between the end of the Middle Kingdom and the start of the New Kingdom. It is best known for the Hyksos, whose reign comprised the 15th and 16th dynasties. The Hyksos first appeared in Egypt during the 11th Dynasty, began their climb to power in the 13th Dynasty, and emerged from the Second Intermediate Period in control of Avaris and the Delta. By the 15th Dynasty, they ruled lower Egypt, and they were expelled at the end of the 17th Dynasty. Late Bronze dynasties The New Kingdom of Egypt, also referred to as the Egyptian Empire, lasted from the 16th to the 11th century BC. The New Kingdom followed the Second Intermediate Period and was succeeded by the Third Intermediate Period. It was Egypt's most prosperous time and marked the peak of Egypt's power. The later New Kingdom, i.e. the 19th and 20th Dynasties (1292-1069 BC), is also known as the Ramesside period, after the eleven pharaohs that took the name of Ramesses.

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Central Asia
Seima-Turbino Phenomenon The Altai Mountains in what is now southern Russia and central Mongolia have been identified as the point of origin of a cultural enigma termed the Seima-Turbino Phenomenon.[] It is conjectured that changes in climate in this region around 2000 BC and the ensuing ecological, economic and political changes triggered a rapid and massive migration westward into northeast Europe, eastward into China and southward into Vietnam and Thailand across a frontier of some 4,000 miles.[] This migration took place in just five to six generations and led to peoples from Finland in the west to Thailand in the east employing the same metal working technology and, in some areas, horse breeding and riding.[] It is further conjectured that the same migrations spread the Uralic group of languages across Europe and Asia: some 39 languages of this group are still extant, including Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian and Lappish.[] However, recent genetic testings of sites in south Siberia and Kazakhstan (Andronovo horizon) would rather support a spreading of the bronze technology via Indo-European migrations eastwards, as this technology was well known for quite a while in western regions.[16][17]

Bronze Age

73

East Asia
East Asia timeline Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details

China Chinese Bronze Age

A Shang Dynasty two-handled bronze gefuding gui (16001046 BC).

Spring and Autumn Period pu bronze vessel with interlaced dragon design (722481 BC)

Historians disagree about the dates of a "Bronze Age" in China. The difficulty lies in the term "Bronze Age", as it has been applied to signify a period in history when bronze tools replaced stone tools, and, later, were themselves replaced by iron ones. The medium of the new "Age" made that of the old obsolete. In China, however, any attempt to establish a definite set of dates for a Bronze Age is complicated by two factors: 1. arrival of iron smelting technology, and 2. persistence of bronze objects. The earliest bronze artifacts have been found in the Majiayao culture site (between 3100 and 2700 BC),[18][19] and from then on, the society gradually grew into the Bronze Age. Bronze metallurgy in China originated in what is referred to as the Erlitou (WadeGiles: Erh-li-t'ou) period, which some historians argue places it within the range of dates controlled by the Shang dynasty.[20] Others believe the Erlitou sites belong to the preceding Xia (WadeGiles: Hsia) dynasty.[21] The U.S. National Gallery of Art defines the Chinese Bronze Age as the "period between about 2000 BC and 771 BC," a period that begins with Erlitou culture and ends abruptly with the disintegration of Western Zhou rule.[22] Though this provides a concise frame of reference, it overlooks the continued importance of bronze in Chinese metallurgy and culture. Since this is significantly later than the discovery of bronze in Mesopotamia, bronze technology could have been imported rather than discovered independently in China. While there may be reason to believe that bronzework developed inside China separately from outside influence,[23][24] the discovery of European mummies in Xinjiang suggests a possible route of transmission from the West.[25] The Shang Dynasty[26][27] of the Yellow River Valley rose to power after the Xia Dynasty. While some direct information about the Shang Dynasty comes from Shang-era inscriptions on bronze artifacts, most comes from oracle bones turtle shells, cattle scapulae, or other bones, which bear glyphs that form the first significant corpus of recorded Chinese characters.

Bronze Age Iron is found from the Zhou Dynasty, but its use is minimal. Chinese literature dating to the 6th century BC attests a knowledge of iron smelting, yet bronze continues to occupy the seat of significance in the archaeological and historical record for some time after this.[28] Historian W. C. White argues that iron did not supplant bronze "at any period before the end of the Zhou dynasty (256 BC)" and that bronze vessels make up the majority of metal vessels all the way through the Later Han period, or to 221 BC.[29] The Chinese bronze artifacts generally are either utilitarian, like spear points or adze heads, or "ritual bronzes", which are more elaborate versions in precious materials of everyday vessels, as well as tools and weapons. Examples are the numerous large sacrificial tripods known as dings in Chinese; there are many other distinct shapes. Surviving identified Chinese ritual bronzes tend to be highly decorated, often with the taotie motif, which involves highly stylized animal face(s). These appear in three main motif types: those of demons, of symbolic animals, and of abstract symbols.[30] Many large bronzes also bear cast inscriptions that are the great bulk of the surviving body of early Chinese writing and have helped historians and archaeologists piece together the history of China, especially during the Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BC). The bronzes of the Western Zhou Dynasty document large portions of history not found in the extant texts that were often composed by persons of varying rank and possibly even social class. Further, the medium of cast bronze lends the record they preserve a permanence not enjoyed by manuscripts.[31] These inscriptions can commonly be subdivided into four parts: a reference to the date and place, the naming of the event commemorated, the list of gifts given to the artisan in exchange for the bronze, and a dedication.[32] The relative points of reference these vessels provide have enabled historians to place most of the vessels within a certain time frame of the Western Zhou period, allowing them to trace the evolution of the vessels and the events they record.[33] Korea The beginning of the Bronze Age on the peninsula is around 900 BC - 800 BC.[34][35] Although the Korean Bronze Age culture derives from the Liaoning and Manchuria, it exhibits unique typology and styles, especially in ritual objects.[36] The Mumun pottery period is named after the Korean name for undecorated or plain cooking and storage vessels that form a large part of the pottery assemblage over the entire length of the period, but especially 850-550 BC. The Mumun period is known for the origins of intensive agriculture and complex societies in both the Korean Peninsula and the Japanese Archipelago. The Middle Mumun pottery period culture of the southern Korean Peninsula gradually adopted bronze production (c. 700600? BC) after a period when Liaoning-style bronze daggers and other bronze artifacts were exchanged as far as the interior part of the Southern Peninsula (c. 900700 BC). The bronze daggers lent prestige and authority to the personages who wielded and were buried with them in high-status megalithic burials at south-coastal centres such as the Igeum-dong site. Bronze was an important element in ceremonies and as for mortuary offerings until 100.

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South Asia
South Asia timeline Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details

Indus Valley The Bronze Age on the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BC with the beginning of the Indus Valley civilization. Inhabitants of the Indus Valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead and tin. The Indian Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age Vedic Period. The Harappan culture, which dates from 1700 BC to 1300 BC, overlapped the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age; thus it is difficult to date this transition accurately.

Bronze Age

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Southeast Asia
Dating back to the Neolithic Age, the first bronze drums, called the Dong Son drums, have been uncovered in and around the Red River Delta regions of Vietnam and Southern China. These relate to the prehistoric Dong Son Culture of Vietnam. In Ban Chiang, Thailand, (Southeast Asia) bronze artifacts have been discovered dating to 2100 BC.[37] In Nyaunggan, Burma bronze tools have been excavated along with ceramics and stone artifacts. Dating is still currently broad (3500500 BC).[38]

Europe
European timeline A few examples of named Bronze Age cultures in Europe in roughly relative order. The chosen cultures overlapped in time and the indicated periods do not correspond to their estimated extends.

Aegean Aegean Bronze Age

Bronze Age copper ingot found in Crete

The Aegean Bronze Age began around 3200 BC,[39] when civilizations first established a far-ranging trade network. This network imported tin and charcoal to Cyprus, where copper was mined and alloyed with the tin to produce bronze. Bronze objects were then exported far and wide, and supported the trade. Isotopic analysis of tin in some Mediterranean bronze artifacts points to the fact that they may have originated from Great Britain.[40] Knowledge of navigation was well developed at this time, and reached a peak of skill not exceeded (except perhaps by Polynesian sailors) until 1730 when the invention of the chronometer enabled the precise determination of longitude. The Minoan civilization based in Knossos appears to have coordinated and defended its Bronze Age trade. Illyrians are also believed to have roots in the early Bronze Age. Ancient empires valued luxury goods in contrast to staple foods, leading to famine.[41]

Bronze Age Aegean Collapse Bronze Age collapse theories have described aspects of the end of the Age in this region. At the end of the Bronze Age in the Aegean region, the Mycenaean administration of the regional trade empire followed the decline of Minoan primacy.[42] Several Minoan client states lost much of their population to famine and/or pestilence. This would indicate that the trade network may have failed, preventing the trade that would previously have relieved such famines and prevented illness caused by malnutrition. It is also known that in this era the breadbasket of the Minoan empire, the area north of the Black Sea, also suddenly lost much of its population, and thus probably some cultivation. The Aegean Collapse has been attributed to the exhaustion of the Cyprus forests causing the end of the bronze trade.[43][44][45] These forests are known to have existed into later times, and experiments have shown that charcoal production on the scale necessary for the bronze production of the late Bronze Age would have exhausted them in less than fifty years. Aegean Collapse has also been attributed to the fact that as iron tools became more common, the main justification for the tin trade ended, and that trade network ceased to function as it did formerly.[46] The colonies of the Minoan empire then suffered drought, famine, war, or some combination of those three, and had no access to the distant resources of an empire by which they could easily recover. The Thera eruption occurred around the Aegean Collapse, 110km (68mi) north of Crete. Speculation include a tsunami from Thera (more commonly known today as Santorini) destroyed Cretan cities. A tsunami may have destroyed the Cretan navy in its home harbour, which then lost crucial naval battles; so that in the LMIB/LMII event (c. 1450 BC) the cities of Crete burned and the Mycenaean civilization took over Knossos. If the eruption occurred in the late 17th century BC (as most chronologists now think) then its immediate effects belong to the Middle to Late Bronze Age transition, and not to the end of the Late Bronze Age; but it could have triggered the instability that led to the collapse first of Knossos and then of Bronze Age society overall. One such theory looks to the role of Cretan expertise in administering the empire, post-Thera. If this expertise was concentrated in Crete, then the Mycenaeans may have made political and commercial mistakes in administering the Cretan empire. Archaeological findings, including some on the island of Thera, suggest that the centre of Minoan Civilization at the time of the eruption was actually on Thera rather than on Crete. According to this theory, the catastrophic loss of the political, administrative and economic centre by the eruption as well as the damage wrought by the tsunami to the coastal towns and villages of Crete precipitated the decline of the Minoans. A weakened political entity with a reduced economic and military capability and fabled riches would have then been more vulnerable to human predators. Indeed, the Santorini Eruption is usually dated to c. 1630 BC, while the Mycenaean Greeks first enter the historical record a few decades later, c. 1600 BC. Thus, the later Mycenaean assaults on Crete (c.1450 BC) and Troy (c.1250 BC) are revealed as mere continuations of the steady encroachments of the Greeks upon the weakened Minoan world.

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Bronze Age Central Europe Central European Bronze Age

77

Jeniovice cup

Grenoble cuirass

Bronze Age weaponry and ornaments

In Central Europe, the early Bronze Age Unetice culture (18001600 BC) includes numerous smaller groups like the Straubing, Adlerberg and Hatvan cultures. Some very rich burials, such as the one located at Leubingen with grave gifts crafted from gold, point to an increase of social stratification already present in the Unetice culture. All in all, cemeteries of this period are rare and of small size. The Unetice culture is followed by the middle Bronze Age (16001200 BC) Tumulus culture, which is characterised by inhumation burials in tumuli (barrows). In the eastern Hungarian Krs tributaries, the early Bronze Age first saw the introduction of the Mako culture, followed by the Ottomany and Gyulavarsand cultures. The late Bronze Age Urnfield culture, (1300700 BC) is characterized by cremation burials. It includes the Lusatian culture in eastern Germany and Poland (1300500 BC) that continues into the Iron Age. The Central European Bronze Age is followed by the Iron Age Hallstatt culture (700450 BC).

Bronze Age Important sites include: Biskupin (Poland) Nebra (Germany) Vrble (Slovakia) Zug-Sumpf, Zug, Switzerland

78

The Bronze Age in Central Europe has been described in the chronological schema of German prehistorian Paul Reinecke. He described Bronze A1 (Bz A1) period (23002000 BC : triangular daggers, flat axes, stone wrist-guards, flint arrowheads) and Bronze A2 (Bz A2) period (19501700 BC : daggers with metal hilt, flanged axes, halberds, pins with perforated spherical heads, solid bracelets) and phases Hallstatt A and B (Ha A and B). South Europe The Apennine culture (also called Italian Bronze Age) is a technology complex of central and southern Italy spanning the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age proper. The Camuni were an ancient people of uncertain origin (according to Pliny the Elder, they were Euganei; according to Strabo, they were Rhaetians) who lived in Val Camonica - in what is now northern Lombardy - during the Iron Age, although human groups of hunters, shepherds and farmers are known to have lived in the area since the Neolithic. Located in Sardinia and Corsica, the Nuragic civilization lasted from the early Bronze Age (18th century BC) to the 2nd century AD, when the islands were already Romanized. They take their name from the characteristic nuragic towers, which evolved from the pre-existing megalithic culture, which built dolmens and menhirs. The nuraghe towers are unanimously considered the best preserved and largest megalithic remains in Europe. Their effective use is still debated: some scholars considered them as monumental tombs, others as Houses of the Giants, other as fortresses, ovens for metal fusion, prisons or, finally, temples for a solar cult. The Terramare was an early Indo-European civilization in the area of what is now Pianura Padana (northern Italy) before the arrival of the Celts, and in other parts of Europe. They lived in square villages of wooden stilt houses. These villages were built on land, but generally near a stream, with roads that crossed each other at right angles. The whole complex denoted the nature of a fortified settlement. Terramare were widespread in the Pianura Padana (specially along the Panaro river, between Modena and Bologna) and in the rest of Europe. The civilization developed in the Middle and Late Bronze Age, between the 17th and the 13th centuries BC. The Castellieri culture developed in Istria during the Middle Bronze Age. It lasted for more than a millennium, from the 15th century BC until the Roman conquest in the 3rd century BC. It takes its name from the fortified boroughs (Castellieri, Friulian cjastelir) that characterized the culture. The Canegrate culture developed from the mid-Bronze Age (13th century BC) till the Iron Age in the Pianura Padana, in what is are now western Lombardy, eastern Piedmont and Ticino. It takes its name from the township of Canegrate where, in the 20th century, some fifty tombs with ceramics and metal objects were found. The Canegrate culture migrated from the northwest part of the Alps and descended to Pianura Padana from the Swiss Alps passes and the Ticino. The Golasecca culture developed starting from the late Bronze Age in the Po plain. It takes its name from Golasecca, a locality next to the Ticino where, in the early 19th century, abbot Giovanni Battista Giani excavated its first findings (some fifty tombs with ceramics and metal objects). Remains of the Golasecca culture span an area of c. 20,000 square kilometers south to the Alps, between the Po, Sesia and Serio rivers, dating from the 9th to the 4th century BC.

Bronze Age West Europe Atlantic Bronze Age Atlantic Bronze Age

79

Ceremonial giant dirk (15001300 BC).

Golden helmet (Leiro, Galicia)

The Atlantic Bronze Age is a cultural complex of the period of approximately 1300700 BC that includes different cultures in Portugal, Andalusia, Galicia and the British Isles. It is marked by economic and cultural exchange. Commercial contacts extend to Denmark and the Mediterranean. The Atlantic Bronze Age was defined by a number of distinct regional centres of metal production, unified by a regular maritime exchange of some of their products. Great Britain In Great Britain, the Bronze Age is considered to have been the period from around 2100 to 750 BC. Migration brought new people to the islands from the continent. Recent tooth enamel isotope research on bodies found in early Bronze Age graves around Stonehenge indicate that at least some of the migrants came from the area of modern Switzerland. The Beaker culture displayed different behaviours from the earlier Neolithic people, and cultural change was significant. Integration is thought to have been peaceful, as many of the early henge sites were seemingly adopted by the newcomers. The rich Wessex culture developed in southern Britain at this time. Additionally, the climate was deteriorating; where once the weather was warm and dry it became much wetter as the Bronze Age continued, forcing the population away from easily defended sites in the hills and into the fertile valleys. Large livestock farms developed in the lowlands and appear to have contributed to economic growth and inspired increasing forest clearances. The Deverel-Rimbury culture began to emerge in the second half of the Middle Bronze Age (c. 14001100 BC) to exploit these conditions. Devon and Cornwall were major sources of tin for much of western Europe and copper was extracted from sites such as the Great Orme mine in northern Wales. Social groups appear to have been tribal but with growing complexity and hierarchies becoming apparent. Burial of dead (which, until this period, had usually been communal) became more individual. For example, whereas in the Neolithic a large chambered cairn or long barrow housed the dead, Early Bronze Age people buried their dead in individual barrows (also commonly known and marked on modern British Ordnance Survey maps as tumuli), or sometimes in cists covered with cairns. The greatest quantities of bronze objects in England were discovered in East Cambridgeshire, where the most important finds were recovered in Isleham (more than 6500 pieces).[47] Alloying of copper with zinc or tin to make brass or bronze was practised soon after the discovery of copper itself. One copper mine at Great Orme in North Wales, extended to a depth of 70 meters.[48] At Alderley Edge in Cheshire, carbon dates have established mining at around 2280 to 1890 BC (at 95% probability).[49] The earliest identified metalworking site (Sigwells, Somerset) is much later, dated by Globular Urn style pottery to approximately the 12th century BC. The identifiable sherds from

Bronze Age over 500 mould fragments included a perfect fit of the hilt of a sword in the Wilburton style held in Somerset County Museum.[] Ireland The Bronze Age in Ireland commenced around 2000 BC, when copper was alloyed with tin and used to manufacture Ballybeg type flat axes and associated metalwork. The preceding period is known as the Copper Age and is characterised by the production of flat axes, daggers, halberds and awls in copper. The period is divided into three phases: Early Bronze Age (20001500 BC), Middle Bronze Age (15001200 BC), and Late Bronze Age (1200 c. 500 BC). Ireland is also known for a relatively large number of Early Bronze Age burials. One of the characteristic types of artifact of the Early Bronze Age in Ireland is the flat axe [50]. There are five main types of flat axes: Lough Ravel (c. 2200 BC), Ballybeg (c. 2000 BC), Killaha (c. 2000 BC), Ballyvalley (c. 20001600 BC), Derryniggin (c. 1600 BC), and a number of metal ingots in the shape of axes.[51] North Europe Bronze artifacts

80

Assorted Celtic bronze castings dating from the Bronze Age.

The Bronze Age in Northern Europe spans the entire 2nd millennium BC (Unetice culture, Urnfield culture, Tumulus culture, Terramare culture, Lusatian culture) lasting until ca. 600 BC. The Northern Bronze Age was both a period and a Bronze Age culture in Scandinavian pre-history, c. 1700-500 BC, with sites that reached as far east as Estonia. Succeeding the Late Neolithic culture, its ethnic and linguistic affinities are unknown in the absence of written sources. It is followed by the Pre-Roman Iron Age. Even though Northern European Bronze Age cultures were fairly late, and came in existence via trade, sites present rich and well-preserved objects made of wool, wood and imported Central European bronze and gold. Many rock carvings depict ships, and the large stone burial monuments known as stone ships suggest that shipping played an important role. Thousands of rock carvings depict ships, most probably representing sewn plank built canoes for warfare, fishing and trade. These may have a history as far back as the neolithic period and continue into the Pre-Roman Iron Age, as shown by the Hjortspring boat. There are many mounds and rock carving sites from the period. Numerous artifacts of bronze and gold are found. No written language existed in the Nordic countries during

Bronze Age the Bronze Age. The rock carvings have been dated through comparison with depicted artifacts. Caucasus Arsenical bronze artifacts of the Maykop culture in the North Caucasus have been dated around the 4th millennium BC.[52] This innovation resulted in the circulation of arsenical bronze technology over southern and eastern Europe.[53] Pontic-Caspian steppe The Yamna culture is a late copper age/early Bronze Age culture of the Southern Bug/Dniester/Ural region (the Pontic steppe), dating to the 36th23rd centuries BC. The name also appears in English as Pit Grave Culture or Ochre Grave Culture. The Catacomb culture, ca. 2800-2200 BC, refers to an early Bronze Age culture occupying essentially what is present-day Ukraine. It's seemed more of as an areal term to cover several smaller related archaeological cultures. The Srubna culture was a Late Bronze Age (18th-12th centuries BC) culture. It is a successor to the Yamna culture, the Pit Grave culture and the Poltavka culture.

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Americas
The Moche civilization of South America independently discovered and developed bronze smelting.[54] Bronze technology was developed further by the Incas and used widely both for utilitarian objects and sculpture.[55] Later appearance of limited bronze smelting in West Mexico (see Metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica) suggests either contact of that region with Andean cultures or separate discovery of the technology.

Outside the Bronze Age

Japan
The Jmon period lasted until 500 BC and, after the end of the period, the Japanese experienced the introduction of bronze and iron simultaneously. Bronze and iron smelting techniques from the Korean peninsula spread to the Japanese archipelago via the Yayoi invaders from the Korean peninsula. Iron was mainly used for agricultural and other tools; whereas, ritual and ceremonial artifacts were mainly made of bronze. The bronze and iron using Yayoi people slowly began the two thousand year long ethnic cleansing of the Jmon people, pushing them west and north.

Africa
Although North Africa was influenced to certain extent by European Bronze Age cultures (for examples, traces of the Bell beaker tradition are found in Morocco), Africa did not develop its own metallurgy until the Phoenician colonization (ca. 1100 BC) of North Africa and remained attached to the Neolithic way of life. The civilization of the Ancient Egypt, whose influence did not cover the rest of Africa, was rather an exception from this rule as regarding the whole range of ancient cultures of Africa. In Sub-Saharan Africa, inhabitants at Termit, in eastern Niger, became the first iron smelting people in West Africa and among the first in the world around 1500 BC.Category:Self-contradictory articles Iron and copper working then continued to spread southward through the continent, reaching the Cape around AD 200. The widespread use of iron revolutionized the Bantu-speaking farming communities who adopted it, driving out and absorbing the rock tool using hunter-gatherer societies they encountered as they expanded to farm wider areas of savannah. The technologically superior Bantu-speakers spread across southern Africa and became wealthy and powerful, producing iron for tools and weapons in large, industrial quantities. In the region of the Ar Mountains in Niger we have the development of independent copper smelting between 30002500 BC. The process was not in a developed state, indication smelting was not foreign. It became mature about the 1500 BC.

Bronze Age

82

Notes
[1] http:/ / portal. unesco. org/ en/ ev. php-URL_ID=3432& URL_DO=DO_PRINTPAGE& URL_SECTION=201. html [2] Bronze was independently discovered in the Maykop culture of the North Caucasus as early as the mid-4th millennium BC, which makes them the producers of the oldest known bronze. However, the Maykop culture only had arsenical bronze, a naturally occurring alloy. Other regions developed bronze and the associated technology at different periods. [3] The Near East period dates and phase ranges being unrelated to the bronze chronology of other regions of the world. [4] Piotr Bienkowski, Alan Ralph Millard (editors). Dictionary of the ancient Near East. Page 60. [5] Amlie Kuhr. The ancient Near East, c. 3000-330 BC. Page 9. [6] Dalton, O. M., Franks, A. W., & Read, C. H. (1905). The treasure of the Oxus (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=p14VAAAAYAAJ): With other objects from ancient Persia and India. London: British Museum. [7] V.M. Masson, The Bronze Age in Khorasan and Transoxiana, chapter 10 in A.H. Dani and Vadim Mikhalovich Masson (eds.), History of civilizations of Central Asia, volume 1: The dawn of civilization: earliest times to 700 BC [8] Possehl, G. L. (1986). Kulli: An exploration of ancient civilization in Asia. Durham, N.C: Carolina Academic Press [9] Piggott, S. (1961). Prehistoric India to 1000 B.C. Baltimore: Penguin Book. [10] under Shamshi-Adad I [11] Karin Sowada and Peter Grave. Egypt in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Old Kingdom. [12] Lukas de Blois and R. J. van der Spek. An Introduction to the Ancient World. Page 14. [13] Hansen, M. H. (2000). A comparative study of thirty city-state cultures: An investigation conducted by the Copenhagen Polis Centre. Copenhagen: Det Kongelike Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. Page 68. [14] Othmar Keel and Christoph Uehlinger. Gods, goddesses, and images of God in ancient Israel, 1998. Page 17 (cf. "The first phase (Middle Bronze Age IIA) runs roughly parallel to the Egyptian Twelfth Dynasty") [15] Bruce G. Trigger. Ancient Egypt: a social history. 1983. Page 137. (cf. ... "for the Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period it is the Middle Bronze Age".) [16] (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender. fcgi?artid=1691686) C. Lalueza-Fox et al. 2004. Unravelling migrations in the steppe: mitochondrial DNA sequences from ancient central Asians [17] (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ 4462755368m322k8/ ) C. Keyser et al. 2009. Ancient DNA provides new insights into the history of south Siberian Kurgan people. Human Genetics. [20] Chang, K. C.: "Studies of Shang Archaeology", pp. 67, 1. Yale University Press, 1982. [21] Chang, K. C.: "Studies of Shang Archaeology", p. 1. Yale University Press, 1982. [23] Li-Liu; The Chinese Neolithic, Cambridge University Press, 2005 [24] Shang and Zhou Dynasties: The Bronze Age of China Heilbrunn Timeline (http:/ / www. metmuseum. org/ toah/ hd/ shzh/ hd_shzh. htm) Retrieved May 13, 2010 [26] Also known as the Yin Dynasty. [27] Thorp, R. L. (2005). China in the early bronze age: Shang civilization. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press. [28] Barnard, N.: "Bronze Casting and Bronze Alloys in Ancient China", p. 14. The Australian National University and Monumenta Serica, 1961. [29] White, W. C.: "Bronze Culture of Ancient China", p. 208. University of Toronto Press, 1956. [30] Erdberg, E.: "Ancient Chinese Bronzes", p. 20. Siebenbad-Verlag, 1993. [31] Shaughnessy, E. L.: "Sources of Western Zhou History", pp. xvxvi. University of California Press, 1982. [32] Shaughnessy, E. L. "Sources of Western Zhou History", pp. 7683. University of California Press, 1982. [33] Shaughnessy, E. L. "Sources of Western Zhou History", p. 107 [34] Carter J. Eckert, el., "Korea, Old and New: History", 1990, pp. 9 [36] (http:/ / daegu. museum. go. kr/ museum/ english/ body_02/ body02_1_03. htm) [40] Carl Waldman, Catherine Mason. Encyclopedia of European peoples: Volume 1. 2006. Page 524. [41] Lancaster, H. O. (1990). Expectations of life: A study in the demography, statistics, and history of world mortality. New York: Springer-Verlag. Page 228. [42] Drews, R. (1993). The end of the Bronze Age: Changes in warfare and the catastrophe ca. 1200 B.C. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Pres [43] Cities on the Sea., Swiny, S., Hohlfelder, R. L., & Swiny, H. W. (1998). Res maritimae: Cyprus and the eastern Mediterranean from prehistory to late antiquity : proceedings of the Second International Symposium "Cities on the Sea", Nicosia, Cyprus, October 1822, 1994. Atlanta, Ga: Scholars Press. [44] Creevey, B. (1994). The forest resources of Bronze Age Cyprus [45] A. Bernard Knapp, Steve O. Held and Sturt W. Manning. The prehistory of Cyprus: Problems and prospects. [46] Lockard, Craig A. (2009). Societies, Networks, and Transitions: To 600. Wadsworth Pub Co. Page 96. [47] Hall and Coles, p. 8188. [50] http:/ / www. metal-detecting. info/ bronze-age-flat-axe. html [51] Waddell; Eogan. [52] Philip L. Kohl. The making of bronze age Eurasia. Page 58.

Bronze Age
[53] Gimbutas, "The Beginning of the Bronze Age in Europe and the Inclo- Europeans 3500-2500 BC," Journal of Indo-European Studies 1 (1973): 177. [54] El bronce y el horizonte medio (http:/ / www. lablaa. org/ blaavirtual/ publicacionesbanrep/ bolmuseo/ 1996/ jldi41/ jldi01a. htm)

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References
Figueiredo, Elin (2010) "Smelting and Recycling Evidences from the Late Bronze Age habitat site of Baioes," Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 37, Issue 7, p.16231634 Eogan, George (1983) The hoards of the Irish later Bronze Age, Dublin : University College, 331p., ISBN 0-901120-77-4 Hall, David and Coles, John (1994) Fenland survey : an essay in landscape and persistence, Archaeological report 1, London : English Heritage, 170 p., ISBN 1-85074-477-7 Pernicka, E., Eibner, C., ztunah, ., Wagener, G.A. (2003) "Early Bronze Age Metallurgy in the Northeast Aegean", In: Wagner, G.A., Pernicka, E. and Uerpmann, H-P. (eds), Troia and the Troad : scientific approaches, Natural science in archaeology, Berlin; London : Springer, ISBN 3-540-43711-8, p.143172 Waddell, John (1998) The prehistoric archaeology of Ireland, Galway University Press, 433 p., ISBN 1-901421-10-4 Siklosy et al. (2009): Bronze Age volcanic event recorded in stalagmites by combined isotope and trace element studies. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, 23/6, 801-808. doi: 10.1002/rcm.3943 (http://dx.doi. org/10.1002/rcm.3943) Roberts, B.W., Thornton, C.P. and Pigott, V.C. 2009. Development of Metallurgy in Eurasia (http:// britishmuseum.academia.edu/BenjaminRoberts/Papers/340888/Development_of_metallurgy_in_Eurasia). Antiquity 83, 112-122.

Additional reading
Childe, V. G. (1930). The bronze age. New York: The Macmillan Company. Kelleher, Bradford (1980). Treasures from the Bronze Age of China: An exhibition from the People's Republic of China, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN0-87099-230-9. Kuijpers, M. H. G. (2008). Bronze Age metalworking in the Netherlands (c. 2000-800 BC): A research into the preservation of metallurgy related artefacts and the social position of the smith (http://www.sidestone.com/ library/bronze-age-metalworking-in-the-netherlands-c2000-800bc). Leiden: Sidestone Press. Mller-Lyer, F. C.; Lake, E. C.; Lake, H. A. (1921). The history of social development. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

External links
Web index Bronze Age in Europe (http://bronzeage.br.ohost.de/) Ancient tin: old question and a new answer (http://antiquity.ac.uk/ProjGall/nezafati et al/index.html) Bronze Age Experimental Archeology and Museum Reproductions (http://www.bronze-age-craft.com) Umha Aois - Reconstructed Bronze Age metal casting (http://www.umha-aois.com/) Umha Aois - ancient bronze casting videoclip (http://web.comhem.se/vikingbronze/umha_aois_06.wmv) Reconstructing the Danish Trundholm Sun Chariot (http://web.comhem.se/vikingbronze/sunchariot.htm) Ancient bronze idol 13 cent B.C.: (http://galich.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=248& Itemid=1) Northern Russia (Russian) Hypothetical reconstruction of a Lusatian culture settlement, raised using only bronze age tools - Wola Radziszowska (near Cracow) - Poland (http://www.dziejba.org) Aegean and Balkan Prehistory (http://www.aegeobalkanprehistory.net) articles, site-reports and bibliography database concerning the Aegean, Balkans and Western Anatolia

Bronze Age Downloadable article: " Evidence that a West-East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age (http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1741-7007-8-15.pdf)" Li et al. BMC Biology 2010, 8:15.

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Seafaring
Divers unearth Bronze Age hoard off the coast of Devon (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/ northamptonshire/4330031.stm) Moor Sands finds, including a remarkably well preserved and complete sword that has parallels with material from the Seine basin of northern France (http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server/show/ConWebDoc. 5611)

Iron Age India

Outline of South Asian history History of Indian subcontinent

Iron Age India, the Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent(South Asia), succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery H) culture, also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition. The main Iron Age archaeological cultures of India are the Painted Grey Ware culture (1100 to 350 BC) and the Northern Black Polished Ware (700 to 200 BC). The earliest Iron Age sites in South India are Hallur, Karnataka and Adichanallur, Tamil Nadu[1] at around 1000 BC. Technical studies on materials dated c. 1000 BCE at Komaranhalli (Karnataka) showed that the smiths of this site could deal with large artifacts, implying that they had already been experimenting for centuries,[2][3] which drew attention to the presence of iron in Chalcolithic deposits at Ahar, and suggested that the date of the beginning of iron smelting in India may well be placed as early as the sixteenth century BC and by about the early decade of thirteenth century BC iron smelting was definitely known in India on a bigger scale.[4] The North Indian Iron Age can be taken to last roughly form 1200 to 300 BCE. Most of the Vedic period (excepting the earliest phase of the core of the Rigveda) falls within the early part of the Indian Iron Age (12th to 6th centuries BC). The development of early Buddhism takes place in the Magadha period (5th to 4th centuries BC). Archaeologically, this includes the Black and Red ware culture (c. 13001000 BCE), Painted Grey Ware culture || (1200600 BCE), Northern Black Polished Ware (700200 BCE). The North Indian Iron Age can be taken to end with the rise of the Maurya Empire and the appearance of literacy (the edicts of Ashoka, r. 272-232 BC) indicating the gradual onset of historicity. South India simultaneously enters historicity with the Sangam period, beginning in the 3rd century BC. From the 2nd century BC, the cultural landscape of Northern India is transformed with lasting effect with the intrusion of the Indo-Scythians and Indo-Greeks, and the states succeeding this period, up to the medieval Muslim conquests are conventionally grouped as Middle kingdoms of India or Classical India. South India enters its proto-historical period from about 300 BCE; Chola Empire, Chera Kingdom, Pandya Kingdom, Pallava Empire.

Iron Age India

85

References
Kenoyer, J.M. 1998 Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Oxford University Press and American Institute of Pakistan Studies, Karachi. Kenoyer, J. M. 1991a The Indus Valley Tradition of Pakistan and Western India. In Journal of World Prehistory 5(4): 331-385. Kenoyer, J. M. 1995a Interaction Systems, Specialized Crafts and Culture Change: The Indus Valley Tradition and the Indo-Gangetic Tradition in South Asia. In The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, edited by G. Erdosy, pp.213257. Berlin, W. DeGruyter. Shaffer, J. G. 1992 The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age. In Chronologies in Old World Archaeology (3rd Edition), edited by R. Ehrich, pp.441464. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. Chakrabarti, D.K. 1974. Beginning of Iron in India: Problem Reconsidered, in A.K. Ghosh (ed.), Perspectives in Palaeoanthropology: 345-356. Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay. 1976. The Beginning of Iron in India. Antiquity 4: 114-124. 1992. The Early Use of Iron in India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. 1999. India An Archaeological History. Delhi: Oxford University Press

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2007/ 05/ 25/ stories/ 2007052502532200. htm Agrawal et al. 1985: 228-29 Sahi (1979: 366) The origins of Iron-working in India: New evidence from the Central Ganga Plain and the Eastern Vindhyas, By Rakesh Tewari - Director, U.P. State Archaeological Department, India http:/ / www. archaeologyonline. net/ artifacts/ iron-ore. html

Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures

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Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures

The synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures gives a rough picture of the relationships between the various principal cultures of prehistory outside the Americas, Antarctica, Australia and Oceania. It also serves as an index of the broad features of that prehistory to be followed through links to articles.

