Chapter 2 Basic Background Geology

LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................................... 2-2 2. BASIC BACKGROUND GEOLOGY ................................................................................ 2-3 A. COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH AND CRUSTAL ROCK TYPES ............................................. 2-3 B. SEDIMENTARY BASINS THE LAYER CAKE MODEL ....................................................... 2-16 C. SOME BASIC STRUCTURES IN A SEDIMENTARY BASIN .................................................... 2-18 D. FLUID MIGRATION AND HYDROCARBON TRAPS ............................................................. 2-20 E. TYPICAL HYDROCARBON TRAP TYPES ............................................................................ 2-26

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Chapter 2 Basic Background Geology

List of Figures
Figure 2-1 Figure 2-2 Figure 2-3 Figure 2-4 Figure 2-5 Figure 2-6 Figure 2-7 Figure 2-8 Figure 2-9 Figure 2-10 Figure 2-11 Figure 2-12 Figure 2-13 Figure 2-14 Figure 2-15 Figure 2-16 Figure 2-17 Figure 2-18 Figure 2-19 Figure 2-20 Figure 2-21 Figure 2-22 Figure 2-23 Figure 2-24 Figure 2-25 Figure 2-26 Figure 2-27 Figure 2-28 Figure 2-29 Figure 2-30 Figure 2-31 Figure 2-32 Figure 2-33 Figure 2-34 Spreading centers and trenches........................................................................................... 2-4 Spreading centers and trenches- detail. .............................................................................. 2-4 A simplified cross section of the earth. ................................................................................ 2-5 USGS cross section of the earth. ......................................................................................... 2-6 A more detailed look at a spreading center and two continental margins. ......................... 2-7 USGS continental margins. ................................................................................................. 2-8 Geologic Time Scale. ........................................................................................................... 2-9 Our earth, 10 million years ago ........................................................................................ 2-11 Our earth, 100 million years ago. ..................................................................................... 2-11 Our earth, 200 million years ago. ................................................................................... 2-12 Our earth, 300 million years ago. ................................................................................... 2-12 Our earth, 400 million years ago. ................................................................................... 2-13 Our earth, 500 million years ago. ................................................................................... 2-13 Our earth, 600 million years ago. ................................................................................... 2-14 Our earth, 700 million years ago. ................................................................................... 2-14 Spreading centers and trenches....................................................................................... 2-15 Sea floor spreading.......................................................................................................... 2-15 A simple schematic cross-section through Alberta .......................................................... 2-18 A simplified depiction of several common types of faults. ............................................... 2-19 Molecular structures........................................................................................................ 2-22 Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage .................................................................................... 2-22 Porosity versus Permeablility .......................................................................................... 2-23 Multi-phase fluid dynamics.............................................................................................. 2-25 Some typical hydrocarbon traps. ..................................................................................... 2-26 A model of a normal fault with a typical seismic expression........................................... 2-27 Braided stream and deposition sequence. ....................................................................... 2-28 Meandering stream and deposition sequence.................................................................. 2-28 Basal cretaceous fluvial system. ...................................................................................... 2-29 Flooding and regression of the Albian Sea. .................................................................... 2-29 Model of a Lateral Sand Bar. .......................................................................................... 2-30 Schematic cross-section of Little Bow Area..................................................................... 2-30 Cross-section through channel of interest and its seismic section. ................................. 2-31 Shore margin deposits. .................................................................................................... 2-32 3D data volume horizon slice. ......................................................................................... 2-32

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2. Basic Background Geology (or why Geologists have rocks in their heads) This chapter provides a very brief description of some of the geological background necessary to understand the purpose of exploration geophysics as well as a few of the real-world problems we should anticipate. A simple overview of earth structure is included in order to put the field of exploration geology and geophysics in proper perspective.