Table
The Principal prehistoric cultures of the Old World

Prehistoric Europe
Period & Climate Europe

Prehistoric Africa
North Africa, West Africa and Sahara (Caliphate) Central Africa, South and East Africa (Sahelian kingdoms) Mapungubwe Bantu expansion Middle East

Prehistoric Asia
South Asia, and Central Asia East Asia and South-East Asia

1000 Before (Middle Ages) Present (BP) 2000 BP Iron Age

(Caliphate)

(Middle Kingdoms)

(Song Dynasty)

(Ancient North Africa) Copper Age in Niger

(Classical Antiquity)

(Iron Age India)

(Han Dynasty)

11th century Urnfield culture BC (3000 Bronze Age BP) 4000 BP Bell beaker Chalcolithic corded ware domestication of the horse Yamna culture, enclosed villages first megaliths Chalcolithic of Central Europe Samara culture Lower Neolithic Danubian Neolithic Cardial and Linear Pottery (agriculture, stock-rearing, Pottery) Starevo and Vina culture agriculture, stock-rearing (pigs, bovine, sheep)

Bantu expansion

Late Bronze Age Early Iron Age

development of Indian Iron Age

Chinese Bronze Age

Neolithic of Tichit Tenerean

Middle Bronze Age (Sumer)

Indus Valley civilisation writing

Chinese Neolithic of Longshan

5000 BP

Beginning of the Hunter-gatherer art of South Africa

Early Bronze Age

Regionalization Era

6000 BP

Mediterranean and Egyptian Neolithic Neolithic of the Sahara/Sahel

Beginning of Neolithic in East Africa

Uruk period Chalcolithic (copper metallurgy) Ubaid period ceramic Cyprus

Mehrgarh

Neolithic of Yang-Shao rice-growing (?) Hongshan culture of Northeast Asia (c. 4700 BC/6700 BP)

7000 BP

Mehrgarh[bhirana] haryana

Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures

87
Neolithic with ceramic MehrgarhBhirrana Ubaid period (India) Neolithic of northern China

8000 BP

Tardenoisian cultures (gathering of legumes) Neolithic (Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean ) Sesklo and Choirokoitia Sauveterrian cultures Komornica culture Wiltonian

9000 BP

Pre-ceramic B Pre-ceramic A Neolithic in Turkey (wheat, barley) Goats domestication Zagros in Iran First towns Near East at Akl Hyk and Jericho

hunter gatherers of Jmon (ancient Japan)

10,000 BP

Ahrensburg culture, Azilian and Asiloid cultures (northern Spain, southern France) Backed point culture (Federmesser) Mezine (Ukraine) Magdalenian Solutrean Epigravettian Hamburg culture

Capsian

Hoabinhian of Southeast Asia

11,000 BP

Magosian

Natufian

Kandivili

12,000 BP Holocene began glacial ended (12,000 BP) glacial at its coldest (20,000 BP) 20,000 BP

Ibero-Maurisian Mushabian Sebilian

Lupemban culture Kebarian Bhimbetka rock Athlitian paintings south Asia Beginning of Neolithic religion at Gbekli Tepe (Southeastern Turkey)

pre-Jmon ceramic (Japan)

Gravettian (France) Pavlovian Aurignacian (art) Kostienki (western Russia) Chtelperronian Homo neanderthalensis, Homo sapiens Aurignacian (art) Szeletian (Hungary) Homo neanderthalensis, Homo sapiens Mousterian Homo neanderthalensis Homo neanderthalensis Micoquien (the Netherlands) Upper Acheulean Homo neanderthalensis Mousterian Homo neanderthalensis Homo neanderthalensis Micoquien Fauresmithian Homo sapiens Aterian Stillbay

Antelian Aurignacian (art)

Sn Vi culture (northern Vietnam)

30,000 BP

Balangoda Culture[bhimbetka rock paintings] Angara Culture

Sen-Doki

40,000 BP

Emirian Jabroudian

50,000 BP

Mousterian Homo neanderthalensis Homo neanderthalensis

Soanian

Ngandong culture

80,000 BP latest glacial began (95,000 BP) 100,000 BP glacial ended (130,000 BP)

Mousteroid Homo sapiens

Ordos culture

Homo neanderthalensis

Sangoan Homo sapiens

Homo neanderthalensis

Acheulean Soanian

Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures

88
Homo neanderthalensis Acheulean

200,000 BP glacial began (352,000 BP) 300,000 BP

Homo neanderthalensis Tayacian (southern France)

Homo neanderthalensis

Homo sapiens Acheulean

middle Acheulean Homo neanderthalensis Clactonian (England) Lower Acheulean Homo heidelbergensis Homo neanderthalensis worked pebbles worked pebbles Homo antecessor (northern Spain, England, France) Lower Acheulean Homo neanderthalensis

Pre-Soanian

500,000 BP

Homo erectus pekinensis

1,000,000 BP

Homo erectus worked pebbles

lower Acheulean Oldowan

worked pebbles

2,000,000 BP

Homo habilis, Homo ergaster

bhimbetka findings cupules

Vedic science
Vedic science may refer to a number of disciplines: ancient and modern, scientific and unscientific, religious, metaphysical, Hindu, occultist, New Age, proto-scientific, or pseudoscientific found in or based on the Vedas (the oldest holy texts of the Hindu religion, written beginning ca. 1000 BCE). Vedic period Vedanga, the six ancient disciplines subservient to the understanding and tradition of the Vedas 1. Shiksha (ik): phonetics and phonology (sandhi) 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Chandas (chandas): meter Vyakarana (vykaraa): grammar Nirukta (nirukta): etymology Jyotisha (jyotia): astrology (Hindu astronomy) Kalpa (kalpa): ritual

Traditional Historical Indian mathematics Traditional Hindu units of measurement Ayurveda, traditional medicine of India Dhanurveda, traditional martial arts of India

Modern Hindu views on evolution Pseudoscientific claims of a prefiguration of modern science in the Vedas, see scientific foreknowledge in the Vedas Maharishi Vedic Science of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi Bharati Krishna Tirtha's Vedic mathematics (not to be confused with historical Indian mathematics)

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Vedas
Part of a series on

Vedic scriptures

The Vedas (Sanskrit vda, "knowledge") are a large body of texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism.[1][2] The Vedas are apaurueya ("not of human agency").[3][4][5] They are supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called ruti ("what is heard"),[6][7] distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called smti ("what is remembered"). The Vedic texts or ruti are organized around four canonical collections of metrical material known as Sahits, of which the first three are related to the performance of yajna (sacrifice) in historical Vedic religion: 1. 2. 3. 4. The Rigveda, containing hymns to be recited by the hotar, or presiding priest; The Yajurveda, containing formulas to be recited by the adhvaryu or officiating priest; The Samaveda, containing formulas to be sung by the udgatar or priest that chants; The fourth is the Atharvaveda, a collection of spells and incantations, apotropaic charms and speculative hymns.[8]

The individual verses contained in these compilations are known as mantras. Some selected Vedic mantras are still recited at prayers, religious functions and other auspicious occasions in contemporary Hinduism. The various Indian philosophies and sects have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are classified as "orthodox" (stika). Other traditions, notably Buddhism and Jainism, which did not regard the Vedas as authorities are referred to by traditional Hindu texts as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (nstika) schools.[9][10] In addition to Buddhism and Jainism, Sikhism[11][] and Brahmoism,[12] many non-Brahmin Hindus in South India [13] do not accept the authority of the Vedas. Certain South Indian Brahmin communities such as Iyengars consider the Tamil Divya Prabandham or writing of the Alvar saints as equivalent to the Vedas.[14]

Etymology and usage

The Sanskrit word vda "knowledge, wisdom" is derived from the root vid- "to know". This is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *ueid-, meaning "see" or "know".[15] As a noun, the word appears only in a single instance in the Rigveda, in RV 8.19.5, translated by Griffith as "ritual lore": y samdh y hut / y vdena dada mrto agnye / y nmas svadhvar "The mortal who hath ministered to Agni with oblation, fuel, ritual lore, and reverence, skilled in sacrifice."[16] The noun is from Proto-Indo-European *ueidos, cognate to Greek () "aspect", "form" . Not to be confused is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense vda, cognate to Greek () (w)oida "I know". Root cognates are Greek , English wit, etc., Latin vide "I see", etc.[17] In English, the term Veda is often used loosely to refer to the Samhitas (collection of mantras, or chants) of the four canonical Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda).

Vedas The Sanskrit term veda as a common noun means "knowledge", but can also be used to refer to fields of study unrelated to liturgy or ritual, e.g. in agada-veda "medical science", sasya-veda "science of agriculture" or sarpa-veda "science of snakes" (already found in the early Upanishads); durveda means "with evil knowledge, ignorant".[18]

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Chronology
The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas date to roughly 15001000 BCE, and the "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BCE, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, or the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age.[19] The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composition of the mantra texts, with the establishment of the various shakhas all over Northern India which annotated the mantra samhitas with Brahmana discussions of their meaning, and reaches its end in the age of Buddha and Panini and the rise of the Mahajanapadas (archaeologically, Northern Black Polished Ware). Michael Witzel gives a time span of c. 1500 BCE to c. 500-400 BCE. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th century BCE the only epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period. He gives 150 BCE (Patajali) as a terminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit literature, and 1200 BCE (the early Iron Age) as terminus post quem for the Atharvaveda.[20] Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by oral tradition alone, preserved with precision with the help of elaborate mnemonic techniques. A literary tradition set in only in post-Vedic times, after the rise of Buddhism in the Maurya period, perhaps earliest in the Kanva recension of the Yajurveda about the 1st century BCE; however oral tradition predominated until c. 1000 CE.[21] Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years.[22] The Benares Sanskrit University has a Rigveda manuscript of the mid-14th century; however, there are a number of older Veda manuscripts in Nepal belonging to the Vajasaneyi tradition that are dated from the 11th century onwards.

Categories of Vedic texts

The term "Vedic texts" is used in two distinct meanings: 1. Texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit during the Vedic period (Iron Age India) 2. Any text considered as "connected to the Vedas" or a "corollary of the Vedas"[23]

Vedic Sanskrit corpus

The corpus of Vedic Sanskrit texts includes: The Samhita (Sanskrit sahit, "collection"), are collections of metric texts ("mantras"). There are four "Vedic" Samhitas: the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda, most of which are available in several recensions (kh). In some contexts, the term Veda is used to refer to these Samhitas. This is the oldest layer of Vedic texts, apart from the Rigvedic hymns, which were probably essentially complete by 1200 BCE, dating to c. the 12th to 10th centuries BCE. The complete corpus of Vedic mantras as collected in Bloomfield's Vedic Concordance (1907) consists of some 89,000 padas (metric feet), of which 72,000 occur in the four Samhitas.[24] The Brahmanas are prose texts that discuss, in technical fashion, the solemn sacrificial rituals as well as comment on their meaning and many connected themes. Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions. The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads. The Aranyakas, "wilderness texts" or "forest treaties", were composed by people who meditated in the woods as recluses and are the third part of the Vedas. The texts contain discussions and interpretations of dangerous rituals (to be studied outside the settlement) and various sorts of additional materials. It is frequently read in secondary literature.

Vedas Some of the older Mukhya Upanishads (Bhadrayaka, Chandogya, Kaha).[25][26] Certain Stra literature, i.e. the Shrautasutras and the Grhyasutras. The Shrauta Sutras, regarded as belonging to the smriti, are late Vedic in language and content, thus forming part of the Vedic Sanskrit corpus.[26][27] The composition of the Shrauta and Grhya Sutras (c. 6th century BCE) marks the end of the Vedic period, and at the same time the beginning of the flourishing of the "circum-Vedic" scholarship of Vedanga, introducing the early flowering of classical Sanskrit literature in the Mauryan and Gupta periods. While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceases with the end of the Vedic period, there is a large number of Upanishads composed after the end of the Vedic period. While most of the ten Mukhya Upanishads can be considered to date to the Vedic or Mahajanapada period, most of the 108 Upanishads of the full Muktika canon date to the Common Era. The Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads often interpret the polytheistic and ritualistic Samhitas in philosophical and metaphorical ways to explore abstract concepts such as the Absolute (Brahman), and the soul or the self (Atman), introducing Vedanta philosophy, one of the major trends of later Hinduism. The Vedic Sanskrit corpus is the scope of A Vedic Word Concordance (Vaidika-Padnukrama-Koa) prepared from 1930 under Vishva Bandhu, and published in five volumes in 1935-1965. Its scope extends to about 400 texts, including the entire Vedic Sanskrit corpus besides some "sub-Vedic" texts. Volume I: Samhitas Volume II: Brahmanas and Aranyakas Volume III: Upanishads Volume IV: Vedangas A revised edition, extending to about 1800 pages, was published in 1973-1976.

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Shruti literature
The texts considered "Vedic" in the sense of "corollaries of the Vedas" is less clearly defined, and may include numerous post-Vedic texts such as Upanishads or Sutra literature. These texts are by many Hindu sects considered to be shruti (Sanskrit: ruti; "the heard"), divinely revealed like the Vedas themselves. Texts not considered to be shruti are known as smriti (Sanskrit: smti; "the remembered"), of human origin. This indigenous system of categorization was adopted by Max Mller and, while it is subject to some debate, it is still widely used. As Axel Michaels explains: These classifications are often not tenable for linguistic and formal reasons: There is not only one collection at any one time, but rather several handed down in separate Vedic schools; Upaniads ... are sometimes not to be distinguished from rayakas...; Brhmaas contain older strata of language attributed to the Sahits; there are various dialects and locally prominent traditions of the Vedic schools. Nevertheless, it is advisable to stick to the division adopted by Max Mller because it follows the Indian tradition, conveys the historical sequence fairly accurately, and underlies the current editions, translations, and monographs on Vedic literature."[25] The Upanishads are largely philosophical works in dialog form. They discuss questions of nature philosophy and the fate of the soul, and contain some mystic and spiritual interpretations of the Vedas. For long, they have been regarded as their putative end and essence, and are thus known as Vednta ("the end of the Vedas"). Taken together, they are the basis of the Vedanta school.

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Vedic schools or recensions

Study of the extensive body of Vedic texts has been organized into a number of different schools or branches (Sanskrit kh, literally "branch" or "limb") each of which specialized in learning certain texts.[28] Multiple recensions are known for each of the Vedas, and each Vedic text may have a number of schools associated with it. Elaborate methods for preserving the text were based on memorizing by heart instead of writing. Specific techniques for parsing and reciting the texts were used to assist in the memorization process. (See also: Vedic chant) Prodigous energy was expended by ancient Indian culture in ensuring that these texts were transmitted from generation to generation with inordinate fidelity.[29] For example, memorization of the sacred Vedas included up to eleven forms of recitation of the same text. The texts were subsequently "proof-read" by comparing the different recited versions. Forms of recitation included the ja-pha (literally "mesh recitation") in which every two adjacent words in the text were first recited in their original order, then repeated in the reverse order, and finally repeated again in the original order.[] That these methods have been effective, is testified to by the preservation of the most ancient Indian religious text, the Rigveda, as redacted into a single text during the Brahmana period, without any variant readings.[]

Four Vedas

Rigveda (padapatha) manuscript in Devanagari, early 19th century

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Part of a series on Hindu scriptures

Vedas and their Shakhas

Hinduism portal

The canonical division of the Vedas is fourfold (turya) viz.,[32] 1. 2. 3. 4. Rigveda (RV) Yajurveda (YV, with the main division TS vs. VS) Samaveda (SV) Atharvaveda (AV)

Of these, the first three were the principal original division, also called "tray vidy", that is, "the triple sacred science" of reciting hymns (RV), performing sacrifices (YV), and chanting (SV).[33][34] This triplicity is so introduced in the Brahmanas (ShB, ABr and others), but the Rigveda is the older work of the three from which the other two borrow, next to their own independent Yajus, sorcery and speculative mantras. Thus, the Mantras are properly of three forms: 1. Ric, which are verses of praise in metre, and intended for loud recitation; 2. Yajus, which are in prose, and intended for recitation in lower voice at sacrifices; 3. Sman, which are in metre, and intended for singing at the Soma ceremonies. The Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda are independent collections of mantras and hymns intended as manuals for the Adhvaryu, Udgatr and Brahman priests respectively. The Atharvaveda is the fourth Veda. Its status has occasionally been ambiguous, probably due to its use in sorcery and healing. However, it contains very old materials in early Vedic language. Manusmrti, which often speaks of the three Vedas, calling them trayam-brahma-santanam, "the triple eternal Veda". The Atharvaveda like the Rigveda, is a collection of original incantations, and other materials borrowing relatively little from the Rigveda. It has no direct relation to the solemn rauta sacrifices, except for the fact that the mostly silent Brahmn priest observes the procedures and uses Atharvaveda mantras to 'heal' it when mistakes have been made. Its recitation also produces long life, cures diseases, or effects the ruin of enemies. Each of the four Vedas consists of the metrical Mantra or Samhita and the prose Brahmana part, giving discussions and directions for the detail of the ceremonies at which the Mantras were to be used and explanations of the legends connected with the Mantras and rituals. Both these portions are termed shruti (which tradition says to have been heard but not composed or written down by men). Each of the four Vedas seems to have passed to numerous Shakhas or schools, giving rise to various recensions of the text. They each have an Index or Anukramani, the principal work of this kind being the general Index or Sarvnukrama.

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Rigveda
The Rigveda Samhita is the oldest extant Indic text.[35] It is a collection of 1,028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and 10,600 verses in all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: mandalas).[36] The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities.[37] The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of several centuries, commonly dated to the period of roughly the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE (the early Vedic period) in the Punjab (Sapta Sindhu) region of the Indian subcontinent.[38] There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities between the Rigveda and the early Iranian Avesta, deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times, often associated with the Andronovo culture; the earliest horse-drawn chariots were found at Andronovo sites in the Sintashta-Petrovka cultural area near the Ural Mountains and date to c. 2000 BCE.[39] Rigveda manuscripts have been selected for inscription in UNESCO's "Memory of the World" Register 2007.[40]

Yajurveda
The Yajurveda Samhita consists of archaic prose mantras and also in part of verses borrowed and adapted from the Rigveda. Its purpose was practical, in that each mantra must accompany an action in sacrifice but, unlike the Samaveda, it was compiled to apply to all sacrificial rites, not merely the Somayajna. There are two major groups of recensions of this Veda, known as the "Black" (Krishna) and "White" (Shukla) Yajurveda (Krishna and Shukla Yajurveda respectively). While White Yajurveda separates the Samhita from its Brahmana (the Shatapatha Brahmana), the e Black Yajurveda intersperses the Samhita with Brahmana commentary. Of the Black Yajurveda four major recensions survive (Maitrayani, Katha, Kapisthala-Katha, Taittiriya).

Samaveda
The Samaveda Samhita (from sman, the term for a melody applied to metrical hymn or song of praise[41]) consists of 1549 stanzas, taken almost entirely (except for 78 stanzas) from the Rigveda.[25] Like the Rigvedic stanzas in the Yajurveda, the Samans have been changed and adapted for use in singing. Some of the Rigvedic verses are repeated more than once. Including repetitions, there are a total of 1875 verses numbered in the Samaveda recension translated by Griffith.[42] Two major recensions remain today, the Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya. Its purpose was liturgical, as the repertoire of the udgt or "singer" priests who took part in the sacrifice.

Atharvaveda
The Artharvaveda Samhita is the text 'belonging to the Atharvan and Angirasa poets. It has 760 hymns, and about 160 of the hymns are in common with the Rigveda.[43] Most of the verses are metrical, but some sections are in prose.[43] It was compiled around 900 BCE, although some of its material may go back to the time of the Rigveda,[44] and some parts of the Atharva-Veda are older than the Rig-Veda[43] though not in linguistic form. The Atharvaveda is preserved in two recensions, the Paippalda and aunaka.[43] According to Apte it had nine schools (shakhas).[45] The Paippalada text, which exists in a Kashmir and an Orissa version, is longer than the Saunaka one; it is only partially printed in its two versions and remains largely untranslated. Unlike the other three Vedas, the Atharvanaveda has less connection with sacrifice.[46][47] Its first part consists chiefly of spells and incantations, concerned with protection against demons and disaster, spells for the healing of diseases, for long life and for various desires or aims in life.[43][48] The second part of the text contains speculative and philosophical hymns.[49] The Atharvaveda is a comparatively late extension of the "Three Vedas" connected to priestly sacrifice to a canon of "Four Vedas". This may be connected to an extension of the sacrificial rite from involving three types of priest to the inclusion of the Brahman overseeing the ritual.[50]

Vedas The Atharvaveda is concerned with the material world or world of man and in this respect differs from the other three vedas. Atharvaveda also sanctions the use of force, in particular circumstances and similarly this point is a departure from the three other vedas.

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Brahmanas
The mystical notions surrounding the concept of the one "Veda" that would flower in Vedantic philosophy have their roots already in Brahmana literature, for example in the Shatapatha Brahmana. The Vedas are identified with Brahman, the universal principle (BM 10.1.1.8, 10.2.4.6). Vc "speech" is called the "mother of the Vedas" (BM 6.5.3.4, 10.5.5.1). The knowledge of the Vedas is endless, compared to them, human knowledge is like mere handfuls of dirt (TB 3.10.11.3-5). The universe itself was originally encapsulated in the three Vedas (BM 10.4.2.22 has Prajapati reflecting that "truly, all beings are in the triple Veda").

Vedanta
While contemporary traditions continued to maintain Vedic ritualism (rauta, Mimamsa), Vedanta renounced all ritualism and radically re-interpreted the notion of "Veda" in purely philosophical terms. The association of the three Vedas with the bhr bhuva sva mantra is found in the Aitareya Aranyaka: "Bh is the Rigveda, bhuva is the Yajurveda, sva is the Samaveda" (1.3.2). The Upanishads reduce the "essence of the Vedas" further, to the syllable Aum (). Thus, the Katha Upanishad has: "The goal, which all Vedas declare, which all austerities aim at, and which humans desire when they live a life of continence, I will tell you briefly it is Aum" (1.2.15)

In post-Vedic literature
Vedanga
Six technical subjects related to the Vedas are traditionally known as vedga "limbs of the Veda". V. S. Apte defines this group of works as: "N. of a certain class of works regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas and designed to aid in the correct pronunciation and interpretation of the text and the right employment of the Mantras in ceremonials."[51] These subjects are treated in Stra literature dating from the end of the Vedic period to Mauryan times, seeing the transition from late Vedic Sanskrit to Classical Sanskrit. The six subjects of Vedanga are: Phonetics (ik) Ritual (Kalpa) Grammar (Vykaraa) Etymology (Nirukta) Meter (Chandas) Astronomy (Jyotia)

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Parisista
Pariia "supplement, appendix" is the term applied to various ancillary works of Vedic literature, dealing mainly with details of ritual and elaborations of the texts logically and chronologically prior to them: the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Sutras. Naturally classified with the Veda to which each pertains, Parisista works exist for each of the four Vedas. However, only the literature associated with the Atharvaveda is extensive. The valyana Ghya Pariia is a very late text associated with the Rigveda canon. The Gobhila Ghya Pariia is a short metrical text of two chapters, with 113 and 95 verses respectively. The Ktiya Pariias, ascribed to Ktyyana, consist of 18 works enumerated self-referentially in the fifth of the series (the Caraavyha)and the Ktyyana rauta Stra Pariia. The Ka Yajurveda has 3 parisistas The pastamba Hautra Pariia, which is also found as the second prana of the Satyasha rauta Stra', the Vrha rauta Stra Pariia For the Atharvaveda, there are 79 works, collected as 72 distinctly named parisistas.[52]

Puranas
A traditional view given in the Vishnu Purana (likely dating to the Gupta period[53]) attributes the current arrangement of four Vedas to the mythical sage Vedavyasa.[54] Puranic tradition also postulates a single original Veda that, in varying accounts, was divided into three or four parts. According to the Vishnu Purana (3.2.18, 3.3.4 etc.) the original Veda was divided into four parts, and further fragmented into numerous shakhas, by Lord Vishnu in the form of Vyasa, in the Dvapara Yuga; the Vayu Purana (section 60) recounts a similar division by Vyasa, at the urging of Brahma. The Bhagavata Purana (12.6.37) traces the origin of the primeval Veda to the syllable aum, and says that it was divided into four at the start of Dvapara Yuga, because men had declined in age, virtue and understanding. In a differing account Bhagavata Purana (9.14.43) attributes the division of the primeval veda (aum) into three parts to the monarch Pururavas at the beginning of Treta Yuga. The Mahabharata (santiparva 13,088) also mentions the division of the Veda into three in Treta Yuga.[55]

Upaveda
The term upaveda ("applied knowledge") is used in traditional literature to designate the subjects of certain technical works.[56][57] Lists of what subjects are included in this class differ among sources. The Charanavyuha mentions four Upavedas: Medicine (yurveda), associated with the Rigveda Archery (Dhanurveda), associated with the Yajurveda Music and sacred dance (Gndharvaveda), associated with the Samaveda Military science (Shastrashastra), associated with the Atharvaveda

But Sushruta and Bhavaprakasha mention Ayurveda as an upaveda of the Atharvaveda. Sthapatyaveda (architecture), Shilpa Shastras (arts and crafts) are mentioned as fourth upaveda according to later sources.

Buddhist and Jain views

Buddhism and Jainism do not reject the Vedas, but merely their absolute authority.[citation needed] Buddhism Buddhism does not deny that the Vedas in their true origin were sacred although have been amended repeatedly by certain Brahmins to secure their positions in society. The Buddha declared that the Veda in its true form was declared by Kashyapa to certain rishis, who by severe penances had acquired the power to see by divine eyes.[58] In the Buddhist Vinaya Pitaka of the Mahavagga (I.245)[59] section the Buddha names these rishis, and declared that the original Veda the Vedic rishis "Atthako, Vmako, Vmadevo, Vessmitto, Yamataggi, Angiraso, Bhradvjo, Vsettho, Kassapo, and Bhagu"[60] but that it was altered by a few Brahmins who introduced animal sacrifices. The

Vedas Vinaya Pitaka's section Anguttara Nikaya: Panchaka Nipata says that it was on this alteration of the true Veda that the Buddha refused to pay respect to the Vedas of his time.[61] Also in the "Brahmana Dhammika Sutta" (II,7)[62] of the Suttanipata section of Vinaya Pitaka[63] there is a story of when the Buddha was in Jetavana village and there were a group of elderly Brahmin ascetics who sat down next to the Buddha and a conversation began. The elderly Brahmins asked him, "Do the present Brahmans follow the same rules, practice the same rites, as those in the more ancient times?" The Buddha replied, "No." The elderly Brahmins asked the Buddha that if it were not inconvenient for him, that he would tell them of the Brahmana Dharma of the previous generation. The Buddha replied: "There were formerly rishis, men who had subdued all passion by the keeping of the sila precepts and the leading of a pure life...Their riches and possessions consisted in the study of the Veda and their treasure was a life free from all evil...The Brahmans, for a time, continued to do right and received in alms rice, seats, clothes, and oil, though they did not ask for them. The animals that were given they did not kill; but they procured useful medicaments from the cows, regarding them as friends and relatives, whose products give strength, beauty and health." So in this passage also the Buddha describes when the Brahmins were studying the Veda but the animal sacrifice customs had not yet began. In the Mahavagga,[64] the Buddha declares: The one who annihilates the sins in himself, who is not proud, who is passionless, whose spirit is humble, who has comprehended the Vedas and is chaste, for whom no joy exists in the world,: that one is lawfully called a brahman. The Buddha was declared to have been born a Brahmin trained in the Vedas and its philosophies in a number of his previous lives according to Buddhist scriptures. Other Buddhas too were said to have been born as Brahmins that were trained in the Vedas. The Mahasupina Jataka[65] and Lohakumbhi Jataka[66] declares that Brahmin Sariputra in a previous life was a Brahmin that prevented animal sacrifice by declaring that animal sacrifice was actually against the Vedas. Further, the Suttanipata 1000 declares that 32 mahapurusha lakshana (auspicious symbols of the Buddha) that Buddhism uses, are declared in the Vedic mantras.[67] Jainism A Jain sage intereprets the Vedic sacrifices as metaphorical: "Body is the altar, mind is the fire blazing with the ghee of knowledge and burning the sacrificial sticks of impurities produced from the tree of karma;..."[68] Further, Jain Sage Jinabhadra in his Visesavasyakabhasya cites a number of passages from the Vedic Upanishads.[69] Jain are in conformity with the Vedas in reference to both the Vedas' and Jainism' acceptance of the 22 Tirthankaras: Of Rishabha (1st Tirthankara Rishabha) is written: "But Risabha went on, unperturbed by anything till he became sin-free like a conch that takes no black dot, without obstruction ... which is the epithet of the First World-teacher, may become the destroyer of enemies" (Rig Veda X.166) Of Aristanemi (Tirthankara Neminatha) is written:

97

Vedas "So asmakam Aristanemi svaha Arhan vibharsi sayakani dhanvarhanistam yajatam visvarupam arhannidam dayase" (Astak 2, Varga 7, Rig Veda)

98

"Fifth" and other Vedas

Some post-Vedic texts, including the Mahabharata, the Natyasastra and certain Puranas, refer to themselves as the "fifth Veda".[70] The earliest reference to such a "fifth Veda" is found in the Chandogya Upanishad. "Dravida Veda" is a term for canonical Tamil Bhakti texts.[citation needed] Other texts such as the Bhagavad Gita or the Vedanta Sutras are considered shruti or "Vedic" by some Hindu denominations but not universally within Hinduism. The Bhakti movement, and Gaudiya Vaishnavism in particular extended the term veda to include the Sanskrit Epics and Vaishnavite devotional texts such as the Pancaratra.[71]

Western Indology
The study of Sanskrit in the West began in the 17th century. In the early 19th century, Arthur Schopenhauer drew attention to Vedic texts, specifically the Upanishads. The importance of Vedic Sanskrit for Indo-European studies was also recognized in the early 19th century. English translations of the Samhitas were published in the later 19th century, in the Sacred Books of the East series edited by Mller between 1879 and 1910.[72] Ralph T. H. Griffith also presented English translations of the four Samhitas, published 1889 to 1899.

Notes
[1] see e.g. ; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and ", in: ; ; Sanskrit literature (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09 [2] Sanujit Ghose (2011). " Religious Developments in Ancient India (http:/ / www. ancient. eu. com/ article/ 230/ )" in Ancient History Encyclopedia. [5] Apte, pp. 109f. has "not of the authorship of man, of divine origin" [8] Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana, (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b.) Strassburg 1899; Gonda, J. A history of Indian literature: I.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas); I.2 The Ritual Sutras. Wiesbaden 1975, 1977 [10] "The brahmin by caste alone, the teacher of the Veda, is (jokingly) etymologized as the 'non-meditator' (ajjhyaka). Brahmins who have memorized the three Vedas (tevijja) really know nothing: it is the process of achieving Enlightenment what the Buddha is said to have achieved in the three watches of that night which constitutes the true 'three knowledges.'" R.F. Gombrich in Paul Williams, ed., "Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies." Taylor and Francis 2006, page 120. [12] "Eclecticism and Modern Hindu Discourse, Brian Hatcher, OUP 1999" [13] The Dravidian Movement by Gail Omvedt [14] The Vernacular Veda by Vasudha Narayanan [15] ; [16] K.F. Geldner. Der Rig-Veda, Harvard Oriental Series 33-37, Cambridge 1951 [17] see e.g. Pokorny's 1959 Indogermanisches etymologisches Wrterbuch s.v. '; Rix' Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben, '. [18] Monier-Williams (1899) [19] Gavin Flood sums up mainstream estimates, according to which the Rigveda was compiled from as early as 1500 BCE over a period of several centuries. [20] Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and ", in: [21] For the possibility of written texts during the 1st century BCE see: Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and ", in: ; For oral composition and oral transmission for "many hundreds of years" before being written down, see: . [23] according to ISKCON, Hindu Sacred Texts (http:/ / hinduism. iskcon. com/ tradition/ 1105. htm), "Hindus themselves often use the term to describe anything connected to the Vedas and their corollaries (e.g. Vedic culture)". [24] 37,575 are Rigvedic. Of the remaining, 34,857 appear in the other three Samhitas, and 16,405 are known only from Brahmanas, Upanishads or Sutras [25] . [26] Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and ", in: . [27] For a table of all Vedic texts see Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and ", in: . [28] [30] [31] [32] . Nair 2008, pp.84-227. Joshi 1994, pp.91-93. ; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and ", in:

Vedas
[34] Witzel, M., " The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu (http:/ / www. people. fas. harvard. edu/ ~witzel/ canon. pdf)" in [35] see e.g. . [36] For 1,028 hymns and 10,600 verses and division into ten mandalas, see: . [37] For characterization of content and mentions of deities including Agni, Indra, Varuna, Soma, Surya, etc. see: . [38] see e.g. . Max Mller gave 17001100 BCE, Michael Witzel gives 1450-1350 BCE as terminus ad quem. [40] http:/ / hinduism. about. com/ od/ scripturesepics/ a/ rigveda. htm [41] . [42] For 1875 total verses, see numbering given in Ralph T. H. Griffith. Griffith's introduction mentions the recension history for his text. Repetitions may be found by consulting the cross-index in Griffith pp. 491-99. [43] . [44] . [45] . [46] . [47] Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and ", in: . [48] . [49] "The latest of the four Vedas, the Atharva-Veda, is, as we have seen, largely composed of magical texts and charms, but here and there we find cosmological hymns which anticipate the Upanishads, -- hymns to Skambha, the 'Support', who is seen as the first principle which is both the material and efficient cause of the universe, to Prna, the 'Breath of Life', to Vc, the 'Word', and so on." . [50] "There were originally only three priests associated with the first three , for the Brahman as overseer of the rites does not appear in the ' and is only incorporated later, thereby showing the acceptance of the Atharva Veda, which had been somewhat distinct from the other and identified with the lower social strata, as being of equal standing with the other texts.". [51] . [52] BR Modak, The Ancillary Literature of the Atharva-Veda, New Delhi, Rashtriya Veda Vidya Pratishthan, 1993, ISBN 81-215-0607-7 [53] dates it to the 4th century CE. [54] Vishnu Purana, translation by Horace Hayman Wilson, 1840, Ch IV, http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ hin/ vp/ vp078. htm [56] . (http:/ / www. ibiblio. org/ sripedia/ ebooks/ mw/ 0200/ mw__0240. html) Accessed 5 April 2007. [57] . [58] P. 177 The sacred books of the Buddhists compared with history and modern science By Robert Spence Hardy [59] P. 494 The Pali-English dictionary By Thomas William Rhys Davids, William Stede [60] P. 245 The Vinaya piaka: one of the principle Buddhist holy scriptures ..., Volume 1 edited by Hermann Oldenberg [61] P. 44 The legends and theories of the Buddhists, compared with history and science By Robert Spence Hardy [62] P. 94 A history of Indian literature, Volume 2 by Moriz Winternitz [63] P. 45-46 The legends and theories of the Buddhists, compared with history and science By Robert Spence Hardy [64] P. xxx, Pli grammar: a phonetic and morphological sketch of the Pli language, with an introductory essay on its form and character By Ivan Pavlovich Minaev [65] P. 577 Dictionary of Pali Proper Names: Pali-English By G.P. Malalasekera [66] P. 30 The Jataka or Stories of the Buddha's Former Births By E. B. Cowell [67] P. 121 The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development By Yuvraj Krishan [68] P. 92 Studies in Jain literature by Vaman Mahadeo Kulkarni, reshh Kastrabh Llabh Smraka Nidhi [69] P. 93 Studies in Jain literature by Vaman Mahadeo Kulkarni, reshh Kastrabh Llabh Smraka Nidhi [72] Mller, Friedrich Max (author) & Stone, Jon R. (author, editor) (2002). The essential Max Mller: on language, mythology, and religion. Illustrated edition. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-29309-7, ISBN 978-0-312-29309-3. Source: (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=Q96EsUCVlLsC& printsec=frontcover& dq=Max+ Mller& ei=SRjkS6LcI4TulQSj6InGCQ& cd=3#v=onepage& q& f=false) (accessed: Friday May 7, 2010), p.44

99

References
Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965), The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary (4th revised & enlarged ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN81-208-0567-4. Avari, Burjor (2007), India: The Ancient Past, London: Routledge, ISBN978-0-415-35616-9 Flood, Gavin (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN0-521-43878-0 Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Malden, MA: Blackwell, ISBN1-4051-3251-5 Holdrege, Barbara A. (1995), Veda and Torah, SUNY Press, ISBN0-7914-1639-9 MacDonell, Arthur Anthony (2004), A History of Sanskrit Literature, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN1-4179-0619-7 Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present, Princeton University Press, ISBN0-691-08953-1

Vedas Monier-Williams, Monier, ed. (2006), Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, Nataraj Books, ISBN1-881338-58-4. Muir, John (1861), Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and Progress of the Religion and Institutions of India (http://books.google.com/?id=_VCXTBk-PtoC), Williams and Norgate Mller, Max (1891), Chips from a German Workshop (http://books.google.com/?id=J8Zo_rtoWAEC), New York: C. Scribner's sons. Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; Moore, Charles A., eds. (1957), A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy (12th Princeton Paperback ed.), Princeton University Press, ISBN0-691-01958-4. Smith, Brian K., Canonical Authority and Social Classification: Veda and "Vara" in Ancient Indian Texts-, History of Religions, The University of Chicago Press (1992), 103-125. Sullivan, B. M. (Summer 1994), "The Religious Authority of the Mahabharata: Vyasa and Brahma in the Hindu Scriptural Tradition", Journal of the American Academy of Religion 62 (1): 377401, doi: 10.1093/jaarel/LXII.2.377 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaarel/LXII.2.377). Witzel, Michael (ed.) (1997), Inside the Texts, Beyond the Texts. New Approaches to the Study of the Vedas, Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora vol. 2, Cambridge: Harvard University Press Zaehner, R. C. (1966), Hindu Scriptures, London: Everyman's Library

100

Literature
Overviews J. Gonda, Vedic Literature: Sahits and Brhmaas, A History of Indian literature. Vol. 1, Veda and Upanishads (1975), ISBN 978-3-447-01603-2. J. A. Santucci, An Outline of Vedic Literature (1976). S. Shrava, A Comprehensive History of Vedic Literature Brahmana and Aranyaka Works, Pranava Prakashan (1977). Concordances M. Bloomfield, A Vedic Concordance (1907) Vishva Bandhu, Bhim Dev, S. Bhaskaran Nair (eds.), Vaidika-Padnukrama-Koa: A Vedic Word-Concordance, Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute, Hoshiarpur, 19631965, revised edition 1973-1976. Conference proceedings Griffiths, Arlo and Houben, Jan E. M. (eds.), The Vedas : texts, language & ritual: proceedings of the Third International Vedic Workshop, Leiden 2002, Groningen Oriental Studies 20, Groningen : Forsten, (2004), ISBN 90-6980-149-3.

External links
Veda In Hindi & Sanskrit (http://www.aryasamajjamnagar.org/veda.htm) GRETIL etexts (http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de/ebene_1/fiindolo/gretil.htm#Veda) The Vedas at sacred-texts.com (http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/index.htm#vedas) Vedas: Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva (http://www.comparative-religion.com/hinduism/vedas/) Vedas and Upanishads Complete set (http://www.gayathrimanthra.com/Library.html) Glimpses of Vedic Literature - Kireet Joshi (http://www.kireetjoshiarchives.com/indian_culture/ glimpses_vedic/)

Indo-Aryan peoples

101

Indo-Aryan peoples
Indo-Aryan peoples Total population approximately 1.21 billion Regions with significant populations
India Pakistan

856 mil [1] Over 164 mil [2]

Bangladesh Over 150 mil [3] Nepal Sri Lanka Maldives

Over 26 mil Over 14 mil Over 300,000

Languages Indo-Aryan languages Religion

Indian religions (Mostly Hindu; with Sikh, Buddhist and Jain minorities) and Islam, some non-religious atheist/agnostic and Christians Related ethnic groups Other Indian people Bangladeshis Sri Lankans Nepalis Maldivians Pakistanis Dravidian peoples Europeans Romani people Iranians Nuristanis Dard people Dom people Lom people Indo-Iranians

Indo-Aryan or Indic peoples are an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group referring to the wide collection of peoples united as native speakers of the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-Iranian family of Indo-European languages. Today, there are over one billion native speakers of Indo-Aryan languages, most of them native to South Asia, where they form the majority.

Origins
Part of a series on

Indo-European topics

Indo-European studies

The first people to have settled in India during Paleolithic times appear to have been an Australoid group who may have been closely related to Aboriginal Australians.[4] From a genetic anthropological point of view, the research of Basu et al. (2003) indicates that: "(1) there is an underlying unity of female lineages in India, indicating that the

Indo-Aryan peoples initial number of female settlers may have been small; (2) the tribal and the caste populations are highly differentiated; (3) the Austro-Asiatic tribals are the earliest settlers in India, providing support to one anthropological hypothesis while refuting some others; (4) a major wave of humans entered India through the northeast; (5) the Tibeto-Burman tribals share considerable genetic commonalities with the Austro-Asiatic tribals, supporting the hypothesis that they may have shared a common habitat in southern China, but the two groups of tribals can be differentiated on the basis of Y-chromosomal haplotypes; (6) the Dravidian tribals were possibly widespread throughout India before the arrival of the Indo-European-speaking nomads, but retreated to southern India to avoid dominance; (7) formation of populations by fission that resulted in founder and drift effects have left their imprints on the genetic structures of contemporary populations; (8) the upper castes show closer genetic affinities with Central Asian populations, although those of southern India are more distant than those of northern India; (9) historical gene flow into India has contributed to a considerable obliteration of genetic histories of contemporary populations so that there is at present no clear congruence of genetic and geographical or sociocultural affinities."[5] The separation of Indo-Aryans proper from Indo-Iranians is commonly dated, on linguistic grounds, to roughly 1800 BCE.[6] The Nuristani languages probably split in such early times, and are classified as either remote Indo-Aryan dialects or as an independent branch of Indo-Iranian. By the mid 2nd millennium BCE early Indo-Aryans had reached Assyria in the west (the Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni) and the northern Punjab in the east (the Rigvedic tribes).[7] The spread of Indo-Aryan languages has been connected with the spread of the chariot in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. Some scholars trace the Indo-Aryans (both Indo-Aryans and European Aryans) back to the Andronovo culture (2nd millennium BCE). Other scholars[8] have argued that the Andronovo culture proper formed too late to be associated with the Indo-Aryans of India, and that no actual traces of the Andronovo culture (e.g. warrior burials or timber-frame materials) have been found in India and Southern countries like Sri Lanka and the Maldives.[9] Archaeologist J.P. Mallory (1998) finds it "extraordinarily difficult to make a case for expansions from this northern region to northern India" and remarks that the proposed migration routes "only [get] the Indo-Iranian to Central Asia, but not as far as the seats of the Medes, Persians or Indo-Aryans" (Mallory 1998; Bryant 2001: 216). Therefore he prefers to derive the Indo-Aryans from the intermediate stage of the BactriaMargiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) culture, in terms of a "Kulturkugel" model of expansion. Likewise, Asko Parpola (1988) connects the Indo-Aryans to the BMAC. But although horses were known to the Indo-Aryans, evidence for their presence in the form of horse bones is missing in the BMAC.[10] Parpola (1988) has argued that the Dasas were the "carriers of the Bronze Age culture of Greater Iran" living in the BMAC and that the forts with circular walls destroyed by the Indo-Aryans were actually located in the BMAC. Parpola (1999)[11] elaborates the model and has "Proto-Rigvedic" Indo-Aryans intrude the BMAC around 1700 BCE. He assumes early Indo-Aryan presence in the Late Harappan horizon from about 1900 BCE, and "Proto-Rigvedic" (Proto-Dardic) intrusion to the Punjab as corresponding to the Swat culture from about 1700 BCE. Recently Leo Klejn proposed a hypothesis of linking the earliest stage of Indo-Aryan peoples with the Catacomb culture.[12][13]

102

Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni

Some theonyms, proper names and other terminology of the Mitanni exhibit an Indo-Aryan superstrate, suggesting that an Indo-Aryan elite imposed itself over the Hurrian population in the course of the Indo-Aryan expansion. In a treaty between the Hittites and the Mitanni (between Suppiluliuma and Matiwaza, ca. 1380 BCE), the deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya (Ashvins) are invoked. Kikkuli's horse training text (circa 1400 BCE) includes technical terms such as aika (eka, one), tera (tri, three), panza (pancha, five), satta (sapta, seven), na (nava, nine), vartana (vartana, round). The numeral aika "one" is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper as opposed to Indo-Iranian or early Iranian (which has "aiva") in general.

Indo-Aryan peoples Another text has babru(-nnu) (babhru, brown), parita(-nnu) (palita, grey), and pinkara(-nnu) (pingala, red). Their chief festival was the celebration of the solstice (vishuva) which was common in most cultures in the ancient world. The Mitanni warriors were called marya (Hurrian: maria-nnu), the term for (young) warrior in Sanskrit as well;[14] note mita-nnu (= miha,~ Sanskrit mha) "payment (for catching a fugitive)" (Mayrhofer II 358). Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni names render Artashumara (artaumara) as Arta-smara "who thinks of Arta/ta" (Mayrhofer II 780), Biridashva (biridaa, biriiaa) as Prtva "whose horse is dear" (Mayrhofer II 182), Priyamazda (priiamazda) as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear" (Mayrhofer II 189, II378), Citrarata as citraratha "whose chariot is shining" (Mayrhofer I 553), Indaruda/Endaruta as Indrota "helped by Indra" (Mayrhofer I 134), Shativaza (attiaza) as Stivja "winning the race price" (Mayrhofer II 540, 696), ubandhu as Subandhu 'having good relatives" (a name in Palestine, Mayrhofer II 209, 735), Tushratta (tieratta, turatta, etc.) as *taiaaratha, Vedic Tvearatha "whose chariot is vehement" (Mayrhofer I 686, I 736).

103

Antiquity
An influx of early Indo-Aryan speakers over the Hindukush (comparable to the Kushan expansion of the 1st centuries CE) together with Late Harappan cultures gave rise to the Vedic civilization of the Early Iron Age.[citation needed] This civilization is marked by a continual shift[citation needed] to the east, first to the Gangetic plain with the Kurus and Panchalas, and further east with the Kosala and Videha. This Iron Age expansion corresponds to the black and red ware and painted grey ware cultures. For Hellenistic times, Oleg N. Trubachev (1999; elaborating on a hypothesis by Kretschmer 1944) suggests that there were Indo-Aryan speakers in the Pontic steppe. The Maeotes and the Sindes, the latter also known as "Indoi" and described by Hesychius as "an Indian people".[15]

Middle Ages
The various Prakrit vernaculars developed into independent languages in the course of the Middle Ages (see Apabhramsha), forming the Abahatta group in the east and the Hindustani group in the west. The Romani people (also known as Gypsies) are believed to have left India around 1000 CE.

Contemporary Indo-Aryan peoples

Contemporary Indo-Aryans are spread over most of the northern, western, central and eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent, Hyderabad in southern India, and in most parts of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Non-native speakers of Indo-Aryan languages also reach the south of the peninsula. The largest groups are the Hindi, Bengali and Punjabi. (Hindustani) or Hindi/Urdu speakers of India, Bangladesh and Pakistan number more than half a billion native speakers, constituting the largest community of speakers of any of the Indo-European languages. Of the 23 national languages of India, 16 are Indo-Aryan languages (see also languages of India).

Genetic anthropology
A study headed by geneticist Z. Zhao et al. (2009) based on an analysis of "32 Y-chromosomal markers in 560 North Indian males collected from three higher caste groups (Brahmins, Chaturvedis and Bhargavas) and two Muslims groups (Shia and Sunni) were genotyped" found that "a substantial part of today's North Indian paternal gene pool was contributed by Central Asian lineages who are Indo-European speakers, suggesting that extant Indian caste groups are primarily the descendants of Indo-European migrants."[16] An increasing number of studies have found South Asia to have the highest level of diversity of Y-STR haplotype variation within R1a1a, such as those of Kivisild et al. (2003), Mirabel et al. (2009) and Sharma et al. (2007, 2009). However, studies based on Y-STR haplotype variation have been recently criticized as being inaccurate and highly unreliable because the results are often affected by which markers are consciously chosen for analysis. In a 2011

Indo-Aryan peoples study examining the effects of microsatellite choice and Y-chromosomal variation, the authors conclude: "Subsequently, we suggest that most STR-based Y chromosome dates are likely to be underestimates due to the molecular characteristics of the markers commonly used, such as their mutation rate and the range of potential alleles that STR can take, which potentially leads to a loss of time-linearity. As a consequence, we update the STR-based age of important nodes in the Y chromosome tree, showing that credible estimates for the age of lineages can be made once these STR characteristics are taken into consideration. Finally we show that the STRs that are most commonly used to explore deep ancestry are not able to uncover ancient relationships, and we propose a set of STRs that should be used in these cases."[17] Sengupta et al. in their 2006 paper in the American Journal of Human Genetics say that "Our overall inference is that an early Holocene expansion in northwestern India (including the Indus Valley) contributed R1a1-M17 chromosomes both to the Central Asian and South Asian tribes".[18] Unfortunately, the haplotype dating methodology employed by the Sengupta paper is based on the "evolutionarily effective" mutation rate for Y-chromosomal STR loci, a method which has been severely criticized by Balanovsky et al. (2011). According to these researchers, who compare both the accuracy and reliability of the Zhivotovsky evolutionary mutation rate (6.9 x 10-4 per locus per generation) with a genealogical rate (2.1 x 10-3 per locus per generation): "We found that "evolutionary" estimates of most clusters fall far outside the range of the respective linguistic dates, while "genealogical" estimates gave a good fit with the linguistic dates. At least two population events in the Caucasus are documented archaeologically, which allows additional comparison with these "historical" dates. In both cases, the historical (archaeological) date is similar to a genetic estimate based on the "genealogical" mutation rate."[19] The latest research conducted by Watkins et. al. (2008) also reject the Sengupta study, but only because of the stochasticity of uniparental markers which may have been affected by natural selection; they also argue for the need to analyze autosomal polymorphisms in addition to both Y-chromosomal and mitochondrial DNA in order to generate a comprehensive picture of population genetic structure. The authors of the study write: "The historical record documents an influx of Vedic Indo-European-speaking immigrants into northwest India starting at least 3500 years ago. These immigrants spread southward and eastward into an existing agrarian society dominated by Dravidian speakers. With time, a more highly-structured patriarchal caste system developed ... our data are consistent with a model in which nomadic populations from northwest and central Eurasia intercalated over millennia into an already complex, genetically diverse set of subcontinental populations. As these populations grew, mixed, and expanded, a system of social stratification likely developed in situ, spreading to the Indo-Gangetic plain, and then southward over the Deccan plateau."[20] Reich et al. (2009) indicates that the modern Indian population is a result of admixture between Indo-European (ANI) and Dravidian (ASI) populations. The authors of the study write: "It is tempting to assume that the population ancestral to ANI and CEU spoke 'Proto-Indo-European', which has been reconstructed as ancestral to both Sanskrit and European languages, although we cannot be certain without a date for ANIASI mixture." [21] Recent research indicates a massive admixture event between ANI-ASI populations 3500 to 1200 years ago.[22]

104

List of Indo-Aryan peoples

Historical

Indo-Aryan peoples

105

Kashi Ikshvaku Ahir Angas Charans Gandharis Gangaridai Gupta [][][23]

Maurya Nanda Pala Paundra Rigvedic tribes Satavahanas Sena Shakya Vanga Varanasi Videha

Gurjara Empire Jats

Kalingas Kambojas Kolis/Koris Kurus Licchavis Magadhis

Contemporary
Assamese people Bengali people Bhils Chhettris Kushwaha Chittagonians Dogras Dom people Garhwali people Gujarati people Gurkhas Hindkis Hindkowans Kambojs Khas people Khatris [][] Mers Muhajirs Nahali Nais Oriya people Punjabi people Rajputs Ramgarhia Romani people Saraiki people Sinhalese people Sindhi people

Koli people Konkani people Lhotshampas Lohanas Dhivehi people Marathi people Marwaris

Kumaoni people

Notes
[1] https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ in. html#People [2] https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ pk. html#People [3] https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ bg. html#People [4] http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ science/ articles/ 2009/ 07/ 24/ 2635149. htm [5] http:/ / genome. cshlp. org/ content/ 13/ 10/ 2277. full [7] e.g. Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, s.v. "Indo-Iranian languages", p. 306. [8] Brentjes (1981), Klejn (1974), Francfort (1989), Lyonnet (1993), Hiebert (1998) and Sarianidi (1993) [9] Edwin Bryant. 2001 [10] e.g. Bernard Sergent. Gense de l'Inde. 1997:161 ff. [11] Parpola, Asko (1999), "The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European", in Blench, Roger & Spriggs, Matthew, Archaeology and Language, vol. III: Artefacts, languages and texts, London and New York: Routledge. [12] Review of: David Anthony. The horse, the wheel and language. 2007. Journal of Indo-European Studies, vol. 36, Nos. 3 and 4: 1 17. [13] The Bronze Age of Europe: Reflections on K. Kristiansen and T. Larsson: The Rise of Bronze Age Society (2005). Norwegian Archaeological Review, 41 (2), 2008: 213 - 228. [14] Manfred Mayrhofer, Etymologisches Wrterbuch des Altindoarischen, Heidelberg 1986-2000, II 293 [15] Sindoi (or Sindi etc.) were also described by e.g. Herodotus, Strabo, Dionysius, Stephen Byzantine, Polienus. (http:/ / indoeuro. bizland. com/ archive/ article17. html) [16] http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pmc/ articles/ PMC2755252/

Indo-Aryan peoples
[17] http:/ / www. abstractsonline. com/ Plan/ ViewAbstract. aspx?sKey=8d6ec7f1-ee68-4677-8a42-ae3d2c294db4& cKey=6980c0cf-b9d1-4cc8-b638-af5c78d7a09a& mKey={DFC2C4B1-FBCD-433D-86DD-B15521A77070} [18] Polarity and Temporality of High-Resolution Y-Chromosome Distributions in India Identify Both Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian Pastoralists, by Sanghamitra Sengupta,1 Lev A. Zhivotovsky,2 Roy King,3 S. Q. Mehdi,4 Christopher A. Edmonds,3 Cheryl-Emiliane T. Chow,3 Alice A. Lin,3 Mitashree Mitra,5 Samir K. Sil,6 A. Ramesh,7 M. V. Usha Rani,8 Chitra M. Thakur,9 L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza,3 Partha P. Majumder,1 and Peter A. Underhill3, 1Human Genetics Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India; 2N. I. Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow; 3Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford; 4Biomedical and Genetic Engineering Division, Dr. A. Q. Khan Research Laboratories, Islamabad; 5School of Studies in Anthropology, Pandit Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, India; 6University of Tripura, Tripura, India; 7Department of Genetics, University of Madras, Chennai, India; 8Department of Environmental Sciences, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, India; and 9B. J. Wadia Hospital for Children, Mumbai, India (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender. fcgi?artid=1380230) [19] http:/ / mbe. oxfordjournals. org/ content/ 28/ 10/ 2905 [20] http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pmc/ articles/ PMC2621241/ ?tool=pubmed [21] http:/ / genepath. med. harvard. edu/ ~reich/ 2009_Nature_Reich_India. pdf [22] http:/ / www. ichg2011. org/ cgi-bin/ ichg11s?author=Moorjani%20P& sort=ptimes& sbutton=Detail& absno=20758& sid=15004

106

References
Bryant, Edwin (2001). The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-513777-9. Mallory, JP. 1998. "A European Perspective on Indo-Europeans in Asia". In The Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Peoples of Eastern and Central Asia. Ed. Mair. Washington DC: Institute for the Study of Man. Trubachov, Oleg N., 1999: Indoarica, Nauka, Moscow.

External links
Horseplay at Harappa - People Fas Harvard - Harvard University (http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/ RAJARAM/Har1.pdf) A tale of two horses (http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl1723/17231220.htm) - Frontline

List of Rigvedic tribes

107

List of Rigvedic tribes

The Indo-Aryan tribes mentioned in the Rigveda are described as semi-nomadic pastoralists.[1] During the Rigvedic period, they formed a warrior society, engaging in endemic warfare and cattle raids ("gavii") among themselves and against their enemies, the "Dasyu" or Dasa.[2] When not on the move, they were subdivided into temporary tribal settlements (vish, vi) composed of several villages, and each village was composed of several families.[3] These settlements were headed by a tribal chief (raja, rjan) assisted by warriors (kshatra) and a priestly caste Geography of the Rigveda, with river names; the extent of the Swat and Cemetery H cultures are also indicated. (brahma).[4] The size of a typical tribal settlement was probably of the order of a few thousand people. The account of the Dasharajna battle (Battle of the Ten Kings) in Mandala 7, hymn 18, mentions 6,666 casualties in a devastating defeat of a confederation of ten tribes, suggesting that a single tribe could muster several thousand warriors, while the average size of a whole tribe may have been 3,000-6,000 (A Late Vedic tribe of Vesali mentioned in the Pali texts refers to 7,000 "rajas", that is noblemen.) This is a list of Indo-Aryan tribes mentioned in the text of the Rigveda:

List of Tribes
1. Alina people (RV 7.18.7) - They were probably one of the tribes defeated by Sudas at the Dasarajna,[5] and it has been suggested that they lived to the north-east of Nurestan, because much later, in the 7th century CE, the land was mentioned by the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang.[6] The amateur historian S. Talageri identifies them with the Greeks (Hellenes).[7] 2. Anu is a Vedic Sanskrit term for one of the 5 major tribes in the Rigveda, RV 1.108.8, RV 8.10.5 (both times listed together with the Druhyu) and, much later also in the Mahabharata.[8] In the late Vedic period, one of the Anu kings, King Anga, is mentioned as a "chakravartin" (AB 8.22). nava, the vrddhi derivation of Anu, is the name of a ruler in the Rigvedic account of the Battle of the Ten Kings (7.18.13) and at 8.4.1 with the Turvaa (tribe). The meaning nu "living, human" (Naighantu) cannot be substantiated for the Rigveda [9] and may have been derived from the tribal name. 3. yu[10] 4. Bhajeratha[11] 5. Bhalanas- The Bhalanas are one of the tribes that fought against Sudas in the Dasarajna battle. Some scholars have argued that the Bhalanas lived in Eastern Afghanistan Kabulistan, and that the Bolan Pass derives its name from the Bhalanas.[12][13] 6. Bharatas - The Bharatas are an Aryan tribe mentioned in the Rigveda, especially in Mandala 3 attributed to the Bharata sage Vishvamitra and in and Mandala 7.[14] Bharat is also used as a name of Agni (literally, "to be maintained", viz. the fire having to be kept alive by the care of men), and as a name of Rudra in RV 2.36.8. In one of the "river hymns" RV 3.33, the entire Bharata tribe is described as crossing over, with their chariots and

List of Rigvedic tribes wagons, at the confluence of the Vipash (Beas) and Shutudri (Satlej). Hymns by Vasistha in Mandala 7 (7.18 etc.) mention the Bharatas as the protagonists in the Battle of the Ten Kings, where they are on the winning side. They appear to have been successful in the early power-struggles between the various Aryan and non-Aryan tribes so that they continue to dominate in post-Rigvedic texts, and later in the (Epic) tradition, the Mahbhrata, the eponymous ancestor becomes Emperor Bharata, conqueror of 'all of India', and his tribe and kingdom is called Bhrata. "Bhrata" today is the official name of the Republic of India (see also Etymology of India). 7. Bhrigus[15] 8. Chedi[16] 9. Dasa (dsa, 'slave', 'servant')[17] 10. Dasyu (Iranian: Dahyu, mentioned in Latin as: Dahae, in Greek as: Daai)[18] 11. Dbhka[19] 12. Druhyus - The Druhyu were a people of Vedic India. They are mentioned in the Rigveda,[20] usually together with the Anu tribe.[21] Some early scholars have placed them in the northwestern region.[22] The later texts, the Epic and the Puranas, locate them in the "north", that is, in Gandhara, Aratta and Setu. (Vishnu Purana IV.17) The Druhyus were driven out of the land of the seven rivers by Mandhatr and their next king Gandhara settled in a north-western region which became known as Gandhra. The sons of the later Druhyu king Pracetas too settle in the "northern" (udcya) region (Bhagavata 9.23.15-16; Visnu 4.17.5; Vayu 99.11-12; Brahmanda 3.74.11-12 and Matsya 48.9.). Recently, some writers[23] have ahistorically asserted that the Druhyu are the ancestors of the Iranian, Greek or European peoples, or of the Celtic Druid class.[24] The word Druid (Gallic Celtic druides), however, is derived from Proto-Indo-European vid "to see, to know' [25] It has also been alleged that the Rg Veda and the Puranas describe this tribe as migrating North,.[23][24] However, there is nothing of this in the Rigveda and the Puranas merely mention that the Druhyu are "adjacent (rita) to the North" 13. Gandhari[26] 14. Gugu[27] 15. Iksvaku[28] 16. Krivi[29] 17. Kkaa[30] 18. Kuru[31] 19. Mahna[32] 20. Maujavant[33] 21. Matsya[34] 22. Meenas[35] 23. Nahua[36] 24. Paktha.[37] 25. Paca Jana/Ki (etc.) 26. Panis (Iranian Parni?) 27. Prvata 28. Parsu (Paru) - The Parsus have been connected with the Persians, though this view is disputed.[38] This is based on the evidence of an Assyrian inscription from 844 BC referring to the Persians as Parshu, and the Behistun Inscription of Darius I of Persia referring to Parsa as the home of the Persians.[39] 29. Prthava 30. Puru (Pru) 31. Ruama 32. Srasvata 33. Satvant 34. igru 35. imyu

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List of Rigvedic tribes 36. iva 37. Srjaya 38. vitna 39. Tritsu The Trtsus are a sub-group of the Bharata mentioned in Mandala 7 of the Rigveda (in hymns 18, 33 and 83). Under king Sudas they defeated the Puru confederation at the Battle of the Ten Kings. 40. Turvasa (Turvaa) 41. Unara 42. Vaikara 43. Vaa 44. Vibhindu 45. Vinin 46. Vcvant 47. Yadu 48. Yaku

109

References
[1] Staal, F. (1999). Greek and Vedic geometry. Journal of Indian Philosophy, 27(1), 105-127. [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] http:/ / www. articledashboard. com/ Article/ A-Look-At-The-Ancient-Vedic-Civilization-Through-The-Vedas/ 549222 Sharma, R. K. (1997). Rural Sociology. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. http:/ / www. preservearticles. com/ 2011101915735/ what-were-the-salient-features-of-vedic-society. html name=Macdonell1139 A. A. Macdonell and A. B. Keith (1912). Vedic Index of Names and Subjects, I 39. A. A. Macdonell and A. B. Keith (1912). Vedic Index of Names and Subjects, I, 39. The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis, Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi 2000 Talageri, S. G. (2005). The Rigveda as a source of Indo-European history. The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History, 332. [9] Mayrhofer, Etym. Dict. 1986, pt. 1, p. 74 [10] Bloomfield, M. (1899). The Myth of Purravas, Urva, and yu. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 20, 180-183. [11] Zimmer, S. (1986). On a special meaning of jna-in the Rgveda. Indo-Iranian Journal, 29(2), 109-115. [12] Macdonell, A.A. and Keith, A.B. 1912. The Vedic Index of Names and Subjects. [13] Talageri, S. G. (2005). The Rigveda as a source of Indo-European history. The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History, 332. [14] Frawley, D. (2001). The Rig Veda and the History of India: Rig Veda Bharata Itihasa. Aditya Prakashan. [15] Weller, H. (1937). WHO WERE THE BHRIGUIDS?. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 18(3), 296-302. [16] MALVIYA, C. (2011). THE ROOTS OF DEMOCRACY IN INDIAN CULTURE. CULTURAL IDENTITY, 287. [17] Sircar, D. C. (1974). The DasaDasyu in the Rigveda. Some problems of Indian history and culture. [18] Sircar, D. C. (1974). The DasaDasyu in the Rigveda. Some problems of Indian history and culture. [19] Geiger, W., & Sanjana, D. D. P. (1885). Civilization of the Eastern Irnians in Ancient Times: Ethnography and social life (Vol. 1). Henry Frowde. [20] e.g. RV 1.108.8; 7.18; 8.10.5; 6.46.8 [21] Hopkins, E. W. (1893). Problematic passages in the Rig-Veda. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 15, 252-283. [22] Macdonell-Keith, Vedic Index 1912, vol. I p. 395 [23] Talageri 2000 [24] Sanskrit in English (http:/ / www. indiadivine. org/ audarya/ vedic-culture/ 203103-sanskrit-english. html) [25] F. Le Roux & C.-J.Guyonvarc'h, Les Druides, Paris 1982: 37 [26] Warraich, M. T. A. GANDHARA: AN APPRIASAL OF ITS MEANINGS AND HISTORY. [27] Grassmann, H. (Ed.). (1876). Rig-veda (Vol. 1). FA Brockhaus. [28] PINCOTT, F. ART. XIX.The First Mandala of the Rig-Veda. By. Journal of the Boy. Asiat. Son, 16(Part II). [29] Pike, A. (1992). Indo-Aryan Deities and Worship as Contained in the Rig-Veda. Kessinger Pub. [30] Rig-Veda-Sanhit: A collection of ancient Hindu hymns... Vol. 3. 1857. [31] Frawley, D. (2001). The Rig Veda and the History of India: Rig Veda Bharata Itihasa. Aditya Prakashan. [32] Perry, E. D. (1885). Indra in the Rig-Veda. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 11, 117-208. [33] Witzel, M. (1999). Aryan and Non-Aryan names in Vedic India. Data for the linguistic situation, c. 1900500 BC. Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia, Evidence, Interpretation and Ideology. Cambridge Mass.: Harvard University (Harvard Oriental Series: Opera Minora III). [34] Muller, F. M. (1869). Rig-veda-sanhita (Vol. 1). [35] Babu, D. S., & Khare, R. S. (Eds.). (2011). Caste in Life: Experiencing Inequalities. Pearson Education India.

List of Rigvedic tribes

[36] Griffith, R. T. (2009). The Rig-Veda. The Rig Veda. [37] History of Buddhism in Afghanistan By S. Esa Upsaka, Kendrya-Tibbat-Ucca-ik-Sasthnam Published by Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, 1990 Original from the University of California Page 78 [38] A. A. Macdonell and A. B. Keith (1912). Vedic Index of Names and Subjects. [39] Radhakumud Mookerji (1988). Chandragupta Maurya and His Times (p. 23). Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 81-208-0405-8.

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Mahajanapada
Mah-Janapada

c. 600 BCc. 300 BC

Map of the 16 Mahajanapada

Capital Religion Not specified Vedic Hinduism Buddism Jainism Republics Monarchies Iron Age Established Disestablished c. 600 BC c. 300 BC

Government

Historical era -

Outline of South Asian history History of Indian subcontinent

Mahjanapada (Sanskrit: , Mahjanapada), literally "great realm", (from maha, "great", and janapada "foothold of a tribe", "country") refers to ancient Indian kingdoms that existed between the sixth and third centuries BC. Ancient Buddhist texts like Anguttara Nikaya[1] make frequent reference to sixteen great kingdoms and republics (Solas Mahajanapadas) which had evolved and flourished in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent and included parts of the trans-Vindhyan region,[] prior to the rise of Buddhism in India.[2] The sixth century BC is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history.

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Overview
The political structure of the ancient Indians appears to have started with semi-nomadic tribal units called Jana (meaning "people" or by extension "ethnic group" or "tribe"). Early Vedic texts attest several Janas or tribes of the Indo-Aryans, living in a semi-nomadic tribal state and fighting among themselves and with other Non-Aryan tribes for cows, sheep and green pastures. These early Vedic Janas later coalesced into the Janapadas of the Epic Age. The term "Janapada" literally means the foothold of a tribe. The fact that Janapada is derived from Jana points to an early stage of land-taking by the Jana tribe for a settled way of life. This process of first settlement on land had completed its final stage prior to the times of the Buddha and Pini. The Pre-Buddhist north-west region of the Indian sub-continent was divided into several Janapadas demarcated from each other by boundaries. In Pini, Janapada stands for country and Janapadin for its citizenry. Each of these Janapadas was named after the Kshatriya tribe (or the Kshatriya Jana) who had settled therein.[3][4] The Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations (Solasa Mahajanapadas) which were in existence before the time of Buddha. They do not give any connected history except in the case of Magadha. The Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya, at several places,[5] gives a list of sixteen great nations: 1. Anga 2. Kosala 3. Kashi 4. Magadha 5. Videha 6. Malla 7. Chedi 8. Vatsa (or Vamsa) 9. Kuru 10. Panchala 11. Machcha (or Matsya) 12. Surasena 13. Assaka (or Asmaka) 14. Avanti 15. Gandhara 16. Kamboja Another Buddhist text, the Digha Nikaya, mentions only the first twelve Mahajanapadas and omits the last four in the above list.[6] Chulla-Niddesa, another ancient text of the Buddhist canon, adds Kalinga to the list and substitutes Yona for Gandhara, thus listing the Kamboja and the Yona as the only Mahajanapadas from Uttarapatha.[7][8] The Jaina Bhagavati Sutra gives a slightly different list of sixteen Mahajanapadas viz: Anga, Banga (Vanga), Magadha, Malaya, Malavaka, Accha, Vaccha, Kochcha (Kachcha?), Padha, Ladha (Lata), Bajji (Vajji), Moli (Malla), Kasi, Kosala, Avaha and Sambhuttara. Obviously, the author of Bhagvati has a focus on the countries of Madhydesa and of the far east and south only. He omits the nations from Uttarapatha like the Kamboja and Gandhara. The more extended horizon of the Bhagvati and the omission of all countries from Uttarapatha "clearly shows that the Bhagvati list is of later origin and therefore less reliable."[9] The main idea in the minds of those who drew up the Janapada lists was basically more tribal than geographical, since the lists include the names of the people and not the countries. As the Buddhist and Jaina texts only casually refer to the Mahajanapadas with no details on history, the following few isolated facts, at best, are gleaned from them and other ancient texts about these ancient nations.

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Kashi
The Kasis was located in the region around Varanasi (modern Banaras). The capital of Kasi was at Varanasi. The city was bounded by the rivers Varuna and Asi in the north and south which gave Varanasi its name. Before Buddha, Kasi was the most powerful of the sixteen Mahajanapadas. Several Jatakas bear witness to the superiority of its capital over other cities of India and speak highly of its prosperity and opulence. The Jatakas speak of a long rivalry of Kasi with Kosala, Anga and Magadha. There was a long struggle for supremacy between them. King Brihadratha of Kasi had conquered Kosala but Kasi was later incorporated into Kosala by King Kansa during Buddha's time. The Kasis along with the Kosalas and Videhans find mention in Vedic texts and appear to have been a closely allied people. Matsya Purana and Alberuni read Kasi as Kausika and Kaushaka respectively. All other ancient texts read Kasi.
This detailed map shows the locations of Kingdoms mentioned in the Indian epics.

Kosala
The country of Kosalas was located to the north-west of Magadha with its capital at Savatthi (Sravasti). It was located about 60 miles north of modern Ayodhya at the border of Gonda and Behraich districts in the Sahet-Mahet region. Its territory corresponding to the modern Awadh (or Oudh) in i.e Central and Eastern Uttar Pradesh. It had the river Ganges for its southern, the river Gandak (Narayani) for its eastern and the Himalaya mountains for its northern boundary. It finds mention as the center of Vedic Dharma. Its kings allied with Devatas in various wars against Daityas, Rakshas and Asuras. Koshala and Ayodhya hold a central place in the Hindu scriptures, Itihas and Purana. Raghuvansha- Ikshvakuvansha was the longest continuous dynasty, Lord Rama was a king in this dynasty. Other great kings were Prithu, Harishchandra, Dilip who find mention in different Puranas, Ramayan and Mahabharat. According to these texts, Koshala was the most powerful and biggest kingdom ever in the recorded history. Later, the kingdom was ruled by king Prasenjit during the era of Mahavira and Budhha followed by his son Vidudabha. There was a struggle for supremacy between king Pasenadi (Prasenjit) and king Ajatasatru of Magadha which was finally settled once the confederation of Lichchavis became aligned with Magadha. Kosala was ultimately merged into Magadha when Vidudabha was Kosala's ruler. Ayodhya, Saketa, Benares and Sravasti were the chief cities of Kosala.

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Anga
The first reference to the Angas is found in the Atharva-Veda where they find mention along with the Magadhas, Gandharis and the Mujavats, apparently as a despised people. The Jaina Prajnapana ranks Angas and Vangas in the first group of Aryan people. It mentions the principal cities of ancient India.[10] It was also a great center of trade and commerce and its merchants regularly sailed to distant Suvarnabhumi. Anga was annexed by Magadha in the time of Bimbisara.

Magadha
The Magadha was one of the most prominent and prosperous of mahajanpadas. The capital city Pataliputra( Patna, Bihar) was situated on the confluence of major rivers like Ganga, Son, Punpun and Gandak. The alluvial plains of this region and its proximity to the iron rich areas of Bihar and Jharkhand helped the Ancient Cities of India during the time of Ramayana, Mahabharata and Buddha. kingdom to develop good quality weapons and support the agrarian economy. These factors helped Magadh to emerge as the most prosperous state of that period. The kingdom of the Magadhas roughly corresponded to the modern districts of Patna and Gaya in southern Bihar and parts of Bengal in the east. The capital city of Patna was It was bounded in the north by river Ganges, in the east by the river Champa, in the south by the Vindhya mountains and in the west by the river Sona. During Buddha's time its boundaries included Anga. Its earliest capital was Girivraja or Rajagriha (modern Rajgir in Patna district of Bihar). The other names for the city were Magadhapura, Brihadrathapura, Vasumati, Kushagrapura and Bimbisarapuri. It was an active center of Jainism in ancient times. The first Buddhist Council was held in Rajagriha in the Vaibhara Hills. Later on, Pataliputra became the capital of Magadha.

Vajji or Vriji
The Vajjians or Virijis included eight or nine confederated clans of whom the Licchhavis, the Videhans, the Jnatrikas and the Vajjis were the most important. Mithila (modern Janakpur in district of Tirhut) was the capital of Videha and became the predominant center of the political and cultural activities of northern India. It was in the time of king Janaka that Videha came into prominence. The last king of Videha was Kalara who is said to have perished along with his kingdom on account of his attempt on a Brahmin maiden. On the ruins of his kingdom arose the republics of the Licchhavis and Videhans and seven other small ones. The Licchavis were a very independent people. The mother of Mahavira was a Licchavi princess. Vaishali (modern Basarh in the Vaishali District of North Bihar) was the capital of the Licchavis and the political headquarters of the powerful Varijian confederacy. Vaishali was located 25 miles north of the river Ganges and 38 miles from Rajagriha and was a very prosperous town. The Second Buddhist Council was held at Vaishali. The Licchavis were followers of Buddha. Buddha is said to have visited them on many occasions. They were closely related by marriage to the Magadhas and one branch of the Licchavi dynasty ruled Nepal until the start of the Middle Ages but have nothing to do with the current ruling shah dynasty in Nepal. The Licchavis are represented as the (Vratya) Kshatriyas in Manusmriti. Vaishali, the headquarters of the powerful Vajji republic and the capital of the Licchavis was defeated by king Ajatasatru of Magadha.magadha became the most powerful kingdom of all the Mahajanapadas.