A. Composition of the Earth and Crustal Rock Types Figure 2-1 depicts some of the major elements of earth structure which have, over long periods of time, influenced the arrangement of potential oil and gas bearing areas. The earth is a relatively young planet (generally accepted as some 4,500,000,000 years old - four and a half billion years in North America, four and a half milliard years in Europe). It was originally formed from a condensing ball of vapors, gases and cosmic dust. Gravitational forces pulling on all this matter formed a hot ball of molten matter. As the resulting mass began to cool, thin crusts of solid rocks began to form in patches on the surface. Kinetic forces and gravitational fields acting on the rotating mass along with patterns of heat flow resulted in convection currents. These convection cells circulate the deeper, hotter fluids to the surface and carry some of the cooled material back down into the molten depths to be re-melted. Eventually, plates of cooled rock prevailed on the surface and are still moved about by the continuing flow of underlying molten rock in these convection cells. This process in known as plate tectonics. The cooling process can be likened to a pot of hot fudge. Hot, molten chocolate circulates vertically within the pot as hotter fudge rises to the surface and cools. The currents can be witnessed when small bits of solid chocolate are dropped into the pot. As the fudge cools, plates of cooled, solid material float about the surface, occasionally being pulled under by the currents. As these bits are pulled under, they are re-melted and some heat is given up by the surrounding molten mass. Eventually, the circulating and cooling process causes the entire mass to gel and solidify as heat is given up to the surrounding atmosphere. Earths cooling process is extended by the fact that its atmosphere is contained by gravity and because it has its own internal heat source (radiation). However, earth will eventually cool, its plates will stop moving and this very dynamic planet will die.

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Figure 2-1 Spreading centers and trenches. Reference: geoanalytic.com

Figure 2-2 Spreading centers and trenches- detail. Reference: geoanalytic.com

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Figure 2-3 A simplified cross section of the earth. The earth's crust is proportionately thinner than the shell on an egg. It is fractured into many "plates" which float on convection currents which flow within the thick molten "Mantle". At spreading centers, the plates are driven apart by an up-welling of molten rock. Where plates collide, one plate will be forced back down into the mantle to be melted again. These areas are known as subduction zones.

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Figure 2-4 USGS cross section of the earth. Reference: http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/dynamic.html

Our earth is still in the early stages of this cooling process. A thin skin of overlapping plates of rock floats on circulating convection cells. Some heavy ores (believed to be rich in iron and nickel) have congealed into a solid core at the center of the earth. The outer skin is made up of continental plates (relatively buoyant) and oceanic plates (relatively dense). This outer skin is thinner relative to the earth than the shell of an egg is relative to the whole egg. This shell is called the crust (or lithosphere). The center of the earth is separated into an inner core (plasma or solid) and an outer core (liquid). The remaining volume is molten rock and is known as the mantle (or mesosphere). The mantle behaves as a liquid or plastic and flows in convection cells.

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Figure 2-5 A more detailed look at a spreading center and two continental margins. Existing rocks are eroded by wind, rain and ground waters. Rivers and ocean currents carry the sediments to the margins of the continental masses where they are deposited in deeper, calmer waters. Some sedimentary rocks are formed by chemical or biological processes (evaporites, reefs, etc.)

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Figure 2-6 USGS continental margins. Reference: http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/dynamic.html

Plates are forced apart by the issuance of material from the mantle to the ocean floors along weak zones in the crust known as spreading centers. Much volcanic activity occurs along such zones. The formation of the island of Surtsey near Iceland in 1963 on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is one recent dramatic example of this activity. The Hawaiian Islands are an older example (although these islands are still active volcanoes today). Regions where plates collide and override each other are called subduction zones and are characterized by frequent earthquakes. The entire Pacific Rim is a series of subduction zones. The more buoyant of two colliding plates will ride up over the more dense, forcing it back down into the mantle to be re-melted. The physical stresses imposed by the collision of continental sized masses of rock (twenty to sixty kilometers thick) result in severe deformation of the plates near the contact zone. Folding and faulting acting to relieve such stresses are the main mountain building mechanisms.