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Malla
The Mallas are frequently mentioned in Buddhist and Jain works. They were a powerful people dwelling in Northern South Asia. According to Mahabharata, Panduputra Bhimasena is said to have conquered the chief of the Mallas/Malls in the course of his expedition in Eastern India. During the Buddhist period, the Mallas/Malls Kshatriya were republican people with their dominion consisting of nine territories[11] corresponding to the nine confederated clans. These republican states were known as Gana. Two of these confederations - one with Kuinra (modern Kasia near Gorakhpur) as its capital and the second with Pava (modern Padrauna, 12 miles from Kasia) as the capital - had become very important at the time of Buddha. Kuinra and Pava are very important in the history of Buddhism and Jainism since Buddha and Lord Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara took their last meals at Kushinara and Pava/Pavapuri respectively. Buddha was taken ill at Pava and died at Kusinara, whereas lord Mahavira took his Nirvana at Pava puri. It is widely believed that Lord Gautam died at the courtyard of King Sastipal Mall of Kushinagar/Kushinara. Kushinagar is now the centre of the Buddhist pilgrimage circle which is being developed by the tourism development corporation of Utter Pradesh. The Mallas, like the Licchavis, are mentioned by Manusmriti as Vratya Kshatriyas. They are called Vasishthas (Vasetthas) in the Mahapparnibbana Suttanta. The Mallas originally had a monarchical form of government but later they switched to one of Samgha (republic), the members of which called themselves rajas. The Mallas were a brave and warlike people. Due to their ancient lineage they considered themselves to be the purest of the Kshatriyas. Jainism and Buddhism found many followers among the Mallas. There were a total of nine Malla rulers during Buddha's period. The Mallas appeared to have formed an alliance with the Licchhavis for self defense but lost their independence not long after Buddha's death and their dominions were annexed to the Magadhan empire. The descendants of Malls can still be found in the neighbouring areas of Gorakhpur/Deoria and Kushinagar. Malla along with other Sanghiya kshtriyas like the Licchhavis, Koliyas and Shakya were ruling from their Santhagara, which was like an assembly hall. Many historians believe that with the decline of Buddhism, republic Kshatriyas following Buddhism around Gorakhpur and Deoria district reverted to Hindusim though the exact period is not known. These Santhagara kshatriyas were placed below Vedic kshtriyas in the social hierarchy and were termed "Santha-war (Sainthwar)", which means "to leave Santha or Sanstha". These ancient Malla should not be confused with the Majhauli Malla of Deoria. There are two theories about Majhauli Malla. Majhauli Malla claim their descendents from famous ascetic Mayur Bhat who was a descendent of Rishi Jamdagni. Mayur Bhat, by one of his Surajvanshi rani "Surya Prabha", had a son "Bisva Sen" who was the first man of the "Bisen Rajput"[12] clan. Princess Surya Prabha is assumed to be from the non-buddhist Malla dynasty. The 80th descendent from Bisva Sen was Raja Hardeo Sen who received the title of "Malla" around the eleventh century from the Delhi king on account of his bravery. However, Malla from Nepal are completely different lot.

Chedi or Cheti
The Chedis, Chetis or Chetyas had two distinct settlements of which one was in the mountains of Nepal and the other in Bundelkhand near Kausambi. According to old authorities, Chedis lay near Yamuna midway between the kingdom of Kurus and Vatsas. In the mediaeval period, the southern frontiers of Chedi extended to the banks of the river Narmada. Sotthivatnagara, the Sukti or Suktimati of Mahabharata, was the capital of Chedi. The Chedis were an ancient people of India and are mentioned in the Rigveda. A branch of Chedis founded a royal dynasty in the kingdom of Kalinga according to the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela.

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Vamsa or Vatsa
The Vatsas, Vamsas or Vachchas are stated to be an offshoot of the Kurus. The Vatsa or Vamsa country corresponded with the territory of modern Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh. It had a monarchical form of government with its capital at Kausambi (identified with the village Kosam, 38 miles from Allahabad). Kausambi was a very prosperous city where a large number of millionaire merchants resided. It was the most important entreport of goods and passengers from the north-west and south. Udayana was the ruler of Vatsa in the sixth century BC, the time of Buddha. He was very powerful, warlike and fond of hunting. Initially king Udayana was opposed to Buddhism but later became a follower of Buddha and made Buddhism the state religion.

Kuru
The Puranas trace the origin of Kurus from the Puru-Bharata family. Aitareya Brahmana locates the Kurus in Madhyadesha and also refers to the Uttarakurus as living beyond the Himalayas. According to the Buddhist text Sumangavilasini,[13] the people of Kururashtra (the Kurus) came from the Uttarakuru. Vayu Purana attests that Kuru, son of Samvarsana of the Puru lineage, was the eponymous ancestor of the Kurus and the founder of Kururashtra (Kuru Janapada) in Kurukshetra. The country of the Kurus roughly corresponded to the modern Thanesar, state of Delhi and Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh. According to the Jatakas, the capital of the Kurus was Indraprastha (Indapatta) near modern Delhi which extended seven leagues. At Buddha's time, the Kuru country was ruled by a titular chieftain (king consul) named Korayvya. The Kurus of the Buddhist period did not occupy the same position as they did in the Vedic period but they continued to enjoy their ancient reputation for deep wisdom and sound health. The Kurus had matrimonial relations with the Yadavas, the Bhojas, Trigrata s and the Panchalas. There is a Jataka reference to king Dhananjaya, introduced as a prince from the race of Yudhishtra. Though a well known monarchical people in the earlier period, the Kurus are known to have switched to a republican form of government during the sixth to fifth centuries BC. In the fourth century BC, Kautiliya's Arthashastra also attests the Kurus following the Rajashabdopajivin (king consul) constitution.

Panchala
The Panchalas occupied the country to the east of the Kurus between the mountains and river Ganges. It roughly corresponded to modern Budaun, Farrukhabad and the adjoining districts of Uttar Pradesh. The country was divided into Uttara-Panchala and Dakshina-Panchala. The northern Panchala had its capital at Adhichhatra or Chhatravati (modern Ramnagar in the Bareilly District), while southern Panchala had it capital at Kampilya or Kampil in Farrukhabad District. The famous city of Kanyakubja or Kanauj was situated in the kingdom of Panchala. Originally a monarchical clan, the Panchals appear to have switched to republican corporation in the sixth and fifth centuries BC. In the fourth century BC, Kautiliya's Arthashastra also attests the Panchalas as following the Rajashabdopajivin (king consul) constitution.

Machcha or Matsya
The country of the Matsya or Machcha tribe lay to the south of the Kurus and west of the Yamuna, which separated them from the Panchalas. It roughly corresponded to the former state of Jaipur in Rajasthan, and included the whole of Alwar with portions of Bharatpur. The capital of Matsya was at Viratanagara (modern Bairat) which is said to have been named after its founder king Virata. In Pali literature, the Matsyas are usually associated with the Surasenas. The western Matsya was the hill tract on the north bank of the Chambal. A branch of Matsya is also found in later days in the Vizagapatam region. The Matsyas had not much political importance of their own during the time of Buddha. King Sujata ruled over both the Chedis and Matsyas, thus showing that Matsya once formed a part of the Chedi kingdom.

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Surasena
The country of the Surasenas lay to the east of Matsya and west of Yamuna. This corresponds roughly to the Brij region of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan. and Gwalior region of Madhya Pradesh. It had its capital at Madhura or Mathura. Avantiputra, the king of Surasena was the first among the chief disciples of Buddha, through whose help Buddhism gained ground in Mathura country. The Andhakas and Vrishnis of Mathura/Surasena are referred to in the Ashtadhyayi of Pini. In Kautiliya's Arthashastra, the Vrishnis are described as samgha or republic. The Vrishnis, Andhakas and other allied tribes of the Yadavas formed a samgha and Vasudeva (Krishna) is described as the samgha-mukhya. Mathura, the capital of Surasena was also known at the time of Megasthenes as the centre of Krishna worship. The Surasena kingdom had lost its independence on annexation by the Magadhan empire.

Assaka or Ashmaka
The Country of Assaka or the Ashmaka tribe was located in Dakshinapatha or southern India. In Buddha's time, the Assakas were located on the banks of the river Godavari (south of the Vindhya mountains). The capital of the Assakas was Potana or Potali, which corresponds to Paudanya of Mahabharata. The Ashmakas are also mentioned by Pini. They are placed in the north-west in the Markendeya Purana and the Brhat Samhita. The river Godavari separated the country of the Assakas from that of the Mulakas (or Alakas). The commentator of Kautiliya's Arthashastra identifies Ashmaka with Maharashtra. The country of Assaka lay outside the pale of Madhyadesa. It was located on a southern high road, the Dakshinapatha. At one time, Assaka included Mulaka and abutted Avanti.[14]

Avanti
The country of the Avantis was an important kingdom of western India and was one of the four great monarchies in India in the post era of Mahavira and Buddha. The other three being Kosala, Vatsa and Magadha. Avanti was divided into north and south by the river Vetravati. Initially, Mahissati (Sanskrit Mahishamati) was the capital of Southern Avanti, and Ujjaini (Sanskrit: Ujjayini) was of northern Avanti, but at the times of Mahavira and Buddha, Ujjaini was the capital of integrated Avanti. The country of Avanti roughly corresponded to modern Malwa, Nimar and adjoining parts of the Madhya Pradesh. Both Mahishmati and Ujjaini stood on the southern high road called Dakshinapatha which extended from Rajagriha to Pratishthana (modern Paithan). Avanti was an important center of Buddhism and some of the leading theras and theris were born and resided there. King Nandivardhana of Avanti was defeated by king Shishunaga of Magadha. Avanti later became part of the Magadhan empire.

Gandhara
The wool of the Gandharis is referred to in the Rigveda. The Gandhar Panjab. The Gandharas and their king figure prominently as strong allies of the Kurus against the Pandavas in the Mahabharata war. The Gandharas were a furious people, well-trained in the art of war. According to Puranic traditions, this Janapada was founded by Gandhara, son of Aruddha, a descendant of Yayati. The princes of this country are said to have come from the line of Druhyu who was a famous king of the Rigvedic period. The river Indus watered the lands of Gandhara. Taksashila and Pushkalavati, the two cities of this Mahajanapada, are said to have been named after Taksa and Pushkara, the two sons of Bharata, a prince of Ayodhya. According to Vayu Purana (II.36.107), the Gandharas were destroyed by Pramiti (aka Kalika) at the end of Kaliyuga. Pini mentioned both the Vedic form Gandhari as well as the later form Gandhara in his Ashtadhyayi. The Gandhara kingdom sometimes also included Kashmira.[15] Hecataeus of Miletus (549-468) refers to Kaspapyros (Kasyapura i.e. Kashmira) as Gandharic city. According to Gandhara Jataka, at one time, Gandhara formed a part of the kingdom of Kashmir. The Jataka also gives another name Chandahara for Gandhara. Gandhara Mahajanapada of Buddhist traditions included territories of east Afghanistan, and north-west of the Panjab (modern districts of Peshawar (Purushapura) and Rawalpindi). Its capital was Takshasila (Prakrit Taxila).

Mahajanapada The Taxila University was a renowned center of learning in ancient times, where scholars from all over the world came to seek higher education. Pini, the Indian genius of grammar and Kautiliya are the world renowned products of Taxila University. King Pukkusati or Pushkarasarin of Gandhara in the middle of the sixth century BC was the contemporary of king Bimbisara of Magadha. Gandhara was located on the grand northern high road (Uttarapatha) and was a centre of international commercial activities. It was an important channel of communication with ancient Iran and Central Asia. According to one school of scholars, the Gandharas and Kambojas were cognate people.[16][17][18] It is also contended that the Kurus, Kambojas, Gandharas and Bahlikas were cognate people and all had Iranian affinities.[19] According to Dr T. L. Shah, the Gandhara and Kamboja were nothing but two provinces of one empire and were located coterminously, hence influencing each others language.[20] Naturally, they may have once been a cognate people.[21][22][23][24] Gandhara was often linked politically with the neighboring regions of Kashmir and Kamboja.[25]

117

Kamboja
Kambojas are also included in the Uttarapatha. In ancient literature, the Kamboja is variously associated with the Gandhara, Darada and the Bahlika (Bactria). Ancient Kamboja is known to have comprised regions on either side of the Hindukush. The original Kamboja was located in eastern Oxus country as neighbor to Bahlika, but with time, some clans of the Kambojas appear to have crossed the Hindukush and planted colonies on its southern side also. These latter Kambojas are associated with the Daradas and Gandharas in Indian literature and also find mention in the Edicts of Ashoka. The evidence in the Mahabharata and in Ptolemy's Geography distinctly supports two Kamboja settlements.[26] The cis-Hindukush region from Nurestan up to Rajauri in southwest of Kashmir sharing borders with the Daradas and the Gandharas constituted the Kamboja country.[27] The capital of Kamboja was probably Rajapura (modern Rajori) in the south-west of Kashmir. The Kamboja Mahajanapada of the Buddhist traditions refers to this cis-Hindukush branch of ancient Kambojas.[28] The trans-Hindukush region including the Pamirs and Badakhshan which shared borders with the Bahlikas (Bactria) in the west and the Lohas and Rishikas of Sogdiana/Fergana in the north, constituted the Parama-Kamboja country.[29] The trans-Hindukush branch of the Kambojas remained pure Iranian but a large section of the Kambojas of cis-Hindukush appears to have come under Indian cultural influence. The Kambojas are known to have had both Iranian as well as Indian affinities.[30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40] The Kambojas were also a well known republican people since Epic times. The Mahabharata refers to several Ganah (or Republics) of the Kambojas.[41] Kautiliya's Arthashastra[42] and Ashoka's Edict No. XIII also attest that the Kambojas followed republican constitution. Pini's Sutras,[43] though tend to convey that the Kamboja of Pini was a Kshatriya monarchy, but "the special rule and the exceptional form of derivative" he gives to denote the ruler of the Kambojas implies that the king of Kamboja was a titular head (king consul) only.[44] According to Buddhist texts, the first fourteen of the above Mahajanapadas belong to Majjhimadesa (Mid India) while the last two belong to Uttarapatha or the north-west division of Jambudvipa. In a struggle for supremacy that followed in the sixth/fifth century BC, the growing state of the Magadhas emerged as the most predominant power in ancient India, annexing several of the Janapadas of the Majjhimadesa. A bitter line in the Brahmin Puranas laments that Magadhan emperor Mahapadma Nanda exterminated all Kshatriyas, none worthy of the name Kshatrya being left thereafter. This obviously refers to the Kasis, Kosalas, Kurus, Panchalas, Vatsyas and other neo-Vedic tribes of the east Panjab of whom nothing was ever heard except in the legend and poetry. The Kambojans and Gandharans, however, never came into direct contact with the Magadhan state until Chandragupta and Kautiliya arose on the scene. But these nations also fell prey to the Achaemenids of Persia during the reign of Cyrus (558530 BC) or in the first year of Darius. Kamboja and Gandhara formed the twentieth and richest strapy of the Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus I is said to have destroyed the famous Kamboja city called Kapisi (modern Begram) in Paropamisade.

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References
[1] Anguttara Nikaya I. p 213; IV. pp 252, 256, 261. [2] http:/ / www. iloveindia. com/ history/ ancient-india/ 16-mahajanapadas. html [3] India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashdhyy, 1963, p 427, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala - India; India in the Time of Patajali, 1968, p 68, Dr B. N. Puri - India; Socio-economic and Political History of Eastern India, 1977, p 9, Y. K Mishra - Bihar (India); Tribes of Ancient India, 1977, p 18, Mamata Choudhury - Ethnology; Tribal Coins of Ancient India, 2007, p xxiv, Devendra Handa Coins, Indic - 2007; The Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, 1972, p 221, Numismatic Society of India - Numismatics . [4] A History of Pli Literature, 2000 Edition, p 648 B. C. Law & Some Ksatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, pp 230-253, Dr B. C. Law. [5] Anguttara Nikaya: Vol I, p 213, Vol IV, pp 252, 256, 260 etc. [6] Digha Nikaya, Vol II, p 200. [7] Chulla-Niddesa (P.T.S.), p 37. [8] Lord Mahvra and his times, 1974, p 197, Dr Kailash Chand Jain; The History and Culture of the Indian People, 1968, p lxv, Dr Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bhratya Itihsa Samiti; Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 7, K. D. Sethna. [9] Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 86; History & Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Unity, p 15-16 [10] Digha Nikaya [11] Kalpa Sutra; Nirayavali Sutra [12] R. V. Russell, The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India, Volume 4 (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=VfKA9FGPTQoC& pg=PA530& lpg=PA530& dq=), 2009, p.. [13] II. p 481 [14] Dr Bhandarkaar [15] Jataka No 406. [16] Revue des etudes grecques 1973, p 131, Ch-Em Ruelle, Association pour l'encouragement des etudes grecques en France. [17] Early Indian Economic History, 1973, pp 237, 324, Rajaram Narayan Saletore. [18] Myths of the Dog-man, 199, p 119, David Gordon White; Journal of the Oriental Institute, 1919, p 200; Journal of Indian Museums, 1973, p 2, Museums Association of India; The Pradas: A Study in Their Coinage and History, 1972, p 52, Dr B. N. Mukherjee - Pradas; Journal of the Department of Sanskrit, 1989, p 50, Rabindra Bharati University, Dept. of Sanskrit- Sanskrit literature; The Journal of Academy of Indian Numismatics & Sigillography, 1988, p 58, Academy of Indian Numismatics and Sigillography - Numismatics; Cf: Rivers of Life: Or Sources and Streams of the Faiths of Man in All Lands, 2002, p 114, J. G. R. Forlong. [19] Journal of the Oriental Institute, 1919, p 265, Oriental Institute (Vadodara, India) - Oriental studies; For Kuru-Kamboja connections, see Dr Chandra Chakraberty's views in: Literary history of ancient India in relation to its racial and linguistic affiliations, pp 14,37, Vedas; The Racial History of India, 1944, p 153, Chandra Chakraberty - Ethnology; Paradise of Gods, 1966, p 330, Qamarud Din Ahmed - Pakistan. [20] Ancient India, History of India for 1000 years, four Volumes, Vol I, 1938, pp 38, 98 by Dr T. L. Shah. [21] Important note: The ancient Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya's list of Mahajanapadas includes the Gandhara and the Kamboja as the only two salient Mahajanapadas in the Uttarapatha. However, the Chulla-Niddesa list (fifth century BC), which is one of the most ancient Buddhist commentaries, includes the Kamboja and Yona but no Gandhara (See: Chulla-Niddesa, (P.T.S.), p.37). This shows that when Chulla-Niddesa Commentary was written, the Kambojas in the Uttarapatha were a predominant people and that the Gandharans, in all probability, formed part of the Kamboja Mahajanapada around this time---thus making them one people. Kautiliya's Arthashastra (11.1.1-4) (fourth century BC) refers only to clans of the Kurus, Panchalas, Madrakas, Kambojas etc but it does not mention the Gandharas as a people separate from the Kambojas. The Mudrarakshasa Drama by Visakhadatta also refers to the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, Bahlikas and Kiratas but again it does not include the Gandharas in Chandragupta's army list. The well-known Puranic legend (told in numerous Puranas) of king Sagara's war with the invading tribes from the north-west includes the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, and Paradas but again the Gandharas are not included in Haihayas's army (Harivamsa 14.1-19; e.g Vayu Purana 88.127-43; Brahma Purana (8.35-51); Brahmanda Purana (3.63.123-141); Shiva Purana (7.61.23); Vishnu Purana (5.3.15-21), Padma Purana (6.21.16-33) etc etc). Again, the Valmiki Ramayana --(a later list) includes the Janapadas of Andhras, Pundras, Cholas, Pandyas, Keralas, Mekhalas, Utkalas, Dasharnas, Abravantis, Avantis, Vidarbhas, Mlecchas, Pulindas, Surasenas, Prasthalas, Bharatas, Kurus, Madrakas, Kambojas, Daradas, Yavanas, Sakas (from Saka-dvipa), Rishikas, Tukharas, Chinas, Maha-Chinas, Kiratas, Barbaras, Tanganas, Niharas, Pasupalas etc (Ramayana 4.43). Yet at another place in the Ramayana (I.54.17; I.55.2 seq ), the north-western martial tribes of the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, Kiratas, Haritas/Tukharas, Barbaras and Mlechchas etc joined the army of sage Vasishtha during the battle of Kamdhenu against Aryan king Viswamitra of Kanauj. In both the references in the Ramayana, the Kambojas are conspicuously mentioned in the lists of north-western frontier peoples, but no reference is made to the Gandharas or the Daradas. Yaska in his Nirukta (II.2) refers to the Kambojas but not to the Gandharas. Among the several unrighteous barbaric hordes (opposed to Aryan king Vikarmaditya), Brhat Katha of Kshmendra (10.1.285-86) and Kathasaritsagara of Somadeva (18.1.76-78) each list the Sakas, Mlechchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Neechas, Hunas, Tusharas, Parasikas etc but they do not mention the Gandharas. Vana Parva of Mahabharata states that the Andhhas, Pulindas, Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Valhikas, Aurnikas and Abhiras etc will become rulers in Kaliyuga and will rule the earth (India) un-righteously(MBH 3.187.28-30). Here there is no mention of Gandhara since it is included amongst the Kamboja. Sabha Parava of the Mahabharata enumerates numerous kings from the north-west paying tribute to Pandava king Yudhistra at the occasion of Rajasuya amongst whom it mentions the Kambojas, Vairamas, Paradas, Pulindas, Tungas, Kiratas, Pragjyotisha, Yavanas, Aushmikas, Nishadas, Romikas, Vrishnis, Harahunas, Chinas, Sakas, Sudras, Abhiras, Nipas, Valhikas, Tukharas, Kankas, etc etc (Mahabharata 2.50-1.seqq). The lists does not include the Gandharas since they are counted as the same people as the

Mahajanapada
Kambojas. In the context of Krsna digvijay, the Mahabharata furnishes a key list of twenty-five ancient Janapadas viz: Anga, Vanga, Kalinga, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Vatsa, Garga, Karusha, Pundra, Avanti, Dakshinatya, Parvartaka, Dasherka, Kashmira, Ursa, Pishacha, Mudgala, Kamboja, Vatadhana, Chola, Pandya, Trigarta, Malava, and Darada (MBH 7/11/15-17). Besides, there were Janapadas of Kurus and Panchalas also. Interestingly, no mention is made to Gandhara in this list. Again in another of its well-known shlokas, the Mahabharata (XIII, 33.20-23; XIII, 35, 17-18), lists the Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Dravidas, Kalingas, Pulindas, Usinaras, Kolisarpas, Mekalas, Sudras, Mahishakas, Latas, Kiratas, Paundrakas, Daradas etc as the Vrishalas/degraded Kshatriyas (See also: Comprehensive History of India, 1957, p 190, K. A. N. Sastri). It does not include the Gandharas in the list though in yet another similar shloka (MBH 12.207.43-44), the same epic now brands the Yavanas, Kambojas, Gandharas, Kiratas and Barbaras (Yauna Kamboja Gandharah Kirata barbaraih) etc as Mlechcha tribes living the lives of the Dasyus or the Barbarians. Thus in the first shlokas, the Gandharas and the Kambojas are definitely treated as one people. The Assalayana-Sutta of Majjima Nakaya says that in the frontier lands of the Yonas, Kambojas and other nations, there are only two classes of People - Arya and Dasa where an Arya could become Dasa and vice-varsa (Majjima Nakayya 43.1.3). Here again, the Gandharas are definitively included among the Kambojas as if the two people are same. Rajatarangini of Kalhana, a Sanskrit text from the north, furnishes a list of northern nations which king Lalitaditya Muktapida (Kashmir) (eighth century CE) undertakes to reduce in his dig-vijaya expedition. The list includes the Kambojas, Tukharas, Bhauttas (in Baltistan in western Tibet), Daradas, Valukambudhi, Strirajya, Uttarakurus and Pragjyotisha respectively, but no mention of Gandharas (Rajatarangini: 4.164- 4.175). Apparently the Gandharas are counted among the Kambojas. Sikanda Purana (Studies in the Geography, 1971, p 259-62, Sircar, Hist of Punjab, 1997, p 40, Dr L. M. Joshi and Dr Fauja Singh (Editors)), contains a list of 75 countries among which it includes Khorasahana, Kuru, Kosala, Bahlika, Yavana, Kamboja, Siva, Sindhu, Kashmira, Jalandhara (Jullundur), Hariala (Haryana), Bhadra (Madra), Kachcha, Saurashtra, Lada, Magadha, Kanyakubja, Vidarbha, Kirata, Gauda, Nepala etc but no mention of Gandhara in this list of 75 countries. Kavyamimasa of Rajasekhara (880-920 AD) also lists 21 north-western countries/nations of the Saka, Kekaya, Vokkana, Huna, Vanayuja, Kamboja, Vahlika, Vahvala, Lampaka, Kuluta, Kira, Tangana, Tushara, Turushaka, Barbara, Hara-hurava, Huhuka, Sahuda, Hamsamarga (Hunza), Ramatha and Karakantha etc but no mention of Gandhara or Darada (See: Kavyamimasa, Rajashekhara, Chapter 17; also: Kavyamimasa Editor Kedarnath, trans. K. Minakshi, pp 226-227). Here in both the lists, the Daradas and Gandharas are also treated as the Kambojas. The Satapancasaddesavibhaga of Saktisagama Tantra (Book III, Ch VII, 1-55) lists Gurjara, Avanti, Malava, Vidarbha, Maru, Abhira, Virata, Pandu, Pancala, Kamboja, Bahlika, Kirata, Khurasana, Cina, Maha-Cina, Nepala, Gauda, Magadha, Utkala, Huna, Kaikeya, Surasena, Kuru Saindhava, Kachcha among the 56 countries but the list does not include the Gandharas and Daradas. Similarly, Sammoha Tantra list also contains 56 nations and lists Kashmira, Kamboja, Yavana, Sindhu, Bahlika, Parsika, Barbara, Saurashtra, Malava, Maharashtra, Konkana, Avanti, Chola, Kamarupa, Kerala, Simhala etc but no mention of Daradac and Gandhara (See quotes in: Studies in Geography, 1971, p 78, D. C. Sircar; Studies in the Tantra, pp 97-99, Dr P. C. Bagchi). Obviously, the Daradas and Gandharaa are included among the Kambojas. Raghu Vamsa by Kalidasa refers to numerous tribes/nations of the east (including the Sushmas, Vangas, Utkalas, Kalingas and those on Mt Mahendra), then of the south (including Pandyas, Malaya, Dardura, and Kerals), then of the west (Aprantas), and then of the north-west (like the Yavanas, the Parasikas, the Hunas, the Kambojas) and finally those of the north Himalayan (like the Kirats, Utsavasketas, Kinnaras, Pragjyotishas) etc etc (See: Raghuvamsa IV.60 seq). Here again no mention of the Gandharas though Raghu does talk of the Kambojas. And last but not least, even the well known Manusmriti, the Hindu law book, refers to the Kambojas, Yavanas, Shakas, Paradas, Pahlavas, Chinas, Kiratas, Daradas and Khasha besides also the Paundrakas, Chodas, Dravidas but surprisingly enough, it does not make any mention of the Gandharas in this very elaborate list of the Vrishalah Ksatriyas (Manusamriti X.43-44). The above references amply demonstrate that the Gandharas were many times counted among the Kambojas themselves as if they were one and the same people. Thus, the Kambojas and the Gandhara do seem to have been a cognate people. [22] There are also several instances in the ancient literature where the reference has been made only to the Gandharas and not to the Kambojas. In these cases, the Kambojas have obviously been counted among the Gandharas themselves. [23] Kalimpur Inscriptions of Pala king Dharmapala of Bengal (770-810 AD) list the nations around his kingdom as the Bhoja (Gurjara), Matsya, Madra, Kuru, Avanti, Gandhara and the Kira (Kangra) which he boasts of as if they are his vassal states. From Monghyr inscriptions of king Devapala (810 - 850AD) the successor of king Dharmapala, we get the list of the nations as Utkala (Kalinga), Pragjyotisha (Assam), Dravida, Gurjara (Bhoja), Huna and the Kamboja. These are the nations which the cavalry of Pala king Devapala is said to have scoured during his war expeditions against these people. Obviously the Kamboja of the Monghyr inscriptions of king Devapala here is none other than the Gandhara of the Kalimpur inscription of king Dharamapala. Hence, the Gandhara and the Kamboja are used interchangeably in the records of the Pala kings of Bengal, thus indicating them to be same group of people. [24] James Fergusson observes: "In a wider sense, name Gandhara implied all the countries west of Indus as far as Candhahar"(The Tree and Serpent Worship, 2004, p 47, James Fergusson). [25] Encyclopedia Americana, 1994, p 277, Encyclopedias and Dictionaries. [26] Ptolemy's Geography mentions Tambyzoi located in eastern Bactria (Ancient India as Described by Ptolemy: Being a Translation of the Chapters ... 1885, p 268, John Watson McCrindle - Geography, Ancient; Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, History - 2000, p 99,(Editors) Richard J.A. Talbert) and Ambautai people located to south of Hindukush Mountains(Geography 6.18.3; See map in McCrindle, p 8). Dr S Levi has identified Tambyzoi with Kamboja (Indian Antiquary, 1923, p 54; Pre Aryan and Pre Dravidian in India, 1993, p 122, Dr Sylvain Lvi, Dr Jean Przyluski, Jules Bloch, Asian Educational Services) while land of Ambautai has also been identified by Dr Michael Witzel (Harvard University) with Sanskrit Kamboja (Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, Vol. 5,1999, issue 1 (September), Dr. M. Witzel; Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History, 2005, p 257, Laurie L. Patton, Edwin Bryant; The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: : Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, 1995, p 326, George Erdosy. [27] MBH VII.4.5; II.27.23. [28] See: Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 5-6; cf: Geographical Data in the Early Puranas, p 168.

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[29] MBH II.27.27. [30] Vedic Index I, p 138, Dr Macdonnel, Dr Keith. [31] Ethnology of Ancient Bhrata 1970, p 107, Dr Ram Chandra Jain. [32] The Journal of Asian Studies 1956, p 384, Association for Asian Studies, Far Eastern Association (U.S.). [33] Balocistn: siys kashmakash, muzmirt va rujnt 1989, p 2, Munr Amad Marr. [34] India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashdhyy 1953, p 49, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala. [35] Afghanistan, p 58, W. K. Fraser, M. C. Gillet. [36] Afghanistan, its People, its Society, its Culture, Donal N. Wilber, 1962, p 80, 311 etc. [37] Iran, 1956, p 53, Herbert Harold Vreeland, Clifford R. Barnett. [38] Geogramatical Dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic): 700 Complete Revisions of the Best Books..., 1953, p 49, Dr Peggy Melcher, Dr A. A. McDonnel, Dr Surya Kanta, Dr Jacob Wackmangel, Dr V. S. Agarwala. [39] Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahbhrata: Upyana Parva, 1945, p 33, Dr Moti Chandra - India. [40] A Grammatical Dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic): 700 Complete Reviews of the ..., 1953, p 49, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala, Surya Kanta, Jacob Wackernagel, Arthur Anthony Macdonell, Peggy Melcher - India. [41] MBH 7/91/39. [42] Arthashastra 11/1/4. [43] Ashtadhyayi IV.1.168-175. [44] Hindu Polity: A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times, Parts I and II., 1955, p 52, Dr Kashi Prasad Jayaswal - Constitutional history; Prcna Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, Dr Jiylla Kmboja - Kamboja (Pakistan).

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Maurya Empire
Mauryan Empire

322 BCE185 BCE

Maurya Empire at its maximum extent (Dark Blue), including its vassals (Light Blue).
Capital Languages Religion Pataliputra (Modern day Patna) Old Indic Languages (e.g. Magadhi Prakrit, Other Prakrits, Sanskrit) Jainism Buddhism jvika Absolute Monarchy as described in the Arthashastra

Government Samraat (Emperor) Historical era Area Currency Established Disestablished 320298 BCE 187180 BCE

Chandragupta Maurya Brhadrata Antiquity 322 BCE 185 BCE 5,000,000km (1,930,511 sq mi) Panas

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Today part of

India Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan Iran Maldives Pakistan Nepal Sri Lanka China Myanmar Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Tajikistan Kyrgyzstan

Outline of South Asian history History of Indian subcontinent

The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power in ancient India, ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 322 to 185 BCE. Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic plains (modern Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh) in the eastern side of the Indian subcontinent, the empire had its capital city at Pataliputra (modern Patna).[1][2] The Empire was founded in 322 BCE by Chandragupta Maurya, who had overthrown the Nanda Dynasty and rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India taking advantage of the disruptions of local powers in the wake of the withdrawal westward by Alexander the Great's Greek and Persian armies. By 320 BCE the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the satraps left by Alexander.[] The Maurya Empire was one of the world's largest empires in its time, and the largest ever in the Indian subcontinent. At its greatest extent, the empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now Assam. To the west, it conquered beyond modern Pakistan, annexing Balochistan, south eastern parts of Iran and much of what is now Afghanistan, including the modern Herat[] and Kandahar provinces. The Empire was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it excluded a small portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions near Kalinga (modern Odisha), until it was conquered by Ashoka. Its decline began 60 years after Ashoka's rule ended, and it dissolved in 185 BCE with the foundation of the Sunga Dynasty in Magadha. Under Chandragupta, the Mauryan Empire conquered the trans-Indus region, which was under Macedonian rule. Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by Seleucus I, a Greek general from Alexander's army. Under Chandragupta and his successors, internal and external trade, agriculture and economic activities, all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single and efficient system of finance, administration, and security. After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced half a century of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across all of India. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia and Mediterranean Europe.[] The population of the empire has been estimated to be about 50-60 million making the Mauryan Empire one of the most populous empires of the time.[3][4] Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary sources of written records of Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Asoka at Sarnath has been made the national emblem of India.

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Early history
Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya
The Maurya Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, with help from Chanakya, a Brahmin teacher at Takshashila. According to several legends, Chanakya traveled to Magadha, a kingdom that was large and militarily powerful and feared by its neighbors, but was insulted by its king Dhana Nanda, of the Nanda Dynasty. Chanakya swore revenge and vowed to destroy the Nanda Empire.[] Meanwhile, the conquering armies of Alexander the Great refused to cross the Beas River and advance further eastward, deterred by the prospect of battling Magadha. Alexander returned to Babylon and re-deployed most of his troops west of the Indus river. Soon after Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE, his empire fragmented, and local kings declared their independence, leaving several smaller disunited satraps. The Greek generals Eudemus, and Peithon, ruled until around 316 BCE, when Chandragupta Maurya (with the help of Chanakya, who was now his advisor) utterly defeated the Macedonians and consolidated the region under the control of his new seat of power in Magadha.[] Chandragupta Maurya's rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy. On one hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the drama Mudrarakshasa (Poem of Rakshasa Rakshasa was the prime minister of Magadha) by Visakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and even link him with the Nanda family. A kshatriya tribe known as the Maurya's are referred to in the earliest Buddhist texts, Mahaparinibbana Sutta. However, any conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as "Sandrokottos". As a young man he is said to have met Alexander.[5] He is also said to have met the Nanda king, angered him, and made a narrow escape.[6] Chanakya's original intentions were to train a guerilla army under Chandragupta's command. The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, sometimes identified with Porus (Sir John Marshall "Taxila", p18, and al.).[7][8][9]

Conquest of Magadha
Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take over the throne of Magadha. Using his intelligence network, Chandragupta gathered many young men from across Magadha and other provinces, men upset over the corrupt and oppressive rule of king Dhana, plus the resources necessary for his army to fight a long series of battles. These men included the former general of Taxila, accomplished students of Chanakya, the representative of King Porus of Kakayee, his son Malayketu, and the rulers of small states. Preparing to invade Pataliputra, Maurya came up with a strategy. A battle was announced and the Magadhan army was drawn from the city to a distant battlefield to engage Maurya's forces. Maurya's general and spies meanwhile bribed the corrupt general of Nanda. He also managed to create an atmosphere of civil war in the kingdom, which culminated in the death of the heir to the throne. Chanakya managed to win over popular sentiment. Ultimately Nanda resigned, handing power to Chandragupta, and went into exile and was never heard of again. Chanakya contacted the prime minister, Rakshasas, and made him understand that his loyalty was to Magadha, not to the Nanda dynasty, insisting that he continue in office. Chanakya also reiterated that choosing to resist would start a war that would severely affect Magadha and destroy the city. Rakshasa accepted Chanakya's reasoning, and Chandragupta Maurya was legitimately installed as the new King of Magadha. Rakshasa became Chandragupta's chief advisor, and Chanakya assumed the position of an elder statesman.

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The approximate extent of the Magadha state in the 5th century BCE.

The Nanda Empire at its greatest extent under Dhana Nanda c. 323 BCE.

The Maurya Empire when it was first founded by Chandragupta Maurya c. 320 BCE, after conquering the Nanda Empire when he was only about 20 years old.

Chandragupta extended the borders of the Maurya Empire towards Seleucid Persia after defeating Seleucus c. 305 BCE. UNIQ-ref-0-dccf41007ced04a0-QINU

Chandragupta extended the borders of the empire southward into the Deccan Plateau c. 300 [10] BCE.

Ashoka the Great extended into Kalinga during the Kalinga War c. 265 BCE, and established superiority over the southern kingdoms.

Chandragupta Maurya
Chandragupta campaigned against the Macedonians when Seleucus I Nicator, in the process of creating the Seleucid Empire out of the eastern conquests of Alexander the Great, tried to reconquer the northwestern parts of India in 305 BCE. Seleucus failed (SeleucidMauryan war), but the two rulers finally concluded a peace treaty: a marital treaty (Epigamia) was concluded, in which the Greeks offered their Princess for alliance and help from him. Chandragupta snatched the satrapies of Paropamisade (Kamboja and Gandhara), Arachosia (Kandhahar) and Gedrosia (Balochistan), and Seleucus I received 500 war elephants that were to have a decisive role in his victory against western Hellenistic kings at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE. Diplomatic relations were established and several Greeks, such as the historian Megasthenes, Deimakos and Dionysius resided at the Mauryan court. Chandragupta established a strong centralized state with a complex administration at Pataliputra, which, according to Megasthenes, was "surrounded by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and 570 towers (and) rivaled the splendors of contemporaneous Persian sites such as Susa and Ecbatana." Chandragupta's son Bindusara extended the rule of the Mauryan empire towards southern India. He also had a Greek ambassador at his court, named Deimachus (Strabo 170). Megasthenes describes a disciplined multitude under Chandragupta, who live simply, honestly, and do not know writing: "The Indians all live frugally, especially when in camp. They dislike a great undisciplined multitude, and consequently they observe good order. Theft is of very rare occurrence. Megasthenes says that those who were in the camp of Sandrakottos, wherein lay 400,000 men, found that the thefts reported on any one day did not exceed the value of two hundred drachmae, and this among a people who have no written laws, but are

Maurya Empire ignorant of writing, and must therefore in all the business of life trust to memory. They live, nevertheless, happily enough, being simple in their manners and frugal. They never drink wine except at sacrifices. Their beverage is a liquor composed from rice instead of barley, and their food is principally a rice-pottage." Strabo XV. i. 5356, quoting Megasthenes[11]

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Bindusara
Bindusara was the son of the first Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya and his queen Durdhara. During his reign, the empire expanded southwards. According to the Rajavalikatha a Jain work, the original name of this emperor was Simhasena. According to a legend mentioned in the Jain texts, Chandragupta's Guru and advisor Chanakya used to feed the emperor with small doses of poison to build his immunity against possible poisoning attempts by the enemies.[12] One day, Chandragupta not knowing about poison, shared his food with his pregnant wife queen Durdhara who was 7 days away from delivery. The queen not immune to the poison collapsed and died within few minutes. Chanakya entered the room the very time she collapsed, and in order to save the child in the womb, he immediately cut open the dead queen's belly and took the baby out, by that time a drop of poison had already reached the baby and touched its head due to which child got a permanent blueish spot (a "bindu") on his forehead. Thus, the newborn was named "Bindusara".[13] Bindusara, just 22 year-old, inherited a large empire that consisted of what is now, Northern, Central and Eastern parts of India along with parts of Afghanistan and Baluchistan. Bindusara extended this empire to the southern part of India, as far as what is now known as Karnataka. He brought sixteen states under the Mauryan Empire and thus conquered almost all of the Indian peninsula (he is said to have conquered the 'land between the two seas' - the peninsular region between the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea). Bindusara didn't conquer the friendly Dravidian kingdoms of the Cholas, ruled by King Ilamcetcenni, the Pandyas, and Cheras. Apart from these southern states, Kalinga (modern Odisha) was the only kingdom in India that didn't form the part of Bindusara's empire. It was later conquered by his son Ashoka, who served as the viceroy of Ujjaini during his father's reign. Bindusara's life has not been documented as well as that of his father Chandragupta or of his son Ashoka. Chanakya continued to serve as prime minister during his reign. According to the mediaeval Tibetan scholar Taranatha who visited India, Chanakya helped Bindusara "to destroy the nobles and kings of the sixteen kingdoms and thus to become absolute master of the territory between the eastern and western oceans."[14] During his rule, the citizens of Taxila revolted twice. The reason for the first revolt was the maladministration of Suseema, his eldest son. The reason for the second revolt is unknown, but Bindusara could not suppress it in his lifetime. It was crushed by Ashoka after Bindusara's death. Ambassadors from the Seleucid Empire (such as Deimachus) and Egypt visited his courts. He maintained good relations with the Hellenic World. Unlike his father Chandragupta (who was a follower of Jainism), Bindusara believed in the Ajivika sect. Bindusara's guru Pingalavatsa (alias Janasana) was a Brahmin[15] of the Ajivika sect. Bindusara's wife, Queen Subhadrangi (alias Queen Aggamahesi) was a Brahmin[16] also of the Ajivika sect from Champa (present Bhagalpur district). Bindusara is accredited with giving several grants to Brahmin monasteries (Brahmana-bhatto).[17] Bindusara died in 272 BCE (some records say 268 BCE) and was succeeded by his son Ashoka the Great.

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Ashoka the Great

Chandragupta's grandson i.e., Bindusara's son was Ashokavardhan Maurya who was also known as Ashoka or Ashoka The Great (ruled 273- 232 BCE). As a young prince, Ashoka was a brilliant commander who crushed revolts in Ujjain and Taxila. As monarch he was ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the Empire's superiority in southern and western India. But it was his conquest of Kalinga (1842 CE) which proved to be the pivotal event of his life. Although Ashoka's army succeeded in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and civilian units, an estimated 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious warfare, including over 10,000 of Ashoka's own men. Hundreds of thousands of people were adversely affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally witnessed the devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse. Although the annexation of Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the teachings of Buddhism, and renounced war and violence. He sent out missionaries to travel around Asia and spread Buddhism to other countries. Ashoka implemented principles of ahimsa by banning hunting and violent sports activity and ending indentured and forced labor (many thousands of people in war-ravaged Kalinga had been forced into hard labor and servitude). While he maintained a large and powerful army, to keep the peace and maintain authority, Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states across Asia and Europe, and he sponsored Buddhist missions. He undertook a massive public works building campaign across the country. Over 40 years of peace, harmony and prosperity made Ashoka one of the most successful and famous monarchs in Indian history. He remains an idealized figure of inspiration in modern India. The Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, are found throughout the Subcontinent. Ranging from as far west as Afghanistan and as far south as Andhra (Nellore District), Ashoka's edicts state his policies and accomplishments. Although predominantly written in Prakrit, two of them were written in Greek, and one in both Greek and Aramaic. Ashoka's edicts refer to the Greeks, Kambojas, and Gandharas as peoples forming a frontier region of his empire. They also attest to Ashoka's having sent envoys to the Greek rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts precisely name each of the rulers of the Hellenic world at the time such as Amtiyoko (Antiochus), Tulamaya (Ptolemy), Amtikini (Antigonos), Maka (Magas) and Alikasudaro (Alexander) as recipients of Ashoka's proselytism. The Edicts also accurately locate their territory "600 yojanas away" (a yojanas being about 7 miles), corresponding to the distance between the center of India and Greece (roughly 4,000 miles).[18]

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A representation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka, which was erected around 250 BCE. It is the emblem of India.

Statuettes of the Maurya period, 4th3rd century BCE. Muse Guimet.

The distribution of the Edicts of [19] Ashoka. is a concrete indication of the extent of Ashoka's rule. To the West, it went as far as Kandahar (where the Edicts were written in Greek and Aramaic), and bordered the contemporary Hellenistic metropolis of Ai Khanoum.

Administration
The Empire was divided into four provinces, which one of the four, look like a giant crescents. with the imperial capital at Pataliputra. From Ashokan edicts, the names of the four provincial capitals are Tosali (in the east), Ujjain (in the west), Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the north). The head of the provincial administration was the Kumara (royal prince), who governed the provinces as king's representative. The kumara was assisted by Mahamatyas and council of ministers. This organizational structure was reflected at the imperial level with the Emperor and his Mantriparishad

Mauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century BCE. British Museum.

(Council of Ministers). Historians theorize that the organization of the Empire was in line with the extensive bureaucracy described by Kautilya in the Arthashastra: a sophisticated civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. The expansion and defense of the empire was made possible by what appears to have been the largest standing army of its time[citation needed]. According to Megasthenes, the empire wielded a military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants. A vast espionage system collected intelligence for both internal and external security purposes. Having renounced offensive warfare and expansionism, Ashoka nevertheless

Maurya Empire continued to maintain this large army, to protect the Empire and instill stability and peace across West and South Asia.

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Economy
For the first time in South Asia, political unity and military security allowed for a common economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity. The previous situation involving hundreds of kingdoms, many small armies, powerful regional chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave way to a disciplined central authority. Farmers were freed of tax and crop Silver punch mark coin of the Mauryan empire, collection burdens from regional kings, paying instead to a nationally with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century administered and strict-but-fair system of taxation as advised by the BCE. principles in the Arthashastra. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, and a network of regional governors and administrators and a civil service provided justice and security for merchants, farmers and traders. The Mauryan army wiped out many gangs of bandits, regional private armies, and powerful chieftains who sought to impose their own supremacy in small areas. Although regimental in revenue collection, Maurya also sponsored many public works and waterways to enhance productivity, while internal trade in India expanded greatly due to newfound political unity and internal peace. Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty, and during Ashoka's reign, an international network of trade expanded. The Khyber Pass, on the modern boundary of Pakistan and Afghanistan, became a strategically important port of trade and intercourse with the outside world. Greek states and Hellenic kingdoms in West Asia became important trade partners of India. Trade also extended through the Malay peninsula into Southeast Asia. India's exports included silk goods and textiles, spices and exotic foods. The Empire was enriched further with an exchange of scientific knowledge and technology with Europe and West Asia. Ashoka also sponsored the construction of thousands of roads, waterways, canals, hospitals, rest-houses and other public works. The easing of many over-rigorous administrative practices, including those regarding taxation and crop collection, helped increase productivity and economic activity across the Empire.

Mauryan cast copper coin. Late 3rd century BCE. British Museum.

In many ways, the economic situation in the Mauryan Empire is analogous to the Roman Empire of several centuries later. Both had extensive trade connections and both had organizations similar to corporations. While Rome had organizational entities which were largely used for public state-driven projects, Mauryan India had numerous private commercial entities. These existed purely for private commerce and developed before the Mauryan Empire itself.[20] (See also Economic history of India.)

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Religion
Hinduism
Hinduism was the major religion at the time of inception of the empire[citation needed], Hindu priests and ministers used to be an important part of the emperor's court, e.g. Chanakya. James Hastings writes that they are devotees of Narayana (Vishnu), although Shilanka speaking of the Ekandandins in another connection identifies them as Shaivas (devotees of Shiva).[22] Scholar James Hastings identifies the name "Mankhaliputta" or "Mankhali" with the bamboo staff.[22] Scholar Jitendra N. Banerjea compares them to the Pasupatas Shaivas.[23] Another scholar, Charpentier, believes that the Ajivikas worshiped Shiva before Makkhali Goshala.[24] As Chanakya wrote in his text Chanakya Niti, "Humbly bowing down before the almighty Lord Sri Vishnu, the Lord of the three worlds, I recite maxims of the science of political ethics (niti) selected from the various satras (scriptures)".[25] Even after embracing Buddhism, Ashoka retained the membership of Hindu Brahmana priests and ministers in his court. Mauryan society began embracing the philosophy of ahimsa, and given the increased prosperity and improved law enforcement, crime and internal conflicts reduced dramatically. Also greatly discouraged was the caste system and orthodox discrimination, as Mauryans began to absorb the ideals and values of Jain and Buddhist teachings along with traditional Vedic Hindu teachings.

Balarama, holding mace and conch (lower right) on a Maurya coin. Balarama was originally a powerful independent deity of Hinduism, and was considered an avatar of Vishnu. 3rd2nd century BCE. British Museum.

Buddhism

Ashoka initially practiced Hinduism but later embraced Buddhism; following the Kalinga War, he renounced expansionism and aggression, and the harsher injunctions of the Arthashastra on the use of force, intensive policing, and ruthless measures for tax collection and against rebels. Ashoka sent a mission led by his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta to Sri Lanka, whose king Tissa was so charmed with Buddhist ideals that he adopted them himself and made Buddhism the state religion. Ashoka sent many Buddhist missions to West Asia, Greece and South East Asia, and commissioned the construction of Buddhist proselytism at the time of king Ashoka monasteries, schools and publication of Buddhist literature across the (260218 BCE). empire. He is believed to have built as many as 84,000 stupas across India i.e. Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple, and he increased the popularity of Buddhism in Afghanistan, Thailand and North Asia including Siberia. Ashoka helped convene the Third Buddhist Council of India and

Buddhist stupas during the Mauryan period were simple mounds without decorations. Butkara [21] stupa, 3rd century BCE.

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South Asia's Buddhist orders, near his capital, a council that undertook much work of reform and expansion of the Buddhist religion. Indian merchants embraced Buddhism and played a large role in spreading the religion across the Mauryan Empire.[26]

Jainism
Emperor Chandragupta Maurya embraced Jainism after retiring. At an older age, Chandragupta renounced his throne and material possessions to join a wandering group of Jain monks. Chandragupta was a disciple of Acharya Bhadrabahu. It is said that in his last days, he observed the rigorous but self-purifying Jain ritual of santhara i.e. fast unto death, at Shravana Belgola in Karnataka. However, his successor, Emperor Bindusara, was a follower of a Hindu ascetic movement, jvika and distanced Mauryan architecture in the Barabar Mounts. Grottoe of Lomas Richi. 3rd century BCE. himself from Jain and Buddhist movements. Samprati, the grandson of Ashoka also embraced Jainism. Samrat Samprati was influenced by the teachings of Jain monk Arya Suhasti Suri and he is known to have built 125,000 derasars across India. Some of them are still found in towns of Ahmedabad, Viramgam, Ujjain & Palitana. It is also said that just like Ashoka, Samprati sent messengers & preachers to Greece, Persia & middle-east for the spread of Jainism. But to date no research has been done in this area. Thus, Jainism became a vital force under the Mauryan Rule. Chandragupta and Samprati are credited for the spread of Jainism in South India. Lakhs of temples & stupas were erected during their reign. But due to lack of royal patronage & its strict principles, along with the rise of Shankaracharya and Ramanuja, Jainism, once the major religion of southern India, began to decline.

Architectural remains
Architectural remains of the Maurya period are rather few. Remains of a hypostyle building with about 80 columns of a height of about 10 meters have been found in Kumhrar, 5km from Patna Railway station, and is one of the very few sites that has been connected to the rule of the Mauryas. The style is rather reminiscent of Persian Achaemenid architecture.[27] The grottoes of Barabar Caves, are another example of Mauryan architecture, especially the decorated front of the Lomas Rishi grotto. These were offered by the Mauryas to the Buddhist sect of the jvikas.[28] The most widespread example of Maurya architecture are the Pillars of Ashoka, often exquisitely decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout the Indian subcontinent. ==

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The protection of animals in India became serious business by the time of the Maurya dynasty; being the first empire to provide a unified political entity in India, the attitude of the Mauryas towards forests, its denizens and fauna in general is of interest. The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as a resource. For them, the most important forest product was the elephant. Military might in those times depended not only upon horses and men but also battle-elephants; these played a role in the defeat of Seleucus, one of Alexander's former generals. The Mauryas sought to preserve supplies of elephants since it was cheaper and took less time to catch, tame and train wild elephants than to raise them. Kautilya's Arthashastra contains not only maxims on ancient statecraft, but also unambiguously specifies the responsibilities of officials such as the Protector of the Elephant Forests.[29] On the border of the forest, he should establish a forest for elephants guarded by foresters. The Office of the Chief Elephant Forrester should with the help of guards protect the elephants in any terrain. The slaying of an elephant is punishable by death.. Arthashastra The Mauryas also designated separate forests to protect supplies of timber, as well as lions and tigers, for skins. Elsewhere the Protector of Animals also worked to eliminate thieves, tigers and other predators to render the woods safe for grazing cattle.

Yakshini, 3rd century BCE

The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in strategic or economic terms and instituted curbs and control measures over them. They regarded all forest tribes with distrust and controlled them with bribery and political subjugation. They employed some of them, the food-gatherers or aranyaca to guard borders and trap animals. The sometimes tense and conflict-ridden relationship nevertheless enabled the Mauryas to guard their vast empire.[30] When Ashoka embraced Buddhism in the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant changes in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even relinquished the royal hunt. He was the first ruler in history to advocate conservation measures for wildlife and even had rules inscribed in stone edicts. The edicts proclaim that many followed the king's example in giving up the slaughter of animals; one of them proudly states:[30] Our king killed very few animals. Edict on Fifth Pillar However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events; the mention of a 100 'panas' (coins) fine for poaching deer in royal hunting preserves shows that rule-breakers did exist. The legal restrictions conflicted with the practices freely exercised by the common people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests.[30]

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Contacts with the Hellenistic world

Foundation of the Empire
Relations with the Hellenistic world may have started from the very beginning of the Maurya Empire. Plutarch reports that Chandragupta Maurya met with Alexander the Great, probably around Taxila in the northwest: "Sandrocottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth". Plutarch 62-3[31]

Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 310 BCE)

Chandragupta ultimately occupied Northwestern India, in the territories formerly ruled by the Greeks, where he fought the satraps (described as "Prefects" in Western sources) left in place after Alexander (Justin), among whom may have been Eudemus, ruler in the western Punjab until his departure in 317 BCE or Peithon, son of Agenor, ruler of the Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure for Babylon in 316 BCE.

Mauryan Statuette, 2nd Century BCE.

"India, after the death of Alexander, had assassinated his prefects, as if shaking the burden of servitude. The author of this liberation was Sandracottos, but he had transformed liberation in servitude after victory, since, after taking the throne, he himself oppressed the very people he has liberated from foreign domination" Justin XV.4.1213[32] "Later, as he was preparing war against the prefects of Alexander, a huge wild elephant went to him and took him on his back as if tame, and he became a remarkable fighter and war leader. Having thus acquired royal power, Sandracottos possessed India at the time Seleucos was preparing future glory." Justin XV.4.19[33]

Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE)

Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian satrap of the Asian portion of Alexander's former empire, conquered and put under his own authority eastern territories as far as Bactria and the Indus (Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55), until in 305 BCE he entered in a confrontation with Chandragupta: "Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he [Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus". Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55[34]

Silver coin of Seleucus I Nicator, who fought Chandragupta Maurya, and later made an alliance with him.

Maurya Empire Though no accounts of the conflict remain, it is clear that Seleucus fared poorly against the Indian Emperor as he failed in conquering any territory, and in fact, was forced to surrender much that was already his. Regardless, Seleucus and Chandragupta ultimately reached a settlement and through a treaty sealed in 305 BCE, Seleucus, according to Strabo, ceded a number of territories to Chandragupta, including southern Afghanistan and parts of Persia. Accordingly, Seleucus obtained five hundred war elephants, a military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE. Marital alliance It is generally thought that Chandragupta married Seleucus's daughter, or a Greek Macedonian princess, a gift from Seleucus to formalize an alliance. In a return gesture, Chandragupta sent 500 war elephants,[][35][36][37][38][39] a military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 302 BCE. In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (modern Patna in Bihar state). Later Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka the Great, is also recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.[40] Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush, modern day Afghanistan, and the Balochistan province of Pakistan.[41][42] Archaeologically, concrete indications of Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of the Edicts of Ashoka, are known as far as Kandahar in southern Afghanistan.

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"He (Seleucus) crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship."

"After having made a treaty with him (Sandrakotos) and put in order the Orient situation, Seleucos went to war against Antigonus."

[43]

Junianus Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV, XV.4.15

The treaty on "Epigamia" implies lawful marriage between Greeks and Indians was recognized at the State level, although it is unclear whether it occurred among dynastic rulers or common people, or both[citation needed]. . Exchange of ambassadors Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (Modern Patna in Bihar state). Later Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka, is also recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.[40] Exchange of presents Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus: "And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters [as to make people more amorous]. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish love" Athenaeus of Naucratis, "The deipnosophists" Book I, chapter 32[44]

Maurya Empire His son Bindusara 'Amitraghata' (Slayer of Enemies) also is recorded in Classical sources as having exchanged present with Antiochus I: "But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men (for really, as Aristophanes says, "There's really nothing nicer than dried figs"), that even Amitrochates, the king of the Indians, wrote to Antiochus, entreating him (it is Hegesander who tells this story) to buy and send him some sweet wine, and some dried figs, and a sophist; and that Antiochus wrote to him in answer, "The dry figs and the sweet wine we will send you; but it is not lawful for a sophist to be sold in Greece" Athenaeus, "Deipnosophistae" XIV.67[45]

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Greek population in India

Greek population apparently remained in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Ashoka's rule. In his Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, some of them written in Greek, Ashoka describes that Greek population within his realm converted to Buddhism: "Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma". Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika). Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a full Edict, written in both Greek and Aramaic has been discovered in Kandahar. It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical terms. In this Edict, Ashoka uses the word Eusebeia ("Piety") as the Greek translation for the ubiquitous "Dharma" of his other Edicts written in Prakrit: "Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made known (the doctrine of) Piety (, Eusebeia) to men; and from this moment he has made men more pious, and everything thrives throughout the whole world. And Bilingual edict (Greek and Aramaic) by king the king abstains from (killing) living beings, and other men and Ashoka, from Kandahar. Kabul Museum. (Click those who (are) huntsmen and fishermen of the king have image for translation). desisted from hunting. And if some (were) intemperate, they have ceased from their intemperance as was in their power; and obedient to their father and mother and to the elders, in opposition to the past also in the future, by so acting on every occasion, they will live better and more happily". (Trans. by G.P. Carratelli [46])

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Buddhist missions to the West (c. 250 BCE)

Also, in the Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as a recipient of his Buddhist proselytism, although no Western historical record of this event remain: "The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (5,4009,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka)." (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika). Ashoka also claims that he encouraged the development of herbal medicine, for men and animals, in their territories: "Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's [Ashoka's] domain, and among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni and where the Greek king Antiochos rules, and among the kings who are Front view of the single lion capital in Vaishali. neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision for two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for humans and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported and grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them imported and grown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of humans and animals". 2nd Rock Edict The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek ("Yona") Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (the Mahavamsa, XII[47]).

Subhagsena and Antiochos III (206 BCE)

Sophagasenus was an Indian Mauryan ruler of the 3rd century BCE, described in ancient Greek sources, and named Subhagsena or Subhashsena in Prakrit. His name is mentioned in the list of Mauryan princes[citation needed], and also in the list of the Yadava dynasty, as a descendant of Pradyumna. He may have been a grandson of Ashoka, or Kunala, the son of Ashoka. He ruled an area south of the Hindu Kush, possibly in Gandhara. Antiochos III, the Seleucid king, after having made peace with Euthydemus in Bactria, went to India in 206 BCE and is said to have renewed his friendship with the Indian king there: "He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus and descended into India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him". Polybius 11.39 [48]

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Decline
Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker kings. Brihadrata, the last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, held territories that had shrunk considerably from the time of emperor Ashoka, although he still upheld the Buddhist faith.

Sunga coup (185 BCE)

Brihadrata was assassinated in 185 BCE during a military parade, by the commander-in-chief of his guard, the Brahmin general Pusyamitra Sunga, who then took over the throne and established the Sunga dynasty. Buddhist records such as the Asokavadana write that the assassination of Brhadrata and the rise of the Sunga empire led to a wave of persecution for Buddhists,[49] and a resurgence of Hinduism. According to Sir John Marshall,[50] Pusyamitra may have been the main author of the persecutions, although later Sunga kings seem to have been more supportive of Buddhism. Other historians, such as Etienne Lamotte[51] and Romila Thapar,[52] among others, have argued that archaeological evidence in favor of the allegations of persecution of Buddhists are lacking, and that the extent and magnitude of the atrocities have been exaggerated.

Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE)

The fall of the Mauryas left the Khyber Pass unguarded, and a wave of foreign invasion followed. The Greco-Bactrian king, Demetrius, capitalized on the break-up, and he conquered southern Afghanistan and Western India around 180 BCE, forming the Indo-Greek Kingdom. The Indo-Greeks would maintain holdings on the trans-Indus region, and make forays into central India, for about a century. Under them, Buddhism flourished, and one of their kings Menander became a famous figure of Buddhism, he was to establish a new capital of Sagala, the modern city of Sialkot. However, the extent of their domains and the lengths of their rule are subject to much debate. Numismatic evidence indicates that they retained holdings in the subcontinent right up to the birth of Christ. Although the extent of their successes against indigenous powers such as the Sungas, Satavahanas, and Kalingas are unclear, what is clear is that Scythian tribes, renamed Indo-Scythians, brought about the demise of the Indo-Greeks from around 70 BCE and retained lands in the trans-Indus, the region of Mathura, and Gujarat.

Reasons
The decline of the Maurya Dynasty was rather rapid after the death of Ashoka/Asoka. One obvious reason for it was the succession of weak kings. Another immediate cause was the partition of the Empire into two. Had not the partition taken place, the Greek invasions could have been held back giving a chance to the Mauryas to re-establish some degree of their previous power. Regarding the decline much has been written. Haraprasad Sastri contends that the revolt by Pushyamitra was the result of brahminical reaction against the pro-Buddhist policies of Ashoka and pro-Jaina policies of his successors. Basing themselves on this thesis, some maintain the view that brahminical reaction was responsible for the decline because of the following reasons. 1. Prohibition of the slaughter of animals displeased the Brahmins as animal sacrifices were esteemed by them. 2. The book Divyavadana refers to the persecution of Buddhists by Pushyamitra Sunga. 3. Asoka's claim that he exposed the Budheveas (Brahmins) as false gods shows that Ashoka was not well disposed towards Brahmins. 4. The capture of power by Pushyamitra Sunga shows the triumph of Brahmins. All of these four points can be easily refuted. 1. Asoka's compassion towards animals was not an overnight decision. Repulsion of animal sacrifices grew over a long period of time. Even Brahmins gave it up. 2. The book Divyavadana cannot be relied upon since it was during the time of Pushyamitra Sunga that the Sanchi and Barhut stupas were completed. The impression of the persecution of Buddhism was probably created by

Maurya Empire Menander's invasion, since he was a Buddhist. 3. The word 'budheva' is misinterpreted because this word is to be taken in the context of some other phrase. Viewed like this, the word has nothing to do with brahminism. 4. The victory of Pushyamitra Sunga clearly shows that the last of the Mauryas was an incompetent ruler since he was overthrown in the very presence of his army, and this had nothing to do with brahminical reaction against Asoka's patronage of Buddhism. Moreover, the very fact that a Brahmin was the commander in chief of the Mauryan ruler proves that the Mauryas and the Brahmins were on good terms. After all, the distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism in India was purely sectarian and never more than the difference between saivism and vaishnavism. The exclusiveness of religious doctrines is a Semitic conception, which was unknown to India for a long time. Buddha himself was looked upon in his lifetime and afterwards as a Hindu saint and avatar and his followers were but another sect in the great Aryan tradition. Ashoka was a Buddhist in the same way as Harsha was a Budhist, or Kumarapala was a Jain. But in the view of the people of the day he was a Hindu monarch following one of the recognized sects. His own inscriptions bear ample withness to the fact. While his doctrines follow the middle path, his gifts are to the brahmibns, sramansa (Buddhist priests) and others equally. His own name of adoption is Devanam Priya, the beloved of the gods. Which gods? Surely the gods of the Aryan religion. Buddhism had no gods of its own. The idea that Ashoka was a kind of Buddhist Constantine declearing himself against paganism is a complete misreading of India conditions. Asoka was essentially a Hindu, as indeed was the founder of the sect to which he belonged. Raychaudhury too rebuts the arguments of Sastri. The empire had shrunk considerably and there was no revolution. Killing the Mauryan King while he was reviewing the army points to a palace coup d'tat not a revolution. The organization were ready to accept any one who could promise a more efficient organisation. Also if Pushyamitra was really a representative of brahminical reaction he neighbouting kings would have definitely given him assistance. The argument that the empire became effete because of Asokan policies is also very thin. All the evidence suggests that Asoka was a stern monarch although his reign witnessed only a single campaign. He was shrewd enough in retaining Kalinga although he expressed his remorse. Well he was wordly-wise to enslave and-and-half lakh sudras of Kalinga and bring them to the Magadha region to cut forests and cultivate land. More than this his tours of the empire were not only meant for the sake of piety but also for keeping an eye on the centrifugal tendencies of the empire. Which addressing the tribal people Asoka expressed his willingness to for given. More draconian was Ashoka's message to the forest tribes who were warned of the power which he possessed. This view of Raychoudhury on the pacifism of the State cannot be substantiated. Apart from these two major writers there is a third view as expressed by kosambi. He based his arguments that unnccessary measures were taken up to increase tax and the punch-marked coins of the period show evidence of debasement. This contention too cannot be up held. It is quite possible that debased coins began to circulate during the period of the later Mauryas. On the other hand the debasement may also indicate that there was an increased demand for silver in relation to goods leading to the silver content of the coins being reduced. More important point is the fact that the material remains of the post-Asokan era do not suggest any pressure on the economy. Instead the economy prospered as shown by archaeological evidence at Hastinapura and Sisupalqarh. The reign of Asoka was an asset to the economy. The unification of the country under single efficient administration the organization and increase in communications meant the development of trade as well as an opening of many new commercial interest. In the post - Asokan period surplus wealth was used by the rising commercial classes to decorate religious buildings. The sculpture at Barhut and Sanchi and the Deccan caves was the contribution of this new bourgeoisie. Still another view regarding of the decline of Mauryas was that the coup of Pushyamitra was a peoples' revolt against Mauryans oppression and a rejection of the Maurya adoption of foreign ideas, as far interest in Mauryan Art. This argument is based on the view that Sunga art (Sculpture at Barhut and Sanchi) is more earthy and in the folk tradition that Maruyan art. This is more stretching the argument too far. The character of Sunga art changed because it served a different purpose and its donors belonged to different social classes. Also, Sunga art conformed more to

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Maurya Empire the folk traditions because Buddhism itself had incorporated large elements of popular cults and because the donors of this art, many of whom may have been artisans, were culturally more in the mainstream of folk tradition. One more reasoning to support the popular revolt theory is based on Asoka's ban on the samajas. Asoka did ban festive meetings and discouraged eating of meat. These too might have entagonised the population but it is doubtful whether these prohibitions were strictly enforced. The above argument (people's revolt) also means that Asoka's policy was continued by his successors also, an assumption not confirmed by historical data. Further more, it is unlikely that there was sufficient national consciousness among the varied people of the Mauryan empire. It is also argued by these theorists that Asokan policy in all its details was continued by the later Mauryas, which is not a historical fact. Still another argument that is advanced in favour of the idea of revolt against the Mauryas is that the land tax under the Mauryas was one-quarter, which was very burden some to the cultivator. But historical evidence shows something else. The land tax varied from region to region according to the fertility of the soil and the availability of water. The figure of one quarter stated by Magasthenes probably referred only to the fertile and well-watered regions around Pataliputra. Thus the decline of the Mauryan empire cannot be satisfactorily explained by referring to Military inactivity, Brahmin resentment, popular uprising or economic pressure. The causes of the decline were more fundamental. The organization of administration and the concept of the State were such that they could be sustained by only by kings of considerably personal ability. After the death of Asoka there was definitely a weakening at the center particularly after the division of the empire, which inevitably led to the breaking of provinces from the Mauryan rule. Also, it should be borne in mind that all the officials owed their loyalty to the king and not to the State. This meant that a change of king could result in change of officials leading to the demoralization of the officers. Mauryas had no system of ensuring the continuation of well-planned bureaucracy. The next important weakness of the Mauryan Empire was its extreme centralization and the virtual monopoly of all powers by the king. There was a total absence of any advisory institution representing public opinion. That is why the Mauryas depended greatly on the espionage system. Added to this lack of representative institutions there was no distinction between the executive and the judiciary of the government. An incapable king may use the officers either for purposes of oppression or fail to use it for good purpose. And as the successors of Asoka happened to be weak, the empire inevitably declined. Another associated point of great importance is the fact that the Mauryan Empire which was highly centralized and autocratic was the first and last one of its kind. If the Mauryan Empire did not survive for long, it could be because of the failure of the successors of Asoka to hold on to the principles that could make success of such an empire. Further, the Mauryan empire and the philosophy of the empire was not in tune with the spirit of the time because Aryanism and brahminism was very much there. According to the Brahmin or Aryan philosophy, the king was only an upholder of dharma, but never the crucial or architecture factor influencing the whole of life. In other words, the sentiment of the people towards the political factor, that is the State was never established in India. Such being the reality, when the successors of Asoka failed to make use of the institution and the thinking that was needed to make a success of a centralized political authority. The Mauryan Empire declined without anyone's regret. Other factors of importance that contributed to the decline and lack of national unity were the ownership of land and inequality of economic levels. Land could frequently change hands. Fertility wise the region of the Ganges was more prosperous than northern Deccan. Mauryan administration was not fully tuned to meet the existing disparities in economic activity. Had the southern region been more developed, the empire could have witnessed economic homogeneity. Also the people of the sub-continent were not of uniform cultural level. The sophisticated cities and the trade centers were a great contrast to the isolated village communities. All these differences naturally led to the economic and political structures being different from region to region. It is also a fact that even the languages spoken were varied. The history of a sub-continent and their casual relationships. The causes of the decline of the Mauryan empire must,

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Maurya Empire in large part, be attributed to top heavy administration where authority was entirely in the hands of a few persons while national consciousness was unknown.

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Timeline
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 322 BC : Chandragupta Maurya founds the Maurya Empire. 301-269 BC : Reign of Bindusara, Chandragupta's son. He conquers parts of Deccan, southern India. 269-232 BC : The Maurya Empire reaches its height under Ashoka, Chandragupta's grandson. 261 BC : Ashoka conquers the kingdom of Kalinga. 250 BC : Ashoka builds Buddhist stupas and erects pillars bering inscriptions. 184 BC :The empire collapses when Brihadnatha, the last emperor, is killed by a rival dynasty.

Notes
[5] :"Androcottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth." Plutarch 62-3 Plutarch 62-3 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0243& layout=& loc=62. 1) [6] :"He was of humble Indian to a change of rule." Justin XV.4.15 "Fuit hic humili quidem genere natus, sed ad regni potestatem maiestate numinis inpulsus. Quippe cum procacitate sua Nandrum regem offendisset, interfici a rege iussus salutem pedum ceieritate quaesierat. (Ex qua fatigatione cum somno captus iaceret, leo ingentis formae ad dormientem accessit sudoremque profluentem lingua ei detersit expergefactumque blande reliquit. Hoc prodigio primum ad spem regni inpulsus) contractis latronibus Indos ad nouitatem regni sollicitauit." Justin XV.4.15 (http:/ / www. forumromanum. org/ literature/ justin/ texte15. html)

"asti tava Shaka-Yavana-Kirata-Kamboja-Parasika-Bahlika parbhutibhih Chankyamatipragrahittaishcha Chandergupta Parvateshvara balairudidhibhiriva parchalitsalilaih samantaad uprudham Kusumpurama" (Sanskrit original, Mudrarakshasa 2).
[8] The Hunas mentioned in Mudrarakshasa play (II) of Vishakhadatta are same people as the Harahunas of the Mahabharata (II.32.12). They were located in Herat/Aria according to Dr Moti Chandra and were an earlier branch of the Hunas (See: Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahbhrata: Upyana Parva, 1945, p 66, Dr Moti Chandra; Also: Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India, 1971, p 33, Dr D. C. Sircar. [9] For Harahunas being a group of the Hunas, see also: Early History of Iranians and Atharvaveda, Persica-9, 1980, p 118, Dr Michael Witzel, Harvard University. [11] Source:Megasthenes fragment XXVII (http:/ / www. mssu. edu/ projectsouthasia/ history/ primarydocs/ Foreign_Views/ GreekRoman/ Megasthenes-Indika. htm) [14] P.109 A brief history of India by Alain Danilou, Kenneth Hurry [15] P. 138 and P. 146 History and doctrines of the jvikas: a vanished Indian religion by Arthur Llewellyn Basham [16] P. 24 Buddhism in comparative light by Anukul Chandra Banerjee [17] P. 171 Asoka and his inscriptions, Volume 1 by Beni Madhab Barua, Ishwar Nath Topa [18] Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, translation S. Dhammika. [20] The Economic History of the Corporate Form in Ancient India. (http:/ / papers. ssrn. com/ sol3/ papers. cfm?abstract_id=796464) University of Michigan. [21] Source: "Butkara I", Facenna. [22] P. 266 Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics Part 1 By James Hastings [23] P. 92 Paurnic and Tntric Religion: Early Phase By Jitendra Nath Banerjea [24] P. 212 Age of the Nandas and Mauryas By K. A. Nilakanta Sastri [25] Chanakya at Hinduism.co.za (http:/ / www. hinduism. co. za/ chanakya. htm) [26] Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press), 46 [27] "L'age d'or de l'Inde Classique", p23 [28] "L'age d'or de l'Inde Classique", p22 [29] Rangarajan, M. (2001) India's Wildlife History, pp 7. [30] Rangarajan, M. (2001) India's Wildlife History, pp 8. [31] Plutarch 62-3 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0243& layout=& loc=62. 1) [32] "(Transitum deinde in Indiam fecit), quae post mortem Alexandri, ueluti ceruicibus iugo seruitutis excusso, praefectos eius occiderat. Auctor libertatis Sandrocottus fuerat, sed titulum libertatis post uictoriam in seruitutem uerterat ; 14 siquidem occupato regno populum quem ab externa dominatione uindicauerat ipse seruitio premebat." Justin XV.4.1213 (http:/ / www. forumromanum. org/ literature/ justin/ trad15.