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The Rocky Mountains are a relatively recent example (about 60 million years ago) of significant strain caused by such stresses. The Himalayas are the highest range of mountains for a good reason. They were formed by the collision of two continental plates - India and Asia. Since both plates were relatively buoyant, the resulting mountains and plateaus were thrust up to very high elevations. A word about the time scale of these events is warranted. The cooling of the earth to this point has taken over four and a half billion years. The recently formed Rocky Mountains are some sixty million years old. (The Rockies have existed even longer than Gordie Howes career in the NHL.) The rate of relative motion between two plates at a subduction zone is typically measured in centimeters per year. (This is why one of the most exciting things to do on a Saturday night in Vancouver is NOT to slip down to the ocean and watch the subduction of the Pacific Plate ! ) Even very fast movement is believed to be in the order of ten meters per year.

Figure 2-7 Geologic Time Scale. Reference: http://www.geo.ucalgary.ca/~macrae/timescale/timescale.html

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Figures 2-8 to 2-16 show the history, as we currently understand it, of the movement of the continents over the past 700 million years. These figures and the animation shown during the presentation were obtained from the internet (University of California Berkeley Department of Integrated Biology and University of California Museum of Paleontology; W. Brian Simison, webmaster). This presentation was apparently constructed by scanning images from a flip book authored by Christopher R. Scotese, with the PALEOMAP Project at the University of Texas at Arlington. Working from Figure 2-6 to 2-14, pick out the location of your favorite city (or province, or state, or oil/gas prospect) and try to follow its location in past times. Note that 300 to 500 million years ago, Alberta was located in tropical latitudes (near the equator). At this time, our Devonian reefs (Swan Hills, Leduc, Redwater, etc.) were being formed.

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Figure 2-8 Our earth, 10 million years ago looked pretty much the same as it does today.

Figure 2-9 Our earth, 100 million years ago. The Atlantic ocean was much smaller. Note that the inland seaway was open through what is now Alberta. India is not a part of Asia; in fact, it has just split off the southeast corner of Africa (along with Madagascar) and within a short 80 million years travels across the Indian Ocean to collide with Asia and form the Himalayas.

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Figure 2-10 Our earth, 200 million years ago. There was no Atlantic Ocean. Alberta was dominated by the inland seaway and was located just north of tropical latitudes.

Figure 2-11 Our earth, 300 million years ago. All the worlds continents formed one large land mass known as Pangaea. Note Albertas inland sea is well within tropical (reef building) environments.

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Figure 2-12 Our earth, 400 million years ago. North America is in the southern hemisphere, South America is upside down. The inland sea was still open and reefs were growing in what is now northeast British Columbia.

Figure 2-13 Our earth, 500 million years ago. Hudsons Bay was right on the equator sun tanning in Churchill anyone?

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Figure 2-14 Our earth, 600 million years ago. North America was almost upside down and near the south pole.

Figure 2-15 Our earth, 700 million years ago. Even near the beginning of sedimentary history, North Americas inland seaway was open and Hudsons bay was formed.

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Figure 2-16 Spreading centers and trenches. .

Figure 2-17 Sea floor spreading. Magnetometer up and bathymetry down.