Maurya Empire
html) [33] "Molienti deinde bellum aduersus praefectos Alexandri elephantus ferus infinitae magnitudinis ultro se obtulit et ueluti domita mansuetudine eum tergo excepit duxque belli et proeliator insignis fuit. Sic adquisito regno Sandrocottus ea tempestate, qua Seleucus futurae magnitudinis fundamenta iaciebat, Indiam possidebat." Justin XV.4.19 (http:/ / www. forumromanum. org/ literature/ justin/ trad15. html) [34] Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55 (http:/ / www. livius. org/ ap-ark/ appian/ appian_syriaca_11. html) [35] Ancient India, (Kachroo ,p.196) [36] The Imperial Gazetteer of India, (Hunter,p.167) [37] The evolution of man and society, (Darlington ,p.223) [38] W. W. Tarn (1940). "Two Notes on Seleucid History: 1. Seleucus' 500 Elephants, 2. Tarmita", The Journal of Hellenic Studies 60, p. 84-94. [39] Partha Sarathi Bose (2003). Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy. Gotham Books. ISBN 1-59240-053-1. [40] Pliny the Elder, "The Natural History", Chap. 21 (http:/ / perseus. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Plin. + Nat. + 6. 21) [41] Vincent A. Smith (1998). Asoka. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-1303-1. [42] Walter Eugene Clark (1919). "The Importance of Hellenism from the Point of View of Indic-Philology", Classical Philology 14 (4), p. 297-313. [43] http:/ / www. forumromanum. org/ literature/ justin/ trad15. html [44] Ath. Deip. I.32 (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ Literature/ Literature-idx?type=turn& entity=Literature000701860036& isize=M& pview=hide) [45] Athenaeus, "Deipnosophistae" XIV.67 (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ Literature/ Literature-idx?type=goto& id=Literature. AthV3& isize=M& page=1044) [46] http:/ / www. afghanan. net/ afghanistan/ mauryans. htm [47] Full text of the Mahavamsa Click chapter XII (http:/ / lakdiva. org/ mahavamsa/ chapters. html) [48] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Plb. + 11. 39 [49] [50] [51] [52] According to the Ashokavadana Sir John Marshall, "A Guide to Sanchi", Eastern Book House, 1990, ISBN 81-85204-32-2, pg.38 E. Lamotte: History of Indian Buddhism, Institut Orientaliste, Louvain-la-Neuve 1988 (1958) Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas by Romila Thapar, Oxford University Press, 1960 P200

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References
Robert Morkot, The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Greece ISBN 0-14-051335-3 (http://www.amazon. com/gp/product/0140513353) Chanakya, Arthashastra ISBN 0-14-044603-6 (http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0140446036) J.F.C. Fuller, The Generalship of Alexander the Great ISBN 0-306-81330-0 (http://www.amazon.com/gp/ product/0306813300) Siddharth Petare 14 February 2013 @ 2 pm

External links
The Mauryan Empire (http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=mauryan_empire) at All Empires Livius.org: Maurya dynasty (http://www.livius.org/man-md/mauryas/mauryas.html) Mauryan Empire of India (http://www.indianchild.com/mauryan_empire.htm) Extent of the Empire (http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/ancient/maurya.htm) The Mauryan Empire from Britannica (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9051518) Ashoka and Buddhism (http://www.buddhistcouncil.org/Asoka.htm) Ashoka's Edicts (http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html)
Precededby Magadha dynasties Succeededby Nanda dynasty Sunga dynasty

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Classical India Timeline: 6th century BCE 5th century BCE 4th century BCE 3rd century BCE 2nd century BCE 1st century BCE 1st century CE 2nd century 3rd century 4th century 5th century 6th century 7th century 8th century 9th century 10th century 11th century Northwestern India Gandhara Northern India Magadha Shishunaga dynasty Nanda empire Kalinga Maurya Empire Sunga Empire Maha-Meghavahana Dynasty Kuninda Kingdom Western Satraps Gupta Empire Maitraka Vakataka dynasty, Harsha Gurjara-Pratihara Pala Empire Paramara dynasty Solanki Eastern Ganga dynasty Sena dynasty Southern India Pandyas Cholas Cheras Satavahana Empire Kalabhras dynasty Kadamba Dynasty Western Ganga Dynasty Vishnukundina Pallava Kalachuri Chalukya Rashtrakuta Yadava dynasty Western Chalukyas Kakatiya dynasty Hoysala Empire Northeastern India Varman dynasty Kamarupa kingdom Mlechchha dynasty Pala dynasty Kamboja-Pala dynasty

(Persian rule) (Greek conquests) Indo-Greek Kingdom Yona Indo-Scythians Indo-Parthians Pahlava Kushan Empire Indo-Sassanids Kidarite Kingdom Indo-Hephthalites (Huna)

(Islamic conquests) Kabul Shahi

(Islamic Empire)

List of Mauryan rulers

The Maurya dynasty ruled over a geographically extensive empire in India from 321 to 185 BC.

Rulers
Name
Chandragupta Maurya Bindusara Ashoka the Great ashoka Dasaratha Samprati Salisuka Devavarman Satadhanvan Brihadratha d. 185 BC c. 252 - 224 BC 232 BC 224 BC 215 BC 202 BC 195 BC 187 BC 224 BC 215 BC 202 BC 195 BC 187 BC 185 BC Mauryan dynasty Mauryan dynasty Mauryan dynasty Mauryan dynasty Mauryan dynasty Mauryan dynasty

Lifespan
345 - 298 BC 320 - 272 BC 304 - 232 BC

Reign start
322 BC 298 BC 274 BC

Reign Notes end

298 BC 272 BC 232 BC

Family
Mauryan dynasty Mauryan dynasty Mauryan dynasty

Image

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References

Nanda Empire
Nanda Empire

424 BC321 BC

The Nanda Empire at its greatest extent under Dhana Nanda circa 323 BC.
Capital Languages Religion Pataliputra Sanskrit Jainism Hinduism Buddhism Monarchy Mahapadma Nanda Dhana Nanda Historical era Established Disestablished Antiquity 424 BC 321 BC

Government Samrat

Outline of South Asian history History of Indian subcontinent

The Nanda Empire originated from the region of Magadha in ancient India during the 5th and 4th centuries BC. At its greatest extent, the Nanda Empire extended from Bengal in the east, to Punjab in the west and as far south as the Vindhya Range.[1] The Nanda Empire was later conquered by Chandragupta Maurya, who founded the Maurya Empire.

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Establishment of the dynasty

Mahapadma Nanda, who has been described as "the destroyer of all the Kshatriyas", defeated the Panchalas, Kasis, Haihayas, Kalingas, Asmakas, Kurus, Maithilas, Surasenas and the Vitihotras; to name a few .[citation needed]. He expanded his territory south of the Deccan plains. Mahapadma Nanda, who died at the age of 88, was the ruler of the Nanda dynasty for all but 12 of the dynasty's 100 years. The Nandas who usurped the throne of the Shishunaga dynasty were thought to be of low origin with some sources stating that the dynasty's founder, Mahapadma, was the son of a Shudra . [2]

Nanda rule
The Nandas are sometimes described as the first empire builders in the recorded history of India. They inherited the large kingdom of Magadha and wished to extend it to yet more distant frontiers. To this purpose they built up a vast army, consisting of 200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 2,000 war chariots and 3,000 war elephants (at the lowest estimates). According to Plutarch however, the size of the Nanda army was even larger, numbering 200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 8,000 war chariots, and 6,000 war elephants. However, the Nandas never had the opportunity to see their army up against Alexander, who invaded India at the time of Dhana Nanda, since Alexander had to confine his campaign to the plains of Punjab, for his forces, frightened by the prospect of facing a formidable foe, mutinied at the Hyphasis River (the modern Beas River) refusing to march any further. This river thus marks the eastern-most extent of Alexander's conquests.

List of Nanda rulers

Mahapadma Nanda (c. 424 BC ?) Pandhuka Panghupati Bhutapala Rashtrapala Govishanaka Dashasidkhaka Kaivarta Mahendra Dhana Nanda (Argames) (? c. 321 BC)

Asiain 323 BC, showing borders of the Nanda Empire in relation to Alexander's Empire and neighbors.

Footnotes
[1] Radha Kumud Mookerji, Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, 4th ed. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1988 [1966]), 31, 2833.

Precededby Nanda Dynasty Succeededby Shishunaga dynasty (345 BC321 BC) Maurya dynasty

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Classical India Timeline: 6th century BCE 5th century BCE 4th century BCE 3rd century BCE 2nd century BCE 1st century BCE 1st century CE 2nd century 3rd century 4th century 5th century 6th century 7th century 8th century 9th century 10th century 11th century Northwestern India Gandhara Northern India Magadha Shishunaga dynasty Nanda empire Kalinga Maurya Empire Sunga Empire Maha-Meghavahana Dynasty Kuninda Kingdom Western Satraps Gupta Empire Maitraka Vakataka dynasty, Harsha Gurjara-Pratihara Pala Empire Paramara dynasty Solanki Eastern Ganga dynasty Sena dynasty Southern India Pandyas Cholas Cheras Satavahana Empire Kalabhras dynasty Kadamba Dynasty Western Ganga Dynasty Vishnukundina Pallava Kalachuri Chalukya Rashtrakuta Yadava dynasty Western Chalukyas Kakatiya dynasty Hoysala Empire Northeastern India Varman dynasty Kamarupa kingdom Mlechchha dynasty Pala dynasty Kamboja-Pala dynasty

(Persian rule) (Greek conquests) Indo-Greek Kingdom Yona Indo-Scythians Indo-Parthians Pahlava Kushan Empire Indo-Sassanids Kidarite Kingdom Indo-Hephthalites (Huna)

(Islamic conquests) Kabul Shahi

(Islamic Empire)

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Magadha
Kingdom of Magadha

500 BC321 BC

The approximate extent of the Magadha state in the 5th century BCE
Capital Languages Religion Rajagriha, then Pataliputra (Modern day Patna) Old Indic Languages (e.g. Magadhi Prakrit, Maithili, Other Prakrits, Sanskrit) Hinduism Jainism Buddhism Brahmanism Absolute Monarchy as described in the Arthashastra Antiquity 500 BC

Government Historical era - Established

- Disestablished 321 BC Currency Today part of Panas India Bangladesh

Outline of South Asian history History of Indian subcontinent

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Part of a series on the

History of Bangladesh

History of Bengal

Vedic period NBWP culture Gangaridai Magadha Maurya Empire Pundravardhana Vanga Suhma Anga Harikela Magadha Pradyota dynasty Shishunaga dynasty Nanda Empire Sunga Empire Kanva dynasty Gupta Empire Kamboja Pala dynasty Shashanka Pala Empire Sena dynasty Delhi Sultanate Sultanate of Bengal Deva dynasty Raja Ganesha Mughal Empire Maharaja Pratap Aditya Nawab of Bengal Baro-Bhuyan Zamindari system Bengal famine of 1770 Company Raj British Raj Bengal Renaissance Partition of Bengal (1905) Partition of Bengal (1947) East Bengal Partition of India East Pakistan Liberation War

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People's Republic of Bangladesh See also

Timeline Rulers of Bengal Legendary kings of Magadha Bangladesh portal

Magadha (Sanskrit: ) formed one of the sixteen Mah-Janapadas (Sanskrit: "Great Countries") or kingdoms in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges; its first capital was Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) then Pataliputra (modern Patna). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of Licchavi and Anga respectively,[1] followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas.[2] The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharva-Veda where they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis, and Mujavats. Two of India's major religions, Jainism, and Buddhism have roots in Magadha; two of India's greatest empires, the Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire, originated from Magadha. These empires saw advancements in ancient India's science, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy and were considered the Indian "Golden Age". The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community of Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.

Geography
The kingdom of the Magadha roughly corresponds to the modern districts of Patna, Jehanabad, Nalanda, Aurangabad, Nawadah and Gaya in southern Bihar, and parts of Bengal in the east. It was bounded on the north by the river Ganges, on the east by the river Champa, on the south by the Vindhya mountains and on the west by the river Sone. During the Buddhas time and onward, its boundaries included Anga.[3] This region of Greater Magadha had a culture and religious beliefs of its own that predated the sanatan dharma. Much of the second urbanisation took place here from c. 500 BCE onwards and it was here that Jainism became strong and Buddhism arose. The Magadha state c. 600 BC, before it expanded The importance of Magadha's culture can be seen in that both Buddhism and Jainism adopted some of its features, most significantly a belief in rebirth and karmic retribution.[4] Early Jaina and Brahmanical scriptures describe varieties of ascetic practices that are based on shared assumptions. These assumptions included the belief that liberation can be achieved through knowledge of the self. These practices and their underlying assumptions were present in the culture of Greater Magadha at an early date and are likely to have influenced Jainism and other religions.[5] The belief in rebirth and karmic retribution was an important feature in later developments in Indian religion and philosophy.

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Recorded History
There is little certain information available on the early rulers of Magadha. The most important sources are the Puranas, the Buddhist Chronicles of Sri Lanka, and other Jain and Buddhist texts, such as the Pli Canon. Based on these sources, it appears that Magadha was ruled by the Haryanka dynasty for some 200 years, c. 684 BC 424 BC. Siddhartha Gautama himself was born a prince of Kapilavastu in Kosala around the 5th century BCE, during the Haryanka dynasty. As the scene of many incidents in his life, including his enlightenment, Magadha is often considered a blessed land. King Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty led an active and expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now West Bengal. The death of King Bimbisara was at the hands of his son, Prince Ajatashatru. King Pasenadi(Prasenajit), king of neighboring Kosala and brother-in-law of King Bimbisara, retook the gift of the Kashi province and a war was triggered between Kosala and Magadha. Ajatashatru was trapped by an ambush and captured with his army. However, King Prasenajit allowed him and his army return to Magadha, and restored the province of Kashi. King Pasenadi also gave his daughter in marriage to the new young king. Accounts differ slightly as to the cause of King Ajatashatru's war with the Licchavi republic, an area north of the river Ganges. It appears that Ajatashatru sent a minister to the area who for three years worked to undermine the unity of the Licchavis. To launch his attack across the Ganges River, Ajatashatru built a fort at the town of Pataliputra. Torn by disagreements the Licchavis with many tribes that fought with Ajatashatru. It took fifteen years for Ajatashatru to defeat them. Jain texts tell how Ajatashatru used two new weapons: a catapult, and a covered chariot with swinging mace that has been compared to a modern tank. Pataliputra began to grow as a center of commerce and became the capital of Magadha after Ajatashatru's death. The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shishunaga dynasty. The last ruler of Shishunaga Dynsty, Kalasoka was assassinated by Mahapadma Nanda in 424 BC, the first of the so-called Nine Nandas (Mahapadma and his eight sons). The Nanda Dynasty ruled for about 100 years. In 326 BC, the army of Alexander approached the boundaries of Magadha. The army, exhausted and frightened at the prospect of facing another giant Indian army at the Ganges, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, was persuaded that it was better to return and turned south, conquering his way down the Indus to the Ocean. Around 321 BC, the Nanda Dynasty ended and Chandragupta became the first king of the great Mauryan Dynasty and Mauryan Empire with the help of Vishnugupta. The Empire later extended over most of Southern Asia under King Asoka, who was at first known as 'Asoka the Cruel' but later became a disciple of Buddhism and became known as 'Dhamma Asoka'. Later, the Mauryan Empire ended, Sunga and Khraba Empire ended and the Gupta Empire began. The capital of the Gupta Empire remained Pataliputra, in Magadha.

Magadha Dynasties
Brihadratha Dynasty, Pradyota Dynasty, Harayanka Dynasty, iunga Dynasty ruled Magadha from 684 424 BC. Afterwards the Nanda Dynasty, Maurya Dynasty, Sunga Dynasty, Kanva Dynasty, Gupta Dynasty expanded beyond Magadha. Amongst the sixteen Mahajanapadas, Magadha rose to prominence under a number of dynasties that peaked with the reign of Asoka Maurya, one of India's most legendary and famous emperors.

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Brihadratha dynasty
According to the Puranas, the Magadha Empire was established by the Brihadratha Dynasty, who was the sixth in line from Emperor Kuru of the Bharata dynasty through his eldest son Sudhanush. The first prominent Emperor of the Magadhan branch of Bharathas was Emperor Brihadratha. His son Jarasandha appears in popular legend and is slain by Bhima in the Mahabharatha. Vayu Purana mentions that the Brihadrathas ruled for 1000 years.

Pradyota dynasty
The Brihadrathas were succeeded by the Pradyotas who (according to the Vayu Purana) ruled for 138 years. Pradyotas ruled over another Mahajanapada Avanti and conquered Magadha for very short span of 138 years. One of the Pradyota traditions was for the prince to kill his father to become king. During their time, it is reported that crimes were commonplace in Magadha. Tired of the dynastic feuds and the crimes, the people rose up in civil revolt and elected Haryanka to become the king. This led to the emergence of the Haryanka dynasty. However, Pradyota dynasty continued to rule in Avanti until it was conquered by Shishunaga who defeated the last Pradyota king Nandivardhana.

Haryanka dynasty
According to tradition, the Haryanka dynasty founded the Magadha Empire in 684 BC, whose capital was Rajagriha, later Pataliputra, near the present day Patna. This dynasty lasted until 424 BC, when it was overthrown by the Shishunaga dynasty. This period saw the development of two of India's major religions that started from Magadha. Gautama Buddha in the 6th or 5th century BC was the founder of Buddhism, which later spread to East Asia and South-East Asia, while Mahavira revived and propagated the ancient religion of Jainism. Bimbisara was responsible for expanding the boundaries of his kingdom through matrimonial alliances and conquest. The land of Kosala fell to Magadha in this way. Bimbisara (543493 BCE) was imprisoned and killed by his son Ajatashatru (ruled 491461 BCE) who then became his successor, and under whose rule the dynasty reached its largest extent. Licchavi was an ancient republic which existed in what is now Bihar state of India, since before the birth of Mahavira (born 599 BC),[6][7] Vaishali was the capital of the Licchavis and the Vajjian Confederacy. Its courtesan, Ambapali, was famous for her beauty, and helped in large measure in making the city prosperous.[8] Ajatashatru went to war with the Licchavi several times. Ajatashatru, is thought to have ruled from 491461 BCE and moved his capital of the Magadha kingdom from Rajagriha to Patliputra. Udayabhadra eventually succeeded his father, Ajatashatru, under him Patliputra became the largest city in the world.

Shishunaga dynasty
According to tradition, the Shishunaga dynasty founded the Magadha Empire in 430 BC, whose capital was Rajagriha, later Pataliputra, near the present day Patna in India. This dynasty was succeeded by the Nanda dynasty. Shishunaga (also called King Sisunaka) was the founder of a dynasty of 10 kings, collectively called the Shishunaga dynasty. He established the Magadha empire (in 430 BC). This empire, with its original capital in Rajgriha, later shifted to Pataliputra (both currently in the Indian state of Bihar). The Shishunaga dynasty in its time was one of the largest empires of the Indian subcontinent. The kingdom had a particularly bloody succession. Anuruddha eventually succeeded Udaybhadra through assassination, and his son Munda succeeded him in the same fashion, as did his son Nagadasaka. Due in part to this bloody dynastic feuding, it is thought that a civil revolt led to the emergence of the Nanda dynasty.

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Shishunaga dynasty Rulers

Shishunaga (430 BC), established the kingdom of Magadha, Kakavarna (394364 BC), Kshemadharman (618582 BC), Kshatraujas (582558 BC), Kalasoka, Mahanandin (until 424 BC), his empire is inherited by his illegitimate son Mahapadma Nanda.

Nanda dynasty
The Nanda dynasty was established by an illegitimate son of the king Mahanandin of the previous Shishunaga dynasty. Mahapadma Nanda died at the age of 88, ruling the bulk of this 100-year dynasty. The Nandas are sometimes described as the first empire builders of India. They inherited the large kingdom of Magadha and wished to extend it to yet more distant frontiers. The greatest extent of the empire was led by Dhana Nanda. The Nandas were followed by the Maurya dynasty.

The Nanda Empire at its greatest extent

Maurya dynasty
In 321 BC, exiled general Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya dynasty after overthrowing the reigning Nanda king Dhana Nanda to establish the Maurya Empire. During this time, most of the subcontinent was united under a single government for the first time. Capitalising on the destabilization of northern India by the Persian and Greek incursions, the Mauryan empire under Chandragupta would not only conquer most of the Indian subcontinent, but also push its boundaries into Persia and Central Asia, conquering the Gandhara region. Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara, who expanded the kingdom over most of present day India, barring the extreme south and east.
The Maurya Empire at its greatest extent(Asoka's empire)

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The kingdom was inherited by his son Ashoka The Great who initially sought to expand his kingdom. In the aftermath of the carnage caused in the invasion of Kalinga, he renounced bloodshed and pursued a policy of non-violence or ahimsa after converting to Buddhism. The Edicts of Ashoka are the oldest preserved historical documents of India, and from Ashoka's time, approximate dating of dynasties becomes possible. The Mauryan dynasty under Ashoka was responsible for the proliferation of Buddhist ideals across the whole of East Asia and South-East Asia, fundamentally altering the history and development of Asia as a whole. Ashoka the Great has been described as one of the greatest rulers the world has seen.

The Buddhist stupa at Sanchi, built during the Mauryan period

Sunga dynasty
The Sunga dynasty was established in 185 BC, about fifty years after Ashoka's death, when the king Brihadratha, the last of the Mauryan rulers, was assassinated by the then commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honour of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga then ascended the throne.

Kanva dynasty
The Kanva dynasty replaced the Sunga dynasty, and ruled in the eastern part of India from 71 BC to 26 BC. The last ruler of the Sunga dynasty was overthrown by Vasudeva of the Kanva dynasty in 75 BC. The Kanva ruler allowed the kings of the Sunga dynasty to continue to rule in obscurity in a corner of their former Extent of the Sunga Empire dominions. Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulers. In 30 BC, the southern power swept away both the Kanvas and Sungas and the province of Eastern Malwa was absorbed within the dominions of the conqueror. Following the collapse of the Kanva dynasty, the Satavahana dynasty of the Andhra kingdom replaced the Magandhan kingdom as the most powerful Indian state.

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152

Gupta dynasty
The Gupta dynasty ruled from around 240 to 550 AD. The Gupta Empire was one of the largest political and military empires in ancient India.[9][10] This period has been called the Golden Age of India[11] and was marked by extensive achievements in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture.[12] The decimal numeral system, including the concept of zero, was invented in India during this period.[13] The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors in India.[14] The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture, sculpture, and painting.[15] The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Gupta Empire (240 to 550 AD) Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields.[16] Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, the Malay Archipelago, and Indochina. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulersChandragupta I (c. 319335), Samudragupta (c. 335376), and Chandragupta II (c. 376415) brought much of India under their leadership.[17] They successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the Hunas, who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century, with their capital at Bamiyan.[18] However, much of the Deccan and southern India were largely unaffected by these events in the north.[19][20]

Kings of Magadha
Brihadratha Dynasty
Semi-legendary rulers in Purana accounts. Brihadratha Jarasandha Sahadeva Somapi (16781618 BC) Srutasravas (16181551 BC) Ayutayus (15511515 BC) Niramitra (15151415 BC) Sukshatra (14151407 BC) Brihatkarman (14071384 BC) Senajit (13841361 BC) Srutanjaya (13611321 BC)

Vipra (13211296 BC) Suchi (12961238 BC)

Magadha Kshemya (12381210 BC) Subrata (12101150 BC) Dharma (11501145 BC) Susuma (11451107 BC) Dridhasena (11071059 BC) Sumati (10591026 BC) Subhala (10261004 BC) Sunita (1004964 BC) Satyajit (964884 BC) Biswajit (884849 BC) Ripunjaya (849799 BC)

153

Pradyota dynasty
Ruling 799684 BC according to calculations based on the Vayu Purana[citation needed]. Pradyota Palaka Visakhayupa Ajaka Varttivarddhana

Nanda Dynasty (345321 BCE)

Mahapadma Nanda Ugrasena (from 345 BCE), illegitimate son of Mahanandin, founded the Nanda Empire after inheriting Mahanandin's empire Pandhuka Panghupati Bhutapala Rashtrapala Govishanaka Anal Dashasidkhaka Kaivarta Dhana (Agrammes, Xandrammes) (until 321 BCE), lost his empire to Chandragupta Maurya after being defeated by him

Maurya Dynasty (324184 BC)

Chandragupta Maurya (Chandragupta The Great) (Sandrakottos) (324301 BC),The greatest emperor of ancient India founded the Mauryan Empire after defeating both the Nanda Empire and the Macedonian Seleucid Empire Bindusara or Amritrochates (301273 BC) Ashoka Vardhana (Ashoka the Great) (273232 BC), considered the greatest ancient Indian emperor, first emperor to unify India (after conquering most of South Asia and Afghanistan), adopt Buddhism, grant animal rights and promote non-violence, a secular administrator,often called the emperor of all ages. Dasaratha (232224 BC) Samprati (224215 BC) Salisuka (215202 BC) Devavarman (202195 BC) Satadhanvan (195187 BC), the Mauryan Empire had shrunk by the time of his reign

Magadha Brihadrata (187184 BC), assassinated by Pusyamitra Shunga

154

Shunga Dynasty (18573 BC)

Pusyamitra Shunga (185149 BC), founded the dynasty after assassinating Brihadrata Agnimitra (149141 BC), son and successor of Pusyamitra Vasujyeshtha (141131 BC) Vasumitra (131124 BC) Andhraka (124122 BC) Pulindaka (122119 BC) Ghosha Vajramitra Bhagabhadra, mentioned by the Puranas Devabhuti (8373 BC), last Sunga king

Kanva Dynasty (7326 BC)

Vasudeva (c. 73 - c. 66 BCE) Bhumimitra (c. 66 - c. 52 BCE) Narayana (c. 52 - c. 40 BCE) Susarman (c. 40 - c. 26 BCE)

Gupta Dynasty (c. 240550 AD)

Sri-Gupta I (c. 240290) Ghatotkacha (290305) Chandra Gupta I (305335), founder of the Gupta Empire, which is often regarded as the golden age of Indian culture Samudra Gupta (335370) Rama Gupta (370375) Chandra Gupta II (Chandragupta Vikramaditya) (375415), son of Samudra Gupta, the Gupta Empire achieved its zenith under his reign, the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien describes Indian culture during his reign Kumara Gupta I (415455) Skanda Gupta (455467) Kumara Gupta II (467477) Buddha Gupta (477496) Chandra Gupta III (496500) Vainya Gupta (500515) Narasimha Gupta (510530) Kumara Gupta III (530540) Vishnu Gupta (c. 540550)

Magadha

155

Notes
[1] Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (1977). Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 81-208-0436-8. [3] Satapatha Brahmana 13.8.1.5 and 1.4.1.14-17 [4] Bronkhorst, Johannes, Greater Magadha, Studies in the Culture of Early India, 2007, Brill Academic Publishers Inc., Handbook of Oriental Studies, section 2, South Asia Series, ISBN 90-04-15719-0 [5] ibid. I.1 [6] "Licchavi", Encyclopdia Britannica Online (http:/ / p2. www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9048151/ Licchavi) [7] [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali (http:/ / p2. www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9074639/ Vaisali)], Encyclopdia Britannica Online] [8] Vin.i.268 [18] Iaroslav Lebedynsky, "Les Nomades", p172. [19] Early History of India, p 339, Dr V. A. Smith; See also Early Empire of Central Asia (1939), W. M. McGovern. [20] Ancient India, 2003, p 650, Dr V. D. Mahajan; History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p 50, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar.

References
1. Raychaudhuri, H.C. (1972), Political History of Ancient India, Calcutta: University of Calcutta Unknown parameter |loc= ignored (help). 2. Law, Bimala Churn (1926). "4. The Magadhas" (http://www.archive.org/stream/ ancientindiantri032697mbp#page/n111/mode/2up). Ancient Indian Tribes. Motilal Banarsidas.

External links
Ancient History of Great Magadha (http://www.peopleofbihar.com/page/ancient-history)
Classical India Timeline: 6th century BCE 5th century BCE 4th century BCE 3rd century BCE 2nd century BCE 1st century BCE 1st century CE 2nd century 3rd century 4th century 5th century 6th century 7th century 8th century 9th century 10th century 11th century Northwestern India Gandhara Northern India Magadha Shishunaga dynasty Nanda empire Kalinga Maurya Empire Sunga Empire Maha-Meghavahana Dynasty Kuninda Kingdom Western Satraps Gupta Empire Maitraka Vakataka dynasty, Harsha Gurjara-Pratihara Pala Empire Paramara dynasty Solanki Eastern Ganga dynasty Sena dynasty Southern India Pandyas Cholas Cheras Satavahana Empire Northeastern India Varman dynasty Kamarupa kingdom Mlechchha dynasty Pala dynasty Kamboja-Pala dynasty

(Persian rule) (Greek conquests) Indo-Greek Kingdom Yona Indo-Scythians Indo-Parthians Pahlava Kushan Empire Indo-Sassanids Kidarite Kingdom Indo-Hephthalites (Huna)

Kalabhras dynasty Kadamba Dynasty Western Ganga Dynasty Vishnukundina Pallava Kalachuri Chalukya Rashtrakuta Yadava dynasty Western Chalukyas Kakatiya dynasty Hoysala Empire

(Islamic conquests) Kabul Shahi

(Islamic Empire)

Legendary kings of Magadha

156

Legendary kings of Magadha

The Magadha empire was established very likely by semi-mythical king Jarasandha who was, as it stated in the Puranas, a son of Brihadratha, one of the descendants of eponymical Puru. Jarasandha appears in the Mahabharatha as the "Magadhan Emperor who rules all India" and meets with an unceremonious ending. His descendants, according to the Vayu Purana, ruled Magadha for 1000 years followed by the Pradyota dynasty which ruled for 138 years. However, no sufficient evidence to prove the historicity of this claim. However, these rulers are mentioned in the Hindu texts, Buddhist texts and Jaina texts. King Bimbisara, also known as King Shrenik, ruled this kingdom from 543-491 BC and belonged to the Hariyanka dynasty.

Kings in the Vayu Purana

The list of legendary kings of Magadha according to the Vayu Purana are as follows
Reign of Magadhan Kings (Brihadratha Dynasty) Emperor Reign start (According to Modern Historians)[citation
needed]

Reign end (According to Modern Historians)[citation

needed]

Reign start (According to Aryabhatta)[citation needed]

Reign end (According to Aryabhatta)[citation needed]

Brihadratha Jarasandha Sahadeva Somapi Srutasravas Ayutayus Niramitra Sukshatra

? 1760 BC 1718 BC 1676 BC 1618 BC 1551 BC 1515 BC 1415 BC

? 1718 BC 1676 BC 1618 BC 1551 BC 1515 BC 1415 BC 1407 BC 1384 BC 1361 BC 1321 BC 1296 BC 1238 BC 1210 BC 1150 BC 1145 BC 1107 BC 1059 BC 1026 BC 1004 BC 964 BC 884 BC 849 BC

? ? ? 3009 BC 2951 BC 2884 BC 2848 BC 2748 BC 2740 BC 2717 BC 2694 BC 2654 BC 2629 BC 2561 BC 2533 BC 2473 BC 2468 BC 2430 BC 2382 BC 2349 BC 2327 BC 2287 BC 2207 BC

? ? ? 2951 BC 2884 BC 2848 BC 2748 BC 2740 BC 2717 BC 2694 BC 2654 BC 2629 BC 2561 BC 2533 BC 2473 BC 2468 BC 2430 BC 2382 BC 2349 BC 2327 BC 2287 BC 2207 BC 2172 BC

Brihatkarman 1407 BC Senajit Srutanjaya Vipra Suchi Kshemya Subrata Dharma Susuma Dridhasena Sumati Subhala Sunita Satyajit Biswajit 1384 BC 1361 BC 1321 BC 1296 BC 1238 BC 1210 BC 1150 BC 1145 BC 1107 BC 1059 BC 1026 BC 1004 BC 964 BC 884 BC

Legendary kings of Magadha

157
799 BC 2172 BC 2122 BC

Ripunjaya

849 BC

Reign of Magadhan Kings (Pradyota Dynasty) Emperor Reign start (According to Modern Historians)[citation
needed]

Reign end (According to Modern Historians)[citation

needed]

Reign start (According to Aryabhatta)[citation needed]

Reign end (According to Aryabhatta)[citation needed]

Pradyota Palaka Visakhayupa Janaka

779 BC 776 BC 752 BC 702 BC

776 BC 752 BC 702 BC 681 BC 661 BC

2122 BC 2119 BC 2085 BC 2035 BC 2014 BC

2119 BC 2085 BC 2035 BC 2014 BC 1994 BC

Nandivardhdhana 681 BC

Kings in the Matsya Purana

Reign of Magadhan Kings (Brihadratha Dynasty) Emperor Reign start (According to Modern Historians) [citation
needed]

Reign end (According to Modern Historians) [citation

needed]

Reign start (According to Aryabhatta) [citation needed]

Reign end (According to Aryabhatta) [citation needed]

Brihadratha ? Jarasandha Sahadeva Somapi 1760 BC 1718 BC 1676 BC

? 1718 BC 1676 BC 1618 BC 1433 BC 1407 BC 1367 BC 1311 BC 1288 BC 1238 BC 1198 BC 1170 BC 1170 BC 1142 BC 1078 BC 1078 BC 1020 BC 992 BC 944 BC 914 BC 882 BC 832 BC

? ? ? 3009 BC 2951 BC 2884 BC 2848 BC 2748 BC 2740 BC 2717 BC 2694 BC 2654 BC 2629 BC 2561 BC 2533 BC 2473 BC 2468 BC 2430 BC 2382 BC 2349 BC 2327 BC 2172 BC

? ? ? 2951 BC 2884 BC 2848 BC 2748 BC 2740 BC 2717 BC 2694 BC 2654 BC 2629 BC 2561 BC 2533 BC 2473 BC 2468 BC 2430 BC 2382 BC 2349 BC 2327 BC 2287 BC 2122 BC

Srutasravas 1497 BC Apratipa Niramitra Sukshatra Brihatsena Senajit Srutanjaya Vidhu Suchi Kshemya Subrata Sunetra Nivritti Trinetra Mahatsena Netra Abala Ripunjaya 1433 BC 1407 BC 1367 BC 1311 BC 1288 BC 1238 BC 1198 BC 1234 BC 1170 BC 1142 BC 1113 BC 1078 BC 1020 BC 992 BC 944 BC 914 BC 882 BC

Legendary kings of Magadha

158

Reign of Magadhan Kings (Pradyota Dynasty) Emperor Reign start (According to Modern Historians) [citation
needed]

Reign end (According to Modern Historians) [citation

needed]

Reign start (According to Aryabhatta) [citation needed]

Reign end (According to Aryabhatta) [citation needed]

Pradyota Palaka Visakhayupa Suryaka

832 BC 809 BC 781 BC 708 BC

809 BC 781 BC 728 BC 687 BC 667 BC

2122 BC 2119 BC 2094 BC 2041 BC 2020 BC

2119 BC 2085 BC 2041 BC 2020 BC 2000 BC

Nandivardhdhana 687 BC

Precededby Magadha dynasties Succeededby None Pradyota dynasty

Pradyota dynasty
Pradyota dynasty is an ancient Indian dynasty, which ruled over Avanti in the present-day Madhya Pradesh state, though most of the Puranas (except a manuscript of the Brahmanda Purana, preserved in the University of Dhaka) say that this dynasty succeeded the Barhadratha dynasty in Magadha.[1] According to the Vayu Purana, Pradyotas of Avanti annexed Magadha and ruled there for 138 years from 799684 BCE. Palaka, the son of the Avanti king Pradyota, conquered Kaushambi, making the kingdom powerful. According to both Buddhist texts and Jain texts, one of Pradyota tradition was that king's son would kill his father to become the successor. During their time, it is reported that crimes were commonplace in Magadha. Tired of the dynastic feuds and the crimes, the people of Magadha rose up in civil revolt and elected Haryanka to become the king in 684 BCE. This led to the emergence of the Haryanka dynasty in Magadha. However, Pradyota dynasty continued to rule in Avanti until it was conquered by Shishunaga who defeated the last Pradyota king Nandivardhana and also destroyed the Haryanka dynasty of Magadha in 413 BCE.

Pradyota dynasty rulers

Pradyota Mahasena Palaka Visakhayupa Ajaka or Aryaka Varttivarddhana or Nandivardhana
Precededby Avanti dynasties Succeededby Vitihotra dynasty Shishunaga dynasty

Notes
[1] Misra, V.S. (2007). Ancient Indian Dynasties, Mumbai: Baratiya Vidya Bhavan, ISBN 81-7276-413-8, p.300

Haryanka dynasty

159

Haryanka dynasty
Haryanka dynasty

Capital Languages Religion

684 BC413 BC

Rajagriha, later Pataliputra Sanskrit Hinduism Buddhism Monarchy Bimbisara Ajatashatru Udayabhadra

Government King

History - Established 684 BC

- Disestablished 413 BC

Outline of South Asian history History of Indian subcontinent

The Haryanka dynasty was the second ruling dynasty of Magadha, an ancient kingdom in India, which succeeded the Barhadratha dynasty. According to the Puranas, the second ruling dynasty was the Shaishunga dynasty, but an earlier authority, Ashvagosha in his Buddhacharita refers to Bimbisara, who is mentioned as a ruler of the Shaishunaga dynasty in the Puranas, as a scion of the Haryanka-kula.[1] According to another Buddhist text, the Mahavamsa, Bimbisara was not the founder of this dynasty, as he was anointed king by his father at the age of fifteen.[2] According to Turnour and N.L. Dey, the name of the father of Bimbisara was Bhatiya or Bhattiya, but the Puranas refer him as Hemajit, Kshemajit, Kshetroja or Ksetrauja and the Tibetan texts mention him as Mahapadma.[3] The reign of this dynasty probably began in 684 BCE. Initially, the capital was Rajagriha. Later, it was shifted to Pataliputra, near the present day Patna in India. This dynasty was succeeded by the Shishunaga dynasty.