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B. Sedimentary Basins the Layer Cake Model Now that you are an expert on the history of the formation of the earth and its continents and oceans, we will deal with a topic which is slightly more relevant to exploration for oil and gas. First we must appreciate the distinction between the three major rock types which occur in the earths crust. There are three major geological rock types: Igneous - formed from cooled magma (molten rock from the earth's mantle) Sedimentary - formed from compaction of eroded sediments that have been carried and deposited by water or wind. Also chemical and biological growths such as reefs. Metamorphic - either of the previous rock types which have been extensively altered by heat and pressure. The crust accounts for only a small portion of the earths volume. Of this small portion, less than 5% consists of sedimentary basins where we find prospective oil and gas reservoirs. Most oil and gas is found in basins where sedimentary rocks have accumulated. Particles of rocks eroded by wind and rain are transported by rivers to depo-centers. The high energy water courses which transport the sediment flow into lower energy basins (point bars, lakes, bays, and continental margins) where calmer waters allow the sediment load to settle to the water bottom. Sedimentary rocks are formed when layers of accumulated sediment are compressed by deep burial. Some of these layers may have been formed at the floor of deep oceans. These types of sediments are called clastics. Another type of sedimentary rock is chemical and biological accumulation such as evaporite pans and organic reef structures (referred to as carbonates). Viewed on a large scale, sedimentary basins form with a layer cake appearance. Each layer is formed by fairly uniform deposition of a particular rock type. Periodically, the dominant rock type changes as sea levels change, plates move into different environments, or source materials change. Furthermore, earth stresses act to tilt, fold and deform the layer cake. Hydrocarbons are formed when the remains of biotic organisms in these layers are subjected to heat and pressure of burial. Terrigenous hydrocarbons may also be formed from the remains of ancient marshes and peat bogs. Oil and gas formed from these "source" rocks is lighter than the brine fluids otherwise occupying pore spaces in the rocks. Therefore, the hydrocarbons try to move upward toward the surface. As the hydrocarbons encounter more permeable layers, they will preferentially move along these layers. This is called "migration".
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Often these migration paths are blocked by a stratigraphic change or by some older geologic structure. The hydrocarbons will move into these areas faster than they can move through relatively impermeable overlying rocks (the seal). In this way, oil and gas accumulate in "traps". The porosity of the rock and the volume of the trap determine the amount of oil and gas which can accumulate. The permeability of the rock determines how effectively the reservoir can deliver its precious stores to a central gathering area (i.e. a well bore). So the key elements of a productive oil or gas field are: Source rocks - somewhere in the basin, we must have the necessary rock types and thermal / pressure history to generate hydrocarbons Migration paths - we must have permeable layers to conduct the movement of hydrocarbons throughout the basin Reservoir - rocks of sufficient porosity and permeability to hold and deliver stored hydrocarbons must be available Trap - some structural or stratigraphic barrier to the migration of hydrocarbons must exist in the immediate vicinity of the reservoir Seal - The overlying rocks must be sufficiently impermeable as to contain the accumulation of hydrocarbons.

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C. Some Basic Structures in a Sedimentary Basin

Figure 2-18 A simple schematic cross-section through Alberta representing some typical hydrocarbon traps in the Western Canada Basin. Can you find: a roll-over on a thrust fault, a normal fault, a reef bank, a pinnacle reef, the Calgary Tower, a Granite Wash play, a Cretaceous channel, Mt. Rundle, an erosional truncation, a shoaling environment, a facies change?

Figure 2-15 shows a diagrammatic cross section through the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin. This section could run from near Banff in the southwest (left side) to Lake Athabasca in the northeast (right side). although the earths crust is 20 - 40 kilometers thick over most of this area, only the upper 1 - 4 kilometers is sedimentary basin (the underlying crust is crystalline rock - igneous and metamorphic).

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Figure 2-19 A simplified depiction of several common types of faults. a) Normal Fault occurs under extensional stress b) Reverse Fault occurs under compressional stress c) Thrust Fault results from basinal compression with movement over long distances d) Geologists Fault results from drilling without using seismic

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D. Fluid Migration and HydroCarbon Traps

We often refer to oil and gas products collectively as hydrocarbons. These are combinations of hydrogen and carbon atoms in molecules that have attractive properties as fuels and lubricants and are a key component of the petro-chemical industry. Stable molecular structures are formed when a carbon atom is closely surrounded by (bonded to) four other atoms. Each hydrogen atom in a molecule likes to be bonded to one other atom. On the following page are some examples of basic hydrocarbon molecular structures. The simplest structures are known as the "light ends" of hydrocarbons. Mixtures of these molecules form natural gas. The medium molecules form condensates and fuels. The heavy ends form lubricants. Very heavy oil is often formed by biodegradation of the light ends, leaving behind only the very heavy ends. These products form tars and asphalts. Oil and gas is lighter than water (H2O) and will rise upwards when introduced into a water-saturated environment. All of the subsurface sedimentary basins are saturated with fluid (mostly briny water) below the level of the local water table. Since oil and gas are formed from simple combinations of carbon and hydrogen, and because hydrogen is abundantly available in our water and atmosphere, the necessary component in the formation of hydrocarbons is carbon. There is a popular belief that oil comes from buried dinosaurs and swamps. The decaying animals and woody materials provide the necessary carbon. In fact, most of the world's oil and gas is not terregenous (formed from land based materials). Most oil we produce was formed from dead and decaying marine biota forming layers at the bottom of the oceans and large waterways. Hydrocarbon elements must be "cooked" to form oil and gas. This requires burying the source rock layers at great depth and subjecting them to high temperatures and pressures. This happens in the natural evolution of most sedimentary basins.