Haryanka dynasty

160

Bimbisara
The Haryanka king Bimbisara was responsible for expanding the boundaries of his kingdom through matrimonial alliances and conquest. The land of Kosala fell to Magadha in this way. He is referred to as King Shrenik in Jain scriptures. Estimates place the territory ruled by this early dynasty at 300 leagues in diameter, and encompassing 80,000 small settlements. Bimbsara was contemporary of Lord Mahavir and devout follower of Buddha. He remained a devout devotee and follower of Buddha throughout his life.

Ajatashatru

Eastern border of the Achaemenid Empire

In some sources, Bimbisara was imprisoned and killed by his son and successor, Ajatasattu (or Ajatashatru), under whose rule the dynasty reached its largest extent. Vaishali, ruled by the Licchavis, went to war with the kingdom of Magadha at some point, due to a border dispute involving gem mines. He is thought to have ruled from 492 to 460 BCE. Due to his expanding stategy, he incorporated kashi and vajji into his kingdom. Lord Buddha got nirvan in his eighth year of his rule[citation needed]. He built a stupa in Rajgirha on the Ashes of Lord Buddha. First Bodh sangati was held during his rule in Rajgirh in which Bodh education was scripted in two books named sutpatika and vinyapatika. He ruled 28 years according to Purana and according to Bodh he ruled 32 years. Udayin killed him and became the king of magadha.

Udayabhadra
The Mahavamsa text tells that Udayabhadra eventually succeeded his father, Ajatashatru, moving the capital of the Magadha kingdom to Pataliputra, which under the later Mauryan dynasty, would become the largest city in the world. He is believed to have ruled for sixteen years.

Later rulers
The kingdom had a particularly bloody succession. Anuruddha eventually succeeded Udaybhadra through assassination, and his son Munda succeeded him in the same fashion, as did his son Nagadasaka. Due in part to this bloody dynastic feuding, it is thought that a civil revolt led to the emergence of the Shishunaga dynasty.
Possibly preceded Haryanka dynasty Succeeded by: by: Shishunaga dynasty Brihadrathas dynasty

Haryanka dynasty

161

Notes References
1. Raychaudhuri, H.C. (1972), Political History of Ancient India, Calcutta: University of Calcutta Unknown parameter |loc= ignored (help).

Shishunaga dynasty

162

Shishunaga dynasty
Shishunaga Empire

Capital Languages Religion

413 BC345 BC

vaishali Sanskrit Hinduism Buddhism Monarchy

Government King History Established

413395 BCE Shishunaga 367345 BCE Mahanandin

413 BC

Disestablished 345 BC

Outline of South Asian history History of Indian subcontinent

The Shishunaga dynasty is believed to have been the third ruling dynasty of Magadha, a kingdom in ancient India. But according to the Puranas, this dynasty is the second ruling dynasty of Magadha, which succeeded the Barhadratha dynasty.[1] Shishunaga, the founder of this dynasty was initially an amatya (minister) of the last Haryanka dynasty ruler Nagadasaka and ascended to the thone after a popular rebellion in c. 413 BCE.[2] The capital of this dynasty initially was Rajagriha, but later shifted to Pataliputra, near the present day Patna during the reign of Kakavarna. According to tradition, Kakavarna was succeeded by his ten sons.[] This dynasty was succeeded by the Nanda dynasty in c.345 BCE.[3]

Shishunaga
Shishunaga (also called King Sisunaka) was the founder of this dynasty, known as the Shishunaga or Shaishunaga dynasty. He established the Magadha empire in 413 BCE. This empire, with its original capital in Rajgriha, later shifted to Pataliputra (both currently in the Indian state of Bihar). The Shishunaga dynasty in its time was the rulers of one of the largest empires of the Indian subcontinent.

Kakavarna Kalashoka
According to the Puranas, Shishunaga was succeeded by his son Kakavarna and according to the Sinhala chronicles by his son Kalashoka. On the basis of the evidence of the Ashokavadana, Hermann Jacobi, Wilhelm Geiger and Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar concluded that both are same. During Shishunaga's reign, he was the governor of Varanasi. Two most significant events of his reign are the Second Buddhist council at Vaishali and the final transfer of capital to Pataliputra.[4] According to the Harshacharita, he was killed by a dagger thrust in to his throat in the vicinity of his capital.[5]

Shishunaga dynasty

163

Later rulers
According to tradition, ten sons of Kalashoka ruled simultaneously. The Mahabodhivamsa states their names as Bhadrasena, Korandavarna, Mangura, Sarvanjaha, Jalika, Ubhaka, Sanjaya, Koravya, Nandivardhana and Panchamaka. Only one of them mentioned in the Puranic lists, Nandivardhana.[] Nandivardhana or Mahanandin was probably the last ruler of this dynasty, his empire was inherited by his illegitimate son Mahapadma Nanda.

Shishunaga dynasty rulers

Shishunaga (413395 BCE) Kakavarna Kalashoka (395367 BCE) Mahanandin (367345 BCE)

Notes References
Mahajan, V.D. (1960, reprint 2007), Ancient India, New Delhi: S. Chand, ISBN81-219=0887-6. Raychaudhuri, H.C. (1972), Political History of Ancient India, Calcutta: University of Calcutta Unknown parameter |loc= ignored (help).
Precededby Haryanka dynasty (Magadha) Pradyota dynasty (Avanti) Shishunaga Dynasty 413345 BCE Succeededby Nanda Dynasty

Classical India Timeline: 6th century BCE 5th century BCE 4th century BCE 3rd century BCE 2nd century BCE 1st century BCE 1st century CE 2nd century 3rd century 4th century 5th century 6th century 7th century 8th century 9th century 10th century 11th century Northwestern India Gandhara Northern India Magadha Shishunaga dynasty Nanda empire Kalinga Maurya Empire Sunga Empire Maha-Meghavahana Dynasty Kuninda Kingdom Western Satraps Gupta Empire Maitraka Vakataka dynasty, Harsha Gurjara-Pratihara Pala Empire Paramara dynasty Solanki Eastern Ganga dynasty Sena dynasty Southern India Pandyas Cholas Cheras Satavahana Empire Northeastern India Varman dynasty Kamarupa kingdom Mlechchha dynasty Pala dynasty Kamboja-Pala dynasty

(Persian rule) (Greek conquests) Indo-Greek Kingdom Yona Indo-Scythians Indo-Parthians Pahlava Kushan Empire Indo-Sassanids Kidarite Kingdom Indo-Hephthalites (Huna)

Kalabhras dynasty Kadamba Dynasty Western Ganga Dynasty Vishnukundina Pallava Kalachuri Chalukya Rashtrakuta Yadava dynasty Western Chalukyas Kakatiya dynasty Hoysala Empire

(Islamic conquests) Kabul Shahi

(Islamic Empire)

Sunga Empire

164

Sunga Empire
Shunga Empire

185 BCE75 BCE

Approximate extent of the Sunga empire in (c. 185 BCE).

Capital Pataliputra Vidisa Sanskrit Prakrit Pali Brahmanism Buddhism Jainism Monarchy

Languages

Religion

Government Emperor Historical era Today part of Established Disestablished 185151 BCE 8375 BCE

Pusyamitra Sunga Devabhuti Antiquity 185 BCE 75 BCE India Bangladesh Nepal

The Sunga Empire (Sanskrit: ) or Shunga Empire was an Aryan dynasty from Magadha that controlled vast areas of the Indian Subcontinent from around 185 to 73 BCE. The dynasty was established by Pusyamitra Sunga, after the fall of the Maurya Empire. Its capital was Pataliputra, but later emperors such as Bhagabhadra also

Sunga Empire held court at Besnagar, modern Vidisha in Eastern Malwa.[1] Pushyamitra Sunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. There were ten Sunga rulers. The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought battles with the Kalingas, Satavahanas, the Indo-Greeks, and possibly the Panchalas and Mathuras. Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including small terracotta images, larger stone sculptures, and architectural monuments such as the Stupa at Bharhut, and the renowned Great Stupa at Sanchi. The Sunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant of Brahmi and was used to write the Sanskrit language. The Sunga Empire played an imperative role in patronizing Indian culture at a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place. Patanjali`s Yoga Sutras and Mahabhasya were composed in this period. Artistry also progressed with the rise of the Mathura school of art. Thereafter, there was a downfall of the dynasty and Kanvas succeeded around 73 BCE.

165

Origins
The Shunga dynasty was established in 185 BCE, about 50 years after Ashoka's death, when the emperor Brhadratha, the last of the Mauryan rulers, was assassinated by the then commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga,[2] while he was taking the Guard of Honour of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga then ascended the throne. Sunga Period

Balustrade-holding Yaksa, Madhya Pradesh, Sunga period (2nd1st century BCE). Musee Guimet.

Yaksa reliefs. Bharhut, 2nd century BCE.

Pushyamitra Sunga became the ruler of the Magadha and neighbouring territories. The empire of Pushyamitra was extended up to Narmada in the south, and controlled Jalandhar and Sialkot in the Punjab in the north-western regions, and the city of Ujjain[3] in central India. The Kabul Valley and much of the Punjab passed into the hands of the Indo-Greeks and the Deccan to the Satavahanas. Pushyamitra died after ruling for 36 years (187151 BCE). He was succeeded by son Agnimitra. This prince is the hero of a famous drama by one of India's greatest playwrights, Kalidasa. Agnimitra was viceroy of Vidisha when the

Sunga Empire story takes place. The power of the Sungas gradually weakened. It is said that there were ten Sunga emperors. The Sungas were succeeded by the Kanva dynasty around 73 BCE.

166

Buddhism
Following the Mauryans, the first Brahmin emperor was Pusyamitra Sunga, and is believed by some historians to have persecuted Buddhists and contributed to a resurgence of Brahmanism that forced Buddhism outwards to Kashmir, Gandhara and Bactria.[4] However, there is doubt as to whether he did persecute Buddhists actively.[4]

Support given
Later Sunga emperors were seen as amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building of the stupa at Bharhut.[5] Some writers believe that Brahmanism competed in political and spiritual realm with Buddhism[4] in the Gangetic plains. Buddhism flourished in the realms of the Bactrian kings. [citation needed] Some Indian scholars are of the opinion that the orthodox Sunga emperors were not intolerant towards Buddhism and that Buddhism prospered during the time of the Sunga emperors. The existence of Buddhism in Bengal in the Sunga period can also be inferred from a terracotta tablet that was found at Tamralipti and is on exhibit at the Asutosh Museum, University of Calcutta. An inscription at Bodh Gaya at the Mahabodhi Temple records the construction of the temple as follows: "The gift of Nagadevi the wife of Emperor Brahmamitra." Another inscription reads: "The gift of Kurangi, the mother of living sons and the wife of Emperor Indragnimitra, son of Kosiki. The gift also of Srima of the royal palace shrine.[6][7]"
Sunga royal family, West Bengal, 1st century BCE.

Sunga Empire

167

Cunningham has regretted the loss of the latter part of these important records. As regards the first coping inscription, he has found traces of eleven Brahmi letters after "Kuramgiye danam", the first nine of which read "rajapasada-cetika sa". Bloch reads these nine letters as "raja-pasada-cetikasa" and translates this expression in relation to the preceding words: "(the gift of Kurangi, the wife of Indragnimitra and the mother of living sons), "to the caitya (cetika) of the noble temple", taking the word raja before pasada as an epithet on ornans, distinguishing the temple as a particularly large and stately building similar to such expressions as rajahastin 'a noble elephant', rajahamsa `a goose (as distinguished from hamsa 'a duck'), etc." Cunningham has translated the expression by "the royal palace, the caitya", suggesting that "the mention of the raja-pasada would seem to connect the donor with the king's family," Luders doubtfully suggests "to the king's temple" as a rendering of "raja-pasada-cetikasa."
Amorous royal couple, Sunga, 1st century BCE, West Bengal.

Wars of the Sungas

War and conflict characterized the Sunga period. They are known to have warred with the Kalingas, Satavahanas, the Indo-Greeks, and possibly the Panchalas and Mathuras. The Shunga Empire's wars with the Indo-Greek Kingdom figure greatly in the history of this period. From around 180 BCE the Greco-Bactrian ruler Demetrius, conquered the Kabul Valley and is theorized to have advanced into the trans-Indus. The Indo Greek Menander is credited with either joining or leading a campaign to Pataliputra with other Indian rulers; however, very little is known about the exact nature and success of the campaign. The net result of these wars remains uncertain.

Extent of the Sunga Empire

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Some interpretations of the Mahabharata and Yuga Purana have attempted to account for this: The Anushasanaparava of the Mahabharata affirms that the city of Mathura was under the joint control of the Yavanas and the Kambojas.[9] Also the Hindu text of the Yuga Purana, which describes Indian historical events in the form of a prophecy,[10] relates the attack of the Indo-Greeks on the capital Pataliputra, a magnificent fortified city with 570 towers and 64 gates according to Megasthenes,[11] and describes the ultimate destruction of the city's walls: "Then, after having approached Saketa together with the Panchalas and the Mathuras, the Yavanas, valiant in battle, will reach Kusumadhvaja ("The town of the flower-standard", Pataliputra). Then, once Puspapura (another name of Pataliputra) has been reached and its celebrated mud[-walls] cast down, all the realm will be in disorder." (Yuga Purana, Paragraph 4748, 2002 edition.)

Vedika pillar with Greek warrior. Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh, Sunga Period, c.100-80BC. Reddish brown [8] sandstone. Indian Museum, Calcutta (drawing).

Pushyamitra is recorded to have performed two Ashvamedha Yagnas and Sunga imperial inscriptions have extended as far as Jalandhar. Scriptures such as the Divyavadhana note that his rule extended even farther to Sialkot, in the Punjab. Moreover, if it was lost, Mathura was regained by the Sungas around 100 BCE (or by other indigenous rulers: the Arjunayanas (area of Mathura) and Yaudheyas mention Bronze coin of the Sunga period, Eastern India. 2nd1st century BCE. military victories on their coins ("Victory of the Arjunayanas", "Victory of the Yaudheyas"), and during the 1st century BCE, the Trigartas, Audumbaras and finally the Kunindas also started to mint their own coins). Accounts of battles between the Greeks and the Sunga in Northwestern India are also found in the Mlavikgnimitram, a play by Klidsa which describes a battle between Greek cavalrymen and Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra, on the Indus river, in which the Indians defeated the Greeks and Pushyamitra successfully completed the Ashvamedha Yagna.[12] Nevertheless, very little can be said with great certainty. However, what does appear clear is that the two realms appeared to have established normalized diplomatic relations in the succeeding reigns of their respective rulers.

Sunga Empire The Indo-Greeks and the Sungas seem to have reconciled and exchanged diplomatic missions around 110 BCE, as indicated by the Heliodorus pillar, which records the dispatch of a Greek ambassador named Heliodorus, from the court of the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas, to the court of the Sunga emperor Bhagabhadra at the site of Vidisha in central India.

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Cultural contributions
While there is much debate on the religious politics of the Sunga dynasty, it is recognized for a number of contributions. Art, education, philosophy, and other learning flowered during this period. Most notably, Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and Mahabhasya were composed in this period. It is also noted for its subsequent mention in the Malavikaagnimitra. This work was composed by Kalidasa in the later Gupta period, and romanticized the love of Malavika and King Agnimitra, with a background of court intrigue. Artistry on the subcontinent also progressed with the rise of the Mathura school, which is considered the indigenous counterpart to the more Hellenistic Gandhara school of Afghanistan and Pakistan. During the historical Sunga period (185 to 73 BCE), Buddhist activity also managed to survive somewhat in central India (Madhya Pradesh) as suggested by some architectural expansions that were done at the stupas of Sanchi and Barhut, originally started under Emperor Ashoka. It remains uncertain whether these works were due to the weakness of the control of the Sungas in these areas, or a sign of tolerance on their part.

A relief from Bharhut.

The last of the Sunga emperor was Devabhuti (8373 BCE). He was assassinated by his minister (Vasudeva Kanva) and is said to have been overfond of the company of women. The Sunga dynasty was then replaced by the subsequent Kanvas.

Sunga Yakshi, 2nd1st century BCE.

Sunga masculine figurine (molded plate). 2nd1st century BCE.

Sunga woman with child. 2nd1st century BCE.

Sunga Yaksa. 2nd1st century BCE.

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Sunga fecundity deity. 2nd1st century BCE.

Sunga fecundity deity. 2nd1st century BCE.

Script
The script used by the Sunga was a variant of Brahmi, and was used to write the Sanskrit language. The script is thought to be an intermediary between the Maurya and the Kalinga Brahmi scripts.[13]

List of Sunga Emperors

Pusyamitra Sunga (185149 BCE) Agnimitra (149141 BCE) Vasujyeshtha (141131 BCE) Vasumitra (131124 BCE) Andhraka (124122 BCE) Pulindaka (122119 BCE) Ghosha (?) Vajramitra (?) Bhagabhadra (?) Devabhuti (8373 BCE)
Precededby Magadha dynasties Succeededby Maurya dynasty Kanva dynasty

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Notes
[1] (http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0004-3648(1975)37:1/ 2<101:ASCFV>2. 0. CO;2-R& size=LARGE) [2] "Pusyamitra is said in the Puranas to have been the senn or army-commander of the last Maurya emperor Brhadratha" The Yuga Purana, Mitchener, 2002. [3] India :: The Shunga Empire Britannica Online Encyclopedia (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-46867/ India) [4] Sarvastivada pg 3839 [5] Akira Hirakawa, Paul Groner, "A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana", Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1996, ISBN 81-208-0955-6 pg 223 [6] (Barua, B.M., ' Old Buddhist Shrines at Bodh-Gaya Inscriptions (http:/ / ccbs. ntu. edu. tw/ FULLTEXT/ JR-ENG/ bar. htm)) [7] (http:/ / www. buddhanet. net/ bodh_gaya/ bodh_gaya02. htm) [8] D.N. Jha,"Early India: A Concise History"p.150, plate 17 [9] "tatha Yavana Kamboja Mathuram.abhitash cha ye./ ete ashava.yuddha.kushaladasinatyasi charminah."//5 (MBH 12/105/5, Kumbhakonam Ed) [10] "For any scholar engaged in the study of the presence of the Indo-Greeks or Indo-Scythians before the Christian Era, the Yuga Purana is an important source material" Dilip Coomer Ghose, General Secretary, The Asiatic Society, Kolkata, 2002 [11] "The greatest city in India is that which is called Palimbothra, in the dominions of the Prasians [...] Megasthenes informs us that this city stretched in the inhabited quarters to an extreme length on each side of eighty stadia, and that its breadth was fifteen stadia, and that a ditch encompassed it all round, which was six hundred feet in breadth and thirty cubits in depth, and that the wall was crowned with 570 towers and had four-and-sixty gates." Arr. Ind. 10. "Of Pataliputra and the Manners of the Indians.", quoting Megasthenes Text (http:/ / www. mssu. edu/ projectsouthasia/ history/ primarydocs/ Foreign_Views/ GreekRoman/ Megasthenes-Indika. htm) [12] "Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins in the Smithsonian institution", Bopearachchi, p16. Also: "Kalidasa recounts in his Mlavikgnimitra (5.15.1424) that Puspamitra appointed his grandson Vasumitra to guard his sacrificial horse, which wandered on the right bank of the Sindhu river and was seized by Yavana cavalrymen- the latter being thereafter defeated by Vasumitra. The "Sindhu" referred to in this context may refer the river Indus: but such an extension of Sunga power seems unlikely, and it is more probable that it denotes one of two rivers in central India -either the Sindhu river which is a tributary of the Yamuna, or the Kali-Sindhu river which is a tributary of the Chambal." The Yuga Purana, Mitchener, 2002. [13] Source (http:/ / www. proel. org/ alfabetos/ sunga. html)

References
"The Legend of King Asoka, A study and translation of the Asokavadana", John Strong, Princeton Library of Asian translations, 1983, ISBN 0-691-01459-0

References
"Dictionary of Buddhism" by Damien KEOWN (Oxford University Press, 2003) ISBN 0-19-860560-9 "Ashoka and the decline of the Mauryas" Romila Thaper (London 1961). "The Yuga Purana", John E. Mitchiner, Kolkata, The Asiatic Society, 2002, ISBN 81-7236-124-6

External links
List of rulers of Magadha (http://www.hostkingdom.net/india.html#Magadha) Medallions from Barhut (http://ignca.nic.in/asp/showbig.asp?projid=rar26) Sunga art in North India (Bharhut and Bodgaya) (http://www.arthistory.upenn.edu/104/caves.html)

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Kanva dynasty

Outline of South Asian history History of Indian subcontinent

The Kanva dynasty replaced the Sunga dynasty in Magadha, and ruled in the eastern part of India from 75 BCE to 30 BCE. The last ruler of the Sunga dynasty,Devbhooti, was overthrown by Vasudeva of the Kanva dynasty in 75 BC. The Kanva ruler allowed the kings of the Sunga dynasty to continue to rule in obscurity in a corner of their former dominions. Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulers. Their dynasty was brought to an end by the ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty or 'Andhra bhritya' dynasty in Pratishthan or Paithan in Maharashtra.

Rulers
Vasudeva (c. 75 c. 66 BCE) Bhumimitra (c. 66 c. 52 BCE) Narayana (c. 52 c. 40 BCE) Susharman (c. 40 c. 30 BCE)
Precededby Magadha dynasties Succeededby Sunga dynasty Gupta dynasty

References
Raychaudhuri, Hemchandra Political History of Ancient India, University of Calcutta, 1972.

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Gupta Empire
Gupta Empire

320 CE600s CE

Gupta Empire 320600 CE

Capital Languages Religion Pataliputra Sanskrit Hinduism Buddhism Monarchy

Government Maharajadhiraja Historical era Area Established Disestablished 240s280s 319335 540550

Sri-Gupta Chandragupta I Vishnu Gupta Ancient history 320 CE 600s CE 3,500,000km (1,351,358 sq mi)

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Today part of

India Pakistan Bangladesh Nepal

Warning: Value specified for "continent" does not comply

Outline of South Asian history History of Indian subcontinent

The Gupta Empire (Sanskrit: , Gupta Smrjya) was an ancient Indian empire which existed from approximately 320 to 550 CE and covered much of the Indian Subcontinent.[1] Founded by Maharaja Sri Gupta, the dynasty is a model of a classical civilization.[2] The peace and prosperity created under the leadership of the Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors.[3] This period is called the Golden Age of India[4] and was marked by extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture.[5] Chandra Gupta I, Samudra Gupta the Great, and Chandra Gupta II the Great were the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty.[6] The 4th century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, credits Guptas with having conquered about twenty one kingdoms, both in and outside India, including the kingdoms of Parasikas (Persians), the Hunas, the Kambojas tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys, the Kinnaras, Kiratas etc.[7] The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture, sculptures and paintings.[8] The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields.[9][10] Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era.[11] Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia.[12] The earliest available Indian epics are also thought to have been written around this period. The empire gradually declined because of many factors such as substantial loss of territory and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories and the invasion by the Huna peoples from Central Asia.[13] After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms. A minor line of the Gupta clan continued to rule Magadha after the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by Vardhana ruler Harsha Vardhana, who established an empire in the first half of the 7th century.

Origin of the Guptas

According to many historians, the Gupta Empire was a Vaish dynasty.[14][] Historian Ram Sharan Sharma asserts that the Vaish Guptas "appeared as a reaction against oppressive rulers".[15] A.S. Altekar, a historian and archaeologist, who has written several books on Gupta coinage,[16] also regarded the caste of the Guptas as Vaish on the basis of the ancient Indian texts on law, which prescribe the name-ending with Gupta for a member of the Vaish caste. According to historian Michael C. Brannigan, the rise of the Gupta Empire was one of the most prominent violations of the caste system in ancient India.[] Fa Xian was the first of the Chinese pilgrims who visited India during the reign of Gupta emperor Chandragupta II. He started his journey from China in 399 CE and reached India in 405 CE. During his stay in India up to 411 CE, he went on a pilgrimage to Mathura, Kanauj, Kapilavastu, Kushinagar, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashi and Rajgriha and made careful observations about the empire's conditions. Fa Xian was pleased with the mildness of administration. The Penal Code was mild and offences were punished by fines only. From his accounts, the Gupta Empire was a prosperous period, until the Rome-China trade axis was broken with the fall of the Han dynasty, the Guptas' did indeed prosper.

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Srigupta and Ghatotkacha

The most likely time for the reign of Sri Gupta is c. 240280 CE. A number of modern historians, which include Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay and K. P. Jayaswal, think he and his son were possibly feudatories of the Kushans.[17] His son and successor Ghatotkacha ruled probably from c. 280319 CE. In contrast to their successor, Chandragupta I, who is mentioned as Maharajadhiraja, he and his son Ghatotkacha are referred to in inscriptions as Maharaja[18] At the beginning of the 5th century the Guptas established and ruled a few small Hindu kingdoms in Magadha and around modern-day Bihar.

Chandragupta I
Ghatotkacha (reigned c. 280319 CE), had a son named Chandragupta (reigned c. 319335 CE) (not to be confused with Chandragupta Maurya (340293 BCE), founder of the Mauryan Empire.) In a breakthrough deal, Chandragupta was married to Kumaradevi, a Lichchhavi princessthe main power in Magadha. With a dowry of the kingdom of Magadha (capital Pataliputra) and an alliance with the Lichchhavis, Chandragupta set about expanding his power, conquering much of Magadha, Prayaga and Saketa. He established a realm stretching from the Ganges River to Prayaga (modern-day Allahabad) by 321 CE. He assumed the imperial title of Maharajadhiraja.

Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I, depicted on a coin of their son Samudragupta, 335380 CE.

Samudragupta
Samudragupta, Parakramanka succeeded his father in 335 CE, and ruled for about 45 years, until his death in 380 CE. He took the kingdoms of Ahichchhatra and Padmavati early in his reign. He then attacked the Malwas, the Yaudheyas, the Arjunayanas, the Maduras and the Abhiras, all of which were tribes in the area. By his death in 380, he had incorporated over twenty kingdoms into his realm and his rule extended from the Himalayas to the river Narmada and from the Brahmaputra to the Yamuna. He gave himself the titles King of Kings and World Monarch. Historian Vincent Smith described him as the "Indian Napoleon".[19] He performed Ashwamedha yajna in which a horse is left to freely roam in the entire nation, so as to display the power of king and to underline the importance of his conquest. The Coin of Samudragupta, with Garuda pillar. stone replica of the horse, then prepared, is in the Lucknow Museum. British Museum. The Samudragupta Prashasti inscribed on the Ashokan Pillar, now in Akbars Fort at Allahabad, is an authentic record of his exploits and his sway over most of the continent.

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Samudragupta was not only a talented military leader but also a great patron of art and literature. The important scholars present in his court were Harishena, Vasubandhu and Asanga. He was a poet and musician himself. He was a firm believer in Hinduism and is known to have worshipped Lord Vishnu. He was considerate of other religions and allowed Sri Lanka's Buddhist king Sirimeghvanna to build a monastery at Bodh Gaya. That monastery was called by Xuanzang as the Mahabodhi Sangharama.[20] He provided a gold railing around the Bodhi Tree.

Rama Gupta
Although, the narrative of the Devichandragupta is not supported by any contemporary epigraphical evidence, the historicity of Rama Gupta is proved by his Durjanpur inscriptions on three Jaina images, where A Terracotta relief panel of a meditating Buddha he is mentioned as the Maharajadhiraja. A large number of his copper from the Gupta era. coins also have been found from the Eran-Vidisha region and classified [21] in five distinct types, which include the Garuda, Garudadhvaja, lion and border legend types. The Brahmi legends on these coins are written in the early Gupta style.[22] In opinion of art historian Dr. R. A. Agarawala, D. Litt., Rama Gupta may be the eldest son of Samudra Gupta. He became king because of being the eldest. It may be a possibility that he was dethroned because of not being the worthy enough to rule and his younger brother Chandra Gupta II took over.

The Dashavatara Temple or Vishnu Temple also called Gupta temple at Deogarh.

Entry frame of the Dashavatara Temple.

Gupta Empire Hindu God Vishnu reclining on the serpent Shesha (Ananta) on a side panel of the Vishnu temple of 5th century.[]

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Chandra Gupta II"Vikramaditya"

According to the Gupta records, amongst his many sons,Samudragupta nominated prince Chandra Gupta II, born of queen Dattadevi, as his successor. Chandra Gupta II, Vikramaditya (the Sun of Power), ruled from 380 until 413. Chandra Gupta II also married to a Kadamba princess of Kuntala region and a princess of Naga lineage (Ngakulotpannn), Kuberanaga. His daughter Prabhavatigupta from this Naga queen was married to Rudrasena II, the Vakataka ruler of Deccan.[23] His son Kumaragupta I was married to Kadamba princess A Terracotta relief panel depicting a scene from the Rmyaa, built during the Gupta era. of Karnataka region. Emperor Chandra Gupta II expanded his realm westwards, defeating the Saka Western Kshatrapas of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra in a campaign lasting until 409, but with his main opponent Rudrasimha III defeated by 395, and crushing the Bengal (Vanga) chiefdoms. This extended his control from coast-to-coast, estabilshed a second capital at Ujjain and was the high point of the empire. Despite the creation of the empire through war, the reign is remembered for its very influential style of Hindu art, literature, culture and science, especially during the reign of Chandra Gupta II. Some excellent works of Hindu art such as the panels at the Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh serve to illustrate the magnificence of Gupta art. Above all it was the synthesis of elements that gave Gupta art its distinctive flavour. During this period, the Gold coins of Chandragupta II. Guptas were supportive of thriving Buddhist and Jain cultures as well, and for this reason there is also a long history of non-Hindu Gupta period art. In particular, Gupta period Buddhist art was to be influential in most of East and Southeast Asia. Many advances were recorded by the Chinese scholar and traveller Faxian (Fa-hien) in his diary and published afterwards. The court of Chandragupta was made even more illustrious by the fact that it was graced by the Navaratna (Nine Jewels), a group of nine who excelled in the literary arts. Amongst these men was the immortal Kalidasa whose works dwarfed the works of many other literary geniuses, not only in his own age but in the ages to come. Kalidasa was particularly known for his fine exploitation of the shringara (romantic) element in his verse.

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Chandra Gupta II's campaigns against Foreign Tribes

4th century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, credits Chandragupta Vikramaditya with having conquered about twenty one kingdoms, both in and outside India. After finishing his campaign in the East and West India, Vikramaditya (Chandra Gupta II) proceeded northwards, subjugated the Parasikas (Persians), then the Hunas and the Kambojas tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys respectively. Thereafter, the king proceeds across the Himalaya and reduced the Kinnaras, Kiratas etc. and lands into India proper.[7]

Silver coin of Chandragupta II, minted in his Western territories, in the style of the Western Satraps.Obv: Bust of king, with corrupted Greek [24][25] legend "OOIHU". Rev: Legend in Brahmi, "Chandragupta Vikramaditya, King of Kings, and a devotee of Vishnu", around a peacock. 15mm, 2.1grams. Mitchiner 48214823.

The Brihatkathamanjari of the Kashmiri writer Kshmendra states, king Vikramaditya (Chandra Gupta II) had "unburdened the sacred earth of the Barbarians like the Sakas, Mlecchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Tusharas, Parasikas, Hunas, etc. by annihilating these sinful Mlecchas completely".[26][27][28]

Fa-Hsien
In 399, Fa-Hsien, a Chinese Buddhist, went to India to study the sacred writings of Buddhism.In the 10 years he was there, he wrote about life under the Gupta emperors. His writings form one of the most important sources for the history of this period.

Kumaragupta I
Chandragupta II was succeeded by his second son Kumaragupta I, born of Mahadevi Dhruvasvamini. Kumaragupta I assumed the title, Mahendraditya.[29] He ruled until 455. Towards the end of his reign a tribe in the Narmada valley, the Pushyamitras, rose in power to threaten the empire.

Skandagupta
Skandagupta, son and successor of Kumaragupta I is generally considered to be the last of the great Gupta rulers. He assumed the titles of Vikramaditya and Kramaditya.[32] He defeated the Pushyamitra threat, but then was faced with invading Hephthalites or "White Huns", known in India as the Sweta Huna, from the northwest. He repulsed a Huna attack c. 455 CE, But the expense of the wars drained the empire's resources and contributed to its decline. Skandagupta died in 467 and was succeeded by his agnate brother Purugupta.[33]

Silver coin of the Gupta King Kumara Gupta I AD (414455) (Coin of his Western territories, design derived from the Western Satraps).Obv: Bust [30][31] of king with crescents, with traces of corrupt Greek script. Rev: Garuda standing facing with spread wings. Brahmi legend: Parama-bhagavata rajadhiraja Sri Kumaragupta Mahendraditya.

Decline of the empire

Gupta Empire Skandagupta was followed by weak rulers Purugupta (467473), Kumaragupta II (473476), Budhagupta (476495?), Narasimhagupta, Kumaragupta III, Vishnugupta, Vainyagupta and Bhanugupta. In the 480's the Hephthalites broke through the Gupta defenses in the northwest, and much of the empire in northwest was overrun by the Hun by 500. The empire disintegrated under the attacks of Toramana and his successor Mihirakula. It appears from inscriptions that the Guptas, although their power was much diminished, continued to resist the Huns. The Huns were defeated and driven out of India in 528 AD by a coalition consisting of Gupta emperor Narasimhagupta and the king Yashodharman from Malwa.[34] The succession of the sixth-century Guptas is not entirely clear, but the tail end recognized ruler of the dynasty's main line was king Vishnugupta, reigning from 540 to 550. In addition to the Hun invasion, the factors, which contribute to the decline of the empire include competition from the Vakatakas and the rise of Yashodharman in Malwa.[]

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Military organization
The Imperial Guptas could have achieved their successes through force of arms with an efficient martial system. Historically, the best accounts of this come not from the Hindus themselves but from Chinese and Western observers. However, a contemporary Indian document, regarded as a military classic of the time, the Siva-Dhanur-veda, offers some insight into the military system of the Guptas.

Gold coin of Gupta era, depicting a Gupta king holding a bow.

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The Guptas seem to have relied heavily on infantry archers, and the bow was one of the dominant weapons of their army. The Hindu version of the longbow was composed of metal, or more typically bamboo, and fired a long bamboo cane arrow with a metal head. Unlike the composite bows of Western and Central Asian foes, bows of this design would be less prone to warping in the damp and moist conditions often prevalent to the region. The Indian longbow was reputedly a powerful weapon capable of great range and penetration and provided an effective counter to invading horse archers. Iron shafts were used against armored elephants and fire arrows were also part of the bowmen's arsenal. India historically has had a prominent reputation for its steel weapons. One of these was the steel bow. Due to its high tensility, the steel bow was capable of long range and penetration of exceptionally thick armor. These were less common weapons than the bamboo design and found in the hands of noblemen rather than in the ranks. Archers were frequently protected by infantry equipped with shields, javelins, and longswords.

The Iron pillar of Delhi is notable for the composition of the metals used in its construction.

The Guptas also had knowledge of siegecraft, catapults, and other sophisticated war machines. The Guptas apparently showed little predilection for using horse archers, despite the fact these warriors were a main component in the ranks of their Scythian, Parthian, and Hepthalite (Huna) enemies. However, the Gupta armies were probably better disciplined. Able commanders like Samudragupta and Chandragupta II would have likely understood the need for combined armed tactics and proper logistical organization. Gupta military success likely stemmed from the concerted use of elephants, armored cavalry, and foot archers in tandem against both Hindu kingdoms and foreign armies invading from the Northwest. The Guptas also maintained a navy, allowing them to control regional waters. The collapse of the Gupta Empire in the face of the Huna onslaught was due not directly to the inherent defects of the Gupta army, which after all had initially defeated these people under Skandagupta. More likely, internal dissolution sapped the ability of the Guptas to resist foreign invasion, as was simultaneously occurring in Western Europe and China. During the reign of Chandragupta II, Gupta empire maintained a large army consisting of 500,000 infantry, 50,000 cavalry, 20,000 charioteers and 10,000 elephants along with a powerful navy with more than 1200 ships. Chandragupta II controlled the whole of the Indian subcontinent; the Gupta empire was the most powerful empire in the world during his reign, at a time when the Roman Empire in the west was in decline.

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Gupta administration
A study of the epigraphical records of the Gupta empire shows that there was a hierarchy of administrative divisions from top to bottom. The empire was called by various names such as Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, Mandala, Prithvi and Avani. It was divided into 26 provinces, which were styled as Bhukti, Pradesha and Bhoga. Provinces were also divided into Vishayas and put under the control of the Vishayapatis. A Vishayapati administered the Vishaya with the help of the Adhikarana (council of representatives), which comprised four representatives: Nagarasreshesthi, Sarthavaha, Prathamakulika and Prathama Kayastha. A part of the Vishaya was called Vithi.[35] There were also trade links of Gupta business with the Roman empire.