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H H C H H H H H C C H H H H H H H C C C H H H H H H H H H C C C C H H H H H H H H H H H C C C C C H H H H H H H H H H H H H C C C C C C H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H C C C C C C C H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H C C C C C C C C H H H H H H H H H H H H H H C C C C H H H H H H H H C C C C H H H H H

Methane

CH4

Ethane

C 2H 6

Propane

C 3H 8

Butane

C4H10

Pentane

C5H12

Hexane

C6H14

Heptane

C7H16

Octane

C8H18

CNH2N+2

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Figure 2-20 Molecular structures Photo taken from Oil Sands Discovery Center, Ft. McMurray.

Figure 2-21 Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage Photo taken from Oil Sands Discovery Center, Ft. McMurray.

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A sedimentary rock not a mass of solid material. When viewed through a magnifying glass or under a microscope, we can see it is made up of many small grains cemented together to some degree. The geometry of these grains determines the reservoir qualities of the rock. The spaces between the grains are called pore spaces while the extent to which these pore spaces are connected determines the permeability.

Figure 2-22 Porosity versus Permeablility Fluid accumulation in porous, permeable rocks. Porosity is the volume of a rock capable of holding fluids; permeability is the ability of fluids to move between the grains and through the rock. Top Left: well-sorted, well rounded grains (point bar) porosity about 25%, good permeability. Bottom Left: poorly-sorted, well rounded grains (levee splay) low porosity, fair permeability Top Right: well-sorted, angular grains (aolean - sand dune) good porosity, fair permeability (may be anisotropic) Bottom Right: poorly-sorted, angular grains (abandoned channel, shales) poor porosity, poor permeability (may be anisotropic)

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The porosity of a rock is the percentage of the total volume (matrix grains and pore space together) which is available to contain fluids (gas, oil or water). If all the grains in a rock are well sorted (the same size and shape) then the porosity is fairly great. If they are poorly sorted, the small grains tend to fill the pore space between larger grains and the result is a low porosity rock. Some depositional environments (such as point bars along rivers) provide excellent natural sorting of grain sizes. The permeability of a rock is a measure of the ability of fluids to move through the rock. Smaller grained rocks will have lower permeability than larger grained rocks because the pore throats (restricted areas between pore spaces) will be smaller. Secondary mineralization (known as diagenetic alteration) can also plug up the pore throats and reduce permeability. Some rocks (like shales) are made up of flat grains. The permeability along the grains will be good while the permeability across the grains will be poor. This difference in properties depending on direction of measurement is known as anisotropy. An isotropic material will exhibit similar permeability in all directions while shale is an example of an anisotropic material. If a rocks grain type and geometry is similar over a large scale, it is said to be homogeneous. If it is made of a variety of grain types (a conglomerate for example) it is inhomogeneous. Note that a uniform shale can be homogeneous but anisotropic. Once we have located a good reservoir rock near a migration path which connects it to a good source rock, and the reservoir is capped and trapped, we have a potential oil or gas field. If we drill a well into the reservoir, the trapped oil / gas will flow into the well bore where we can collect it and pump it to storage and transportation facilities at the surface. As long as nothing happens to damage the reservoir near the well bore, oil / gas will continue to flow into the well as we produce it. Eventually, as