Legacy of the Gupta Empire

Scholars of this period include Varahamihira and Aryabhata, who is believed to be the first to come up with the concept of zero, postulated the theory that the Earth moves round the Sun, and studied solar and lunar eclipses. Kalidasa, who was a great playwright, who wrote plays such as Shakuntala, which is said to have inspired Goethe, and marked the highest point of Sanskrit literature is also said to have belonged to this period.The famous Sushruta Samhita, which is a Sanskrit redaction text on all of the major concepts of ayurvedic medicine with innovative chapters on surgery, dates to the Gupta period. Chess is said to have originated in this period,[36] where its early form in the 6th century was known as caturaga, which translates as "four divisions [of the military]" infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariotry represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively. Doctors also invented several medical instruments, and even performed operations. The Indian numerals which were the first positional base 10 numeral systems in the world originated from Gupta India. The ancient Gupta text Kama Krishna and Radha playing chaturanga on an 8x8 Sutra is widely considered to be the standard work on human sexual Ashtpada behavior in Sanskrit literature written by the Indian scholar Vatsyayana. Aryabhata, a noted mathematician-astronomer of the Gupta period proposed that the earth is not flat, but is instead round and rotates about its own axis. He also discovered that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight. Instead of the prevailing cosmogony in which eclipses were caused by pseudo-planetary nodes Rahu and Ketu, he explained eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on Earth. These and the other scientific discoveries made by Indians during this period about gravity[37] and the planets of the solar system spread throughout the world through trade.

Gupta Empire Borobudur in Java, Indonesia. The buildings design in Gupta architecture reflects India's influence on the region.[38]

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Art and literature

During the Gupta period, Indian artists created some of their finest works. Magnificent palaces and temples contained the highest quality sculpture and paintings. Classical forms of music and dance, created under the Guptas, are still practiced today all over Asia. Wall paintings There are more than 30 Buddhist shrines and monasteries in the Ajanta hills. The walls of many of these were decorated with colourful frescoes, or wall paintings. This was fashion that continued for hundreds of years. The paintings show scenes from the life of the Buddha, and other devotional subjects. Cave shrines Many of the Buddhist cave-shrines in western India were cut out of the cliffs - a task which must have taken years of labour with the simple tools the Guptas used. The cave-shrines are dark but beautifully decorated with sculptures and paintings. The Buddha in this example is making the gesture known as abhay-mudra, or having no fear.

Gupta dynasty rulers

The main branch of the Gupta dynasty ruled the Gupta Empire in India, from around 320 to 550. This dynasty was founded by Srigupta. The rulers are: Sri Gupta Ghatotkacha Chandragupta I Nishamusgupta Samudragupta Ramagupta Chandragupta II Kumaragupta I Skandagupta Purugupta Kumaragupta II Budhagupta Narasimhagupta Baladitya Kumaragupta III Vishnugupta Vainyagupta

Expansion of Gupta Empire

Bhanugupta Shashankgupta

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Timeline
1. 320 : Chandragupta I founds the Gupta Empire. 2. 330-376 : Samudragupta expands the empire from the Indus River to the Bay of Bengal, and up into the northern mountains. 3. 376-415 : Chandragupta II makes the empire secure, and encourages trade. 4. 415-450 : Kalidas composes most of his poetry in the reign of Kumargupta(415-455). 5. 450 : Empire begin to collapse under pressure from invading Huns. 6. 554 : The Gupta dynasty ends when the last emperor Shashakgupta dies.

Notes
[2] The Gupta Dynasty and Empire (http:/ / www. fsmitha. com/ h1/ ch28gup. htm). Fsmitha.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-21. [3] India Historical Setting The Classical Age Gupta and Harsha (http:/ / historymedren. about. com/ library/ text/ bltxtindia7. htm). Historymedren.about.com (17 June 2010). Retrieved on 2011-11-21. [4] GUPTA DYNASTY, GOLDEN AGE OF INDIA (http:/ / www. nupam. com/ Sgupta1. html). nupam.com [5] Ancient India. The Age of the Guptas (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20081204082030/ http:/ / www. wsu. edu:8001/ ~dee/ ANCINDIA/ GUPTA. HTM). wsu.edu [6] Gupta Empire in India, art in the Gupta empire, Indian history India (http:/ / www. indianchild. com/ gupta_empire. htm). Indianchild.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-21. [7] Raghu Vamsa v 4.6075 [8] Gupta dynasty (Indian dynasty) (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 249590/ Gupta-dynasty). Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved on 2011-11-21. [9] Mahajan, p. 540 [10] Gupta dynasty: empire in 4th century (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic-art/ 285248/ 1960/ The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century). Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved on 2011-11-21. [11] The Gupta Empire of India | Chandragupta I | Samudragupta (http:/ / www. historybits. com/ gupta. htm). Historybits.com (11 September 2001). Retrieved on 2011-11-21. [12] Trade | The Story of India Photo Gallery (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ thestoryofindia/ gallery/ photos/ 8. html). PBS. Retrieved on 2011-11-21. [13] Agarwal, Ashvini (1989). Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas, Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0592-5, pp.2649 [16] List of Altekar's publications (http:/ / openlibrary. org/ a/ OL9771A/ Anant-Sadashiv-Altekar) in the Open Library. [17] Agarwal, Ashvini (1989). Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas, Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0592-5, pp.847 [18] Majumdar, p. 474 [20] Mahajan, p. 487 [23] Raychaudhuri, p. 489 [24] "The conquest is indicated by the issue of the new Gupta silver coinage modelled on the previous Saka coinage showing on observe the King's head, Greek script, and dates as on Saka coins" in Early history of Jammu region: pre-historic to 6th century A.D. by Raj Kumar p.511 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=pSKNeJsH7QgC& pg=PA511) [25] "Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign of Chandragupta II is to be seen in his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type (a peacock) for the chaitya with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc...", p.cli [26] ata shrivikramadityo helya nirjitakhilah Mlechchana Kamboja. Yavanan neechan Hunan Sabarbran Tushara. Parsikaanshcha tayakatacharan vishrankhalan hatya bhrubhangamatreyanah bhuvo bharamavarayate (Brahata Katha, 10/1/285-86, Kshmendra). [27] Kathasritsagara 18.1.7678 [28] Cf:"In the story contained in Kathasarit-sagara, king Vikarmaditya is said to have destroyed all the barbarous tribes such as the Kambojas, Yavanas, Hunas, Tokharas and the , National Council of Teachers of English Committee on Recreational Reading Sanskrit language. [29] Agarwal, Ashvini (1989). Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas, Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0592-5, pp.191200 [31] "Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign of Chandragupta II is to be see n in his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type (a peacock) for the chaitya wit crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc...", p.cli [32] Raychaudhuri, p. 510 [33] Raychaudhuri, p. 516 [34] Columbia Encyclopedia [35] Mahajan, pp. 5301 [37] Thomas Khoshy, Elementary Number Theory with Applications, Academic Press, 2002, p. 567. ISBN 0-12-421171-2.

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References
Majumdar, R.C. (1977). Ancient India, New Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0436-8 Raychaudhuri, H.C. (1972). Political History of Ancient India (http://books.google.com/ books?id=pGwjFsqwF0YC&printsec=frontcover), Calcutta: University of Calcutta ISBN 1-4400-5272-7 Shiv Chhatrapati 14 February 2013 @ 5:43 pm

Further reading
Andrea Berens Karls & Mounir A. Farah. World History The Human Experience.

External links
Frontline Article on Gupta Period Art (http://www.flonnet.com/fl2422/stories/20071116504306400.htm) Regents Prep:Global History:Golden Ages:Gupta Empire (http://regentsprep.org/Regents/global/themes/ goldenages/gupta.cfm) Inscriptions of the Guptas and their contemporaries (http://www.sdstate.edu/projectsouthasia/Docs/index. cfm) Coins of Gupta Empire (http://www.shivlee.com)
Precededby Kanva dynasty Magadha dynasties AD 240550 Succeededby possibly Pala dynasty

Classical India Timeline: 6th century BCE 5th century BCE 4th century BCE 3rd century BCE 2nd century BCE 1st century BCE 1st century CE 2nd century 3rd century 4th century 5th century 6th century 7th century 8th century 9th century 10th century 11th century Northwestern India Gandhara Northern India Magadha Shishunaga dynasty Nanda empire Kalinga Maurya Empire Sunga Empire Maha-Meghavahana Dynasty Kuninda Kingdom Western Satraps Gupta Empire Maitraka Vakataka dynasty, Harsha Gurjara-Pratihara Pala Empire Paramara dynasty Solanki Eastern Ganga dynasty Sena dynasty Southern India Pandyas Cholas Cheras Satavahana Empire Northeastern India Varman dynasty Kamarupa kingdom Mlechchha dynasty Pala dynasty Kamboja-Pala dynasty

(Persian rule) (Greek conquests) Indo-Greek Kingdom Yona Indo-Scythians Indo-Parthians Pahlava Kushan Empire Indo-Sassanids Kidarite Kingdom Indo-Hephthalites (Huna)

Kalabhras dynasty Kadamba Dynasty Western Ganga Dynasty Vishnukundina Pallava Kalachuri Chalukya Rashtrakuta Yadava dynasty Western Chalukyas Kakatiya dynasty Hoysala Empire

(Islamic conquests) Kabul Shahi

(Islamic Empire)

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Indus Valley Civilization Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=552785654 Contributors: (, 206.99.69.xxx, 212.67.99.xxx, 21655, 24630, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 333harsh333, 83d40m, AMCKen, AMbroodEY, Aayush18, AbelBergaigne, Abtract, Adam Bishop, Adam.J.W.C., Adashiel, Addshore, Adeheriya, Ae99037, After Midnight, Ageyban, Ahoerstemeier, Airknight, Aitias, AjitPD, Ajitq, Alcidebava, Aldux, AlexR, Alistairrules, Allstarecho, Alphasinus, Altetendekrabbe, Altius.k, AmeriDesi, Ammar gerrard117, Ancienzus, Andre Engels, Andries, Angel ivanov angelov, Angela, AnimeIndia, Ankur, Anonymous Dissident, AnsarParacha, Antandrus, AnthroExpert1, Apparition11, AreJay, Aristophanes68, Arjun024, Art wart1234, Arthur chos, Arunreginald, Arvindn, AshLin, Ashwinr, Astavakra, Ataltane, Athenean, Atla, Auric, Aursani, Aussiesta, Avecit, Averystewart, AzaToth, Baboon Faceless, Badagnani, Bakasuprman, Bart133, Barticus88, Bashir3, Bassbonerocks, Batten8, Beauty4149, Beetstra, Bejnar, Beland, Ben Standeven, Bengaliindian, Benl33, Bhadani, Bharat Jain, Bharatadesam, Bhawani Gautam, Big Brother 1984, Bigbluefish, Bionicburrito, Bk2006, Bkonrad, BlackTerror, Blue Dwarf, BlueCaper, BlueNovember, Bmicomp, Bob rulz, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Boivie, Borisblue, BostonMA, Brando130, BrightStarSky, Brockert, Bryan Derksen, C'est moi, CALR, CPUlkj, CQJ, Calakmul2003, Calliopejen1, CanadianLinuxUser, CarolGray, Catgut, Caughingjoe, Cbdeandc, Celestra, Chaipau, Chameleon, CharlesGillingham, Chrisbil09, ChristopherWillis, Churnek, Ck lostsword, ClockworkSoul, Closedmouth, Coffee, ColdCase, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, Comprocky, Computerjoe, Condem, Conkyworm, Conversion script, Corpx, CorrectKnowledge, Corvus cornix, Craigsjones, Crazydude21, Crculver, Cronus, CryptoDerk, Cush, DBaba, DanielleRyanwwoof, Danilot, Danish47, Danntm, Danny, Darkness1089, David Eppstein, David Gerard, Dbachmann, Dcandeto, DeadEyeArrow, Debresser, Dedonite, Deeptrivia, Delljvc, DerHexer, Derek Ross, Dewan357, Dewritech, Dick Long, Diderot, Dirk math, Discospinster, DmitryS, Doldrums, Dougweller, Dravidianhero, Drm 1976, Droll, Duk, Dwaipayanc, Dweir, E. Ripley, EH74DK, Ean5533, Edward, Edward321, Ekabhishek, El C, El grapadora, Elp69, Ember of Light, Emperor Genius, Epbr123, Erauch, ErinHowarth, Euchiasmus, Everyking, Evil Monkey, Evil saltine, FF2010, Farhat Jawed Sheikh, Fconaway, FeanorStar7, Fig wright, Finlay McWalter, Flourescent1, Fowler&fowler, Foxj, Fratrep, Freedom skies, Fubar Obfusco, Future Perfect at Sunrise, G2 00, GRBerry, Gaia2767spm, Gaius Cornelius, Ganeshk, Gangesdolphin, Generalboss3, George Ponderevo, Gerald Farinas, Ghepeu, Giani g, Giftlite, Gigemag76, Gilgamesh, Gimlisonofgloin, Glenn, Gnanapiti, Godanov, Godardesque, Goethean, Golbez, Googuse, GoonerDP, GraemeL, Graham87, GrahamHardy, Gregjackson112, Ground Zero, Gsandi, Gun Powder Ma, Gurch, Gururaj Nayak, Gv365, Gwernol, Gyrodoor33, Gkhan, HGB, Hadal, Hagedis, Haim Berman, HannesP, Hans Dunkelberg, Harappa2, Harikrishnan J, HarryHenryGebel, Hemanshu, Heron, Hersfold, Hillel, Hitec81, Hmains, Hokie Tech, HongQiGong, Hornplease, Howard the Duck, Hu, Hunnjazal, Husond, HussainAbbas, Hut 8.5, Hydrogen Iodide, Iced Kola, Ifoolyou, Illexsquid, ImGz, Imz, India Gate, India Rising, IndianBio, Indoscope, Infrogmation, Intothefire, Iridescent, Islescape, Ism schism, Ismail ngr, Istas, Its snowing in East Asia, Ixfd64, J Milburn, J.delanoy, J.smith, JEH, JLincoln, JaGa, JacobDyer08, Jagged 85, Jaxl, Jayen466, Jcw69, Jeff G., Jeffhoy, Jeffness, Jeffq, Jeffrey Henning, JesterCountess, Jfpierce, Jguk 2, Jiang, Jinriksha, Jj137, Jjhake, Jlandahl, Jmathiesen, JoanneB, John Smith's, Johnnyallen, Johnxxx9, JonHarder, Joseph Philipsson, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josh Grosse, Josh Moses, JoshRaspberry, Jovianeye, Jpbowen, JustAGal, Jwrosenzweig, K.Khokhar, KRS, Ka Faraq Gatri, Kalyan97, Kapalama, Karthikndr, Kateshortforbob, Katxijasotzaile, Kelly Martin, Kenshin, Khalid Mahmood, Khalidkhoso, Kimimaru21, Kingturtle, Kintetsubuffalo, KnowledgeOfSelf, Knowledgeum, Knyght27, Koveras, Kozuch, Kralizec!, Kridily, Krsont, Kshatriya Grandmaster, Kulveer, Kungfuadam, Kuratowski's Ghost, Kuru, Kusma, Kwamikagami, LGagnon, LRBurdak, LadyInGrey, Lahiru k, Laughingyet, Leafeon18, Lethe, Lexicon, Liambr101, Liamdaly620, Lightdarkness, Lilaac, LindsayH, Llywrch, LordJumper, Lotuslady, Lumos3, Lunarbunny, MBisanz, MER-C, MKoltnow, MONGO, MThekkumthala, Machaon, Maleabroad, Mar4d, MarcK, Marco polo, MarkGallagher, MarmadukePercy, MarshalN20, Marteau, Master of the Orchalcos, Mathae, Matt Oid, Mav, Mayooranathan, Mboverload, Mdw0, Mervin Chung, Michael Hardy, Michael T. 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Wikipediarules2221, Will Beback, William Avery, Winode sv, Woohookitty, WookieInHeat, World8115, Xinjao, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yann, Yeditor, Yintan, Yogacharya, Yogi, Yonderboy, Youandme, Yurik, Zahid Abdassabur, Zaven2, Zazaban, Zerokitsune, Zigger, Zuggernaut, , 770 anonymous edits Indo-Aryan peoples Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=545602180 Contributors: ABF, AMbroodEY, ARYAN818, Abeg92, Abstruce, Action Jackson IV, Ahivarn, AhlinaS, Andrew Lancaster, Angelo De La Paz, Anish 1497, Anupam, Artene50, Askari Mark, Athenean, Aveneer, Avik d2000, Av, BD2412, Behemoth, Bejnar, BetterIndia, Bhadani, Bluethroat, Bobo192, Bodhidharma7, BostonMA, C21K, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Centrx, Chartinael, Colonies Chris, Contributorz780, Cosmos416, Crculver, DB.Gerry, DaGizza, DabMachine, Dangerous-Boy, Dark Tichondrias, David Kernow, Davidng150, Dbachmann, Debresser, Deepak, Deeptrivia, Desiphral, Deville, Dmitri Lytov, Doctorevil64, Dougweller, Dpv, Elgin222, EliasAlucard, 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Nijgoykar, Nipisiquit, Nirjhara, Nirvana888, Ntsimp, Omerlives, Onef9day, Oombiar, Orijentolog, Otolemur crassicaudatus, P6jun, P6junn, PBS, Patel24, Paul Barlow, Paxse, Pearll's sun, Philay07, Philip Trueman, Pingaley, Pinoyamerican, Piotrus, Pk5abi, Princesunny, Quibitos, Ragib, Rahulmothiya, Rajpurohit vikas, RaviC, Ravichandar84, Rayfield, Razimpatel, Relata refero, Rhadamanthus222, Rjka K, Rjwilmsi, Romit bharadwaj, Roserwilson, Rtlevel, RussBlau, RussellSpence, Saimdusan, Sajjad S, Sam Hocevar, Samar60, Santurwoman, Sasanjan, Sasha l, SchreiberBike, Scliffords, Shadow1, Shekhartagra, Shillumama, Sindhutvavadin, Skier Dude, SnowyDay, Sp0076, Space Cadet, SpacemanSpiff, Spartian, Steven J. Anderson, Sumit0014, Suri Mera Name, Taeyebaar, Tanath, Themastertree, Thincat, Tim1357, TimBentley, Titodutta, Tomas e, Tombseye, Tripping Nambiar, Truthalwaystriumphs, Tuncrypt, Tzaquiel, User32, Utcursch, Uwo222, Vaibhavmit, Vik238, Viridae, WIN, Wiki Raja, Wiki-uk, Woohookitty, Zandweb, 326 anonymous edits List of Rigvedic tribes Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=550106198 Contributors: Aldux, Artaxiad, Ashishmeena, BD2412, Bhvintri, Brijeshmeena, BuddhaExpert, Cosmos416, DaGizza, Dbachmann, Imc, Intothefire, Jagged 85, Krakkos, Kunwaryogendrasinghlodhikheriyarafatpur, Luna Santin, Maleabroad, Orpheus, R'n'B, Rayfield, Screen name1234, Sindhutvavadin, SlaveToTheWage, Sundaryourfriend, Theelf29, Thomas Larsen, TimBentley, Username2577u, Verbum Veritas, Zerokitsune, 39 anonymous edits Mahajanapada Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=552878615 Contributors: 124123sk, A. Parrot, AK456, Aaniyo, Aarohi sudan, Againme, Ahoerstemeier, Alok Sood, Ancheta Wis, Asaba, Avman89, BD2412, Barticus88, Bazonka, Biglovinb, Bisenmalla, BrownHairedGirl, CALR, Caeruleancentaur, Carlossuarez46, Chhoton, Chris the speller, ChrisCork, Closedmouth, Cminard, Colonies Chris, Copana2002, DGG, DabMachine, DanMS, Dbachmann, Deeptrivia, Dewan357, Dewritech, Donrub, Download, Dreamafter, EagerToddler39, Edcolins, Edwy, FlyingOnFloor, Freebirds, Fuhghettaboutit, Gargletheape, Giftlite, Giraffedata, Good Olfactory, Hasan1953, Hillel, Incredisuper, J04n, JSquish, Jagged 85, Jeepday, Jessi1989, Jfortier, Jijithnr, John of Reading, Joshua Issac, Joy1963, Jwy, Kmusser, Koavf, Kwamikagami, Kww, Lajwantsingh1965, LakeHMM, Manishkumarmall1971, Meluha66, Mmxx, Moonsell, Mps, Nichalp, Nick Number, Omnipaedista, Per Honor et Gloria, Podzemnik, Prometheus.pyrphoros, R'n'B, RafaAzevedo, Rama's Arrow, RandomCritic, RandomOffendedUser, Riana, Rjwilmsi, Rmky87, Robprain, Sacca, Sandstein, Satbir Singh, SchreiberBike, Shalendrasingh, ShelfSkewed, Shrigley, Sindhutvavadin, Skarebo, Smaines, Smarkflea, Srkris, Stemonitis, Sudarshanhs, Sze cavalry01, T-borg, Tanvir Ahmmed, The Man in Question, The wub, TimBentley, Tom Radulovich, UdayanBanerjee, Uma 001, Utcursch, Verbum Veritas, Weather Man, Wiki-uk, WilliamThweatt, WohooUser, Woohookitty, Wprlh, Xezbeth, Yamara, Ziggurat, 214 anonymous edits Maurya Empire Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=552515911 Contributors: 25 Cents FC, A. Parrot, ABF, AJ-India, ASHOKBINDUSARA, Aaron Schulz, Abce2, Ahivarn, Akarkera, Akhipill, Akshayedg, Aldux, Alren, Altruism, Amkolawala, AnakngAraw, Ancientcoinsofindia1, Andres rojas22, Anirbanpal, AnonMoos, AnsarParacha, Arosenfe, Arrow740, Artacoana, AshLin, Astynax, Auntie68, Aurorion, BD2412, Babban12, Baodo, Barrycjacobsen, Bengaliindian, Bigbubbaray, Biglovinb, Boolyme, Bovineboy2008, BozoTheScary, BrightStarSky, Bsadowski1, Buddhipriya, CFynn, Cabolitae, CardinalDan, Causantin, Centrx, Chasingsol, CiteCop, ClaretAsh, Cmdrjameson, CoinIndia, CommonsDelinker, Copana2002, Cosmos416, Crazycomputers, Czeror, D6, DaGizza, Damicatz, Darry2385, Darth Panda, Davesf, Dayaanjali, Dbachmann, Deeptrivia, Denisarona, DerHexer, Derek R Bullamore, Devanampriya, Devesh.bhatta, Deville, Dewan357, Discospinster, DistributorScientiae, Domino theory, DoubleBlue, Doulos Christos, Dpv, Drawn Some, Drestros power, Drew R. Smith, Drmies, EarthPerson, Edwy, Ekabhishek, Epbr123, Eraserhead1, Explicit, F.chiodo, Fabartus, Fischer.sebastian, Fraggle81, Fratrep, Gaius Cornelius, Ganesha1, Garuda92, Geeteshgadkari, Geni, Giani g, Gilgamesh, Glane23, Glenn, Golgofrinchian, Good Olfactory, GoonerDP, Gun Powder Ma, Gunkarta, HaploTR, Harburg, Headbomb, Heliomance, Hibernian, Hillel, Historymike, Hmains, Hrbiswal, Hughcharlesparker, Iamhere786, Igiffin, Igoldste, Imc, Indian Chronicles, Intothefire, Invincible.aditya, Ipsingh, Iridescent, Ism schism, It Is Me Here, Italia2006, J.delanoy, JForget, JSquish, JaGa, Jagged 85, Jamesinderbyshire, Jay, Jcbos, Jeff G., Jennavecia, Jethwarp, Jfiling, John Hill, John K, John of Reading, Johnpacklambert, Joy1963, Ka Faraq Gatri, Kanags, Karan1974, Kbir1, Kessler, Khoikhoi, Kingdon, KnightRider, Knowntime, Knuckles, Koavf, Krish Dulal, Ktmrider09610, Kummi, Kww, Lacrimosus, LilHelpa, Lithoderm, Little Mountain 5, Logout here, Lugia2453, Luwilt, MKar, MadhuGopaldasa, Madmonk11, Maleabroad, ManiF, Maniacof, Manoj nav, Marek69, Mark Arsten, Mashford, MatthewVanitas, Matuenih, Mdmday, Mejda, Mentifisto, Metropolitan90, Minish, Misaq Rabab, Mitra2412, Moe Epsilon, Moralis, Narcissus1012, Nasz, NatusRoma, NawlinWiki, Neoplatonic, Nick Number, Nickzlapeor, Nightkey, Nobleeagle, Nowhither, NuclearWarfare, Numbo3, Nvsrao, Ogress, OllieFury, PWilkinson, Paper Productions Co., Paul August, Per Honor et Gloria, Pernoctator, Petergemeni, Pgk, Philip Trueman, Piiscool123, Pion, Pjacobi, Podzemnik, Possum, Proofreader77, Pshent, Pvskrishnapraveen, RJaguar3, ROONEYGIBBS6, Rajarajancheetak2010, Rama's Arrow, Razimpatel, Razorflame, Reahad, Reaper Eternal, Reddi, RegentsPark, Rejectwater, Rje, Rjwilmsi, Robert K S, Roland zh, Ronhjones, Rq88187, Rrburke, Rumpelstiltskin223, SDC, Salt Yeung, SameerKhan, Samsujata, Sarpasarpeti101, Satbir Singh, Schizobullet, Sebeex3, Shanes, Shawnhath, Shiv Chhatrapati, Shyamal, Shyamsunder, Siafu, SimonBillenness, Skinsmoke, SkyWalker, SlimVirgin, Smidt23, Sopher99, SpacemanSpiff, Spartian, Spidermen, Splash, Spundun, Squids and Chips, StalwartUK, Strider11, Suchpa, Talessman, Tarikur, Tellsaurabh, ThanMore, The Anome, The Man in Question, The Ogre, Thegeneralguy, Thingg, Tigeroo, Timeshifter, Titodutta, Tobias Conradi, Tombseye, Trusilver, Ukabia, Umreemala, Utcursch, Vastu, Venu62, Versus22, Vik-Thor, Violetriga, Vvarkey, Wavelength, Wdfarmer, Wetman, What makes a man turn neutral?, Widr, Wiki-uk, WikiFlier, Wikiaccacount, Winston Blazko, Winston786,

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Image:Ajanta Padmapani.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ajanta_Padmapani.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Gunkarta, Ismoon, Johnbod, Redtigerxyz, Roland zh, Trelio, Viktorianec, 4 anonymous edits Image:Bhimbetka rock paintng1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bhimbetka_rock_paintng1.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Dbenbenn, Dodo, Glenn, Jose montalvo, Liftarn, MathewTownsend, Roland zh, 1 anonymous edits Image:EdakkalCaveCarving.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EdakkalCaveCarving.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Suniltg at en.wikipedia Image:Lothal dock.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lothal_dock.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Rama%27s_Arrow Image:Mohenjo-daro Priesterknig.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mohenjo-daro_Priesterknig.jpeg License: Creative Commons world66 Contributors: Gryffindor, Jungpionier, Look2See1, Mmcannis, Oksmith, Roland zh Image:Map of Vedic India.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_of_Vedic_India.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Abhishekjoshi, AnonMoos, Dbachmann, Fast track, LX, Roland zh, Rosarino, 2 anonymous edits File:HinduSwastika.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HinduSwastika.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Masturbius File:Ascetic Bodhisatta Gotama with the Group of Five.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ascetic_Bodhisatta_Gotama_with_the_Group_of_Five.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: myself File:Detail of a leaf with, The Birth of Mahavira, from the Kalpa Sutra, c.1375-1400. gouache on paper. 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File:Ancient india.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ancient_india.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: David Kernow, Gryffindor, Herbythyme, Kmusser, MGA73, Martin H., Podzemnik, Roland zh, 15 anonymous edits File:EpicIndia.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EpicIndia.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Author: JIJITH NR File:EpicIndiaCities.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EpicIndiaCities.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Jijithnr at en.wikipedia File:Nanda_Empire.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nanda_Empire.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Jagged 85 at en.wikipedia File:Magadha.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magadha.gif License: Public domain Contributors: Magadha.GIF: Deepak gupta derivative work: Lijujacobk File:Sunga-Border.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sunga-Border.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Windy City Dude File:SatavahanaMap.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SatavahanaMap.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Electionworld, Roland zh, Sankalpdravid File:Indo-ScythiansMap.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indo-ScythiansMap.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Roland zh, World Imaging, 1 anonymous edits File:Maurya Dynasty in 265 BCE.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maurya_Dynasty_in_265_BCE.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Vastu (talk). Original uploader was Vastu at en.wikipedia File:Flag of Afghanistan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Zscout370 File:Flag of Bhutan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Bhutan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: (original uploader), the author of xrmap (improved version) File:Flag of Iran.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Iran.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Various File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370 Recode by cs:User:-xfi- (code), User:Shizhao (colors) File:Flag of Myanmar.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Myanmar.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: *drew, AnonMoos, CommonsDelinker, Cycn, Duduziq, Fry1989, Gunkarta, Homo lupus, Idh0854, Josegeographic, Klemen Kocjancic, Legnaw, Mason Decker, Mattes, Neq00, Nightstallion, Pixeltoo, Rfc1394, Rodejong, SeNeKa, SiBr4, Stevanb, ThomasPusch, UnreifeKirsche, Vividuppers, WikipediaMaster, Winzipas, Xiengyod, Zscout370, , 10 anonymous edits File:Flag of Turkmenistan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Vzb83 File:Flag of Uzbekistan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Zscout370 File:Flag of Tajikistan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Achim1999, Alex Spade, Anime Addict AA, Antonsusi, Apatomerus, Bjankuloski06en, Cycn, Ecad93, Erlenmeyer, EugeneZelenko, Fred the Oyster, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Johnny Rotten, Klemen Kocjancic, Leonid 2, Mattes, Nameneko, Neq00, Nightstallion, OAlexander, Ricordisamoa, Rinkio, Sarang, SiBr4, SouthSudan, Zscout370, , 3 anonymous edits File:Flag of Kyrgyzstan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Made by Andrew Duhan for the Sodipodi SVG flag collection, and is public domain. Image:Magadha.GIF Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magadha.GIF License: Public Domain Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Electionworld, Roland zh Image:Nanda Empire.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nanda_Empire.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Jagged 85 at en.wikipedia Image:Chandragupta Empire 320 BC.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chandragupta_Empire_320_BC.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Ellywa, Roland zh Image:Chandragupta mauryan empire 305 BC.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chandragupta_mauryan_empire_305_BC.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Jagged 85 at en.wikipedia Image:Chandragupta Maurya Empire.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chandragupta_Maurya_Empire.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Jagged 85 at en.wikipedia Image:Mauryan Empire Map.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mauryan_Empire_Map.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Abhishekjoshi, Bryan Derksen, Electionworld, Ranveig, Roland zh, 7 anonymous edits Image:Emblem of India.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Emblem_of_India.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Abhishekjoshi, BRUTE, Beao, Bender235, Cheguthan, Editor at Large, Eugenio Hansen, OFS, Faizhaider, Fred the Oyster, Fry1989, Gauravjuvekar, Havang(nl), Jappalang, Jed, Jmabel, Jovianeye, Kintetsubuffalo, Klemen Kocjancic, Legoktm, Leit, Magog the Ogre, Miljoshi, Nightstallion, Roland zh, Str4nd, Trelio, Vaishu2, Wiki-uk, Xiengyod, Zscout370, 40 anonymous edits Image:MauryaStatuettes.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MauryaStatuettes.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Abhishekjoshi, Ekabhishek, Kilom691, Roland zh, World Imaging Image:AiKhanoumAndIndia.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AiKhanoumAndIndia.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: PHGCOM File:MauryanRingstone.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MauryanRingstone.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Jastrow, Longbow4u, Ranveig, Roland zh, World Imaging File:MauryanCoin.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MauryanCoin.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: en:User:PHG (now en:User:Per Honor et Gloria) aka User:PHGCOM (now User:World Imaging) on Commons File:MauryanCastCopperCoinLate3rdCenturyBCE.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MauryanCastCopperCoinLate3rdCenturyBCE.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:PHGCOM, User:PHGCOM File:MauryanBalaramaCoin3rd-2ndCenturyCE.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MauryanBalaramaCoin3rd-2ndCenturyCE.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:PHGCOM, User:PHGCOM File:MauryaStupa.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MauryaStupa.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Abhishekjoshi, Roland zh, World Imaging File:Asoka Kaart.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Asoka_Kaart.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Abhishekjoshi, Fschoenm, GijsvdL, Koavf, Magog the Ogre, Mdd, Podzemnik, Razorbliss, Roland zh, Varlaam, 1 anonymous edits File:CunninghamMauryan.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CunninghamMauryan.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Cunningham File:Yakshini.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yakshini.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Neelsb File:MauryanStatuette2ndCenturyBCE.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MauryanStatuette2ndCenturyBCE.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: PHGCOM File:SeleucosCoin.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SeleucosCoin.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: PHGCOM File:AsokaKandahar.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AsokaKandahar.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Abhishekjoshi, Archidamus, Gryffindor, Iustinus, JMCC1, Jastrow, Le Behnam, Mahmudmasri, Man vyi, Mikhail Ryazanov, Mmcannis, Officer, Ranveig, Roland zh, Sreejithk2000 AWB, Storkk, The Evil IP address, Wiki-uk, World Imaging, Zaccarias, 11 anonymous edits File:Asokanpillar.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Asokanpillar.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: mself File:Nanda Empire.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nanda_Empire.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Jagged 85 at en.wikipedia File:Magadha.GIF Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magadha.GIF License: Public Domain Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Electionworld, Roland zh File:National emblem of Bangladesh.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:National_emblem_of_Bangladesh.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Tonyjeff, based on national symbol Image:Sanchi2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sanchi2.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: AnRo0002, Fountain Posters, Geofrog, Gryffindor, HenkvD, Nataraja, Olivier2, Shizhao, Tsui, 1 anonymous edits Image:SungaEmpireMap.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SungaEmpireMap.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Ekabhishek, Paulbe, Roland zh, Sankalpdravid, World Imaging Image:Gupta.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gupta.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Deeptrivia, Joshbaumgartner, OHVChris75, Ranveig, Zykasaa File:Eastern border of the Achaemenid Empire.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eastern_border_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:

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File:SungaAtalante.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SungaAtalante.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Ekabhishek, Gryffindor, Olivier2, Roland zh, World Imaging File:CunninghamBharhut.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CunninghamBharhut.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Cunningham File:Royal family Sunga West Bengal 1st century BCE.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Royal_family_Sunga_West_Bengal_1st_century_BCE.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Uploadalt File:Amourous royal couple Sunga 1st century BCE West Bengal.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Amourous_royal_couple_Sunga_1st_century_BCE_West_Bengal.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Uploadalt File:GreekKing(Drawing).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GreekKing(Drawing).jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Per Honor et Gloria File:SungaCoin.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SungaCoin.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Alfons berg, Durga, Ekabhishek, Roland zh, World Imaging File:BharutRelief.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BharutRelief.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Durga, Ismoon, Mhss, Podzemnik, Roland zh, World Imaging Image:SungaYakshi2-1CenturyBCE.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SungaYakshi2-1CenturyBCE.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: myself Image:SungaMasculine.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SungaMasculine.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Ekabhishek, Kilom691, Roland zh, World Imaging Image:SungaWithChild.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SungaWithChild.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Ekabhishek, Kilom691, Roland zh, World Imaging Image:SungaYaksa.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SungaYaksa.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Ekabhishek, Kilom691, Roland zh, World Imaging, Xufanc Image:SungaFecondity.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SungaFecondity.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Ekabhishek, Kilom691, Roland zh, World Imaging Image:SungaFecondity2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SungaFecondity2.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Ekabhishek, Kilom691, Roland zh, World Imaging File:Gupta Empire 320 - 600 ad.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gupta_Empire_320_-_600_ad.PNG License: Public Domain Contributors: Arab_Hafez (talk) (Uploads) Image:SamudraguptaCoin.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SamudraguptaCoin.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: PHGCOM File:WLA vanda Buddha from the basement of a stupa.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WLA_vanda_Buddha_from_the_basement_of_a_stupa.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Wikipedia Loves Art participant " VeronikaB" file:Deogarh01.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Deogarh01.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: byron aihara file:Lintel Deogarh Dasavatara.jpg.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lintel_Deogarh_Dasavatara.jpg.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Bob King file:Vishnu Hood2 Deogarh.jpg.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vishnu_Hood2_Deogarh.jpg.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Bob King File:Scene from the Ramayana, northwest India, Gupta period, 5th-6th century, terracotta, HAa.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Scene_from_the_Ramayana,_northwest_India,_Gupta_period,_5th-6th_century,_terracotta,_HAa.JPG License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: Hiart Image:ChandraguptaII.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ChandraguptaII.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Alfons berg, Copydays, Ekabhishek, GeorgHH, Kilom691, Roland zh, World Imaging, 2 anonymous edits Image:ChandraguptaII.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ChandraguptaII.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Alfons berg, Ekabhishek, Roland zh, World Imaging File:Kumaragupta.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kumaragupta.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Per Honor et Gloria at en.wikipedia File:KumaraguptaFightingLion.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KumaraguptaFightingLion.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: PHGCOM File:QtubIronPillar.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:QtubIronPillar.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Photograph taken by Mark A. Wilson (Department of Geology, The College of Wooster). Image:Radha-Krishna chess.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Radha-Krishna_chess.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Darkness1089 at en.wikipedia File:Borobudur-Nothwest-view.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Borobudur-Nothwest-view.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Gunkarta File:Magnify-clip.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnify-clip.png License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Erasoft24 File:Gupta Empire, India.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gupta_Empire,_India.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:

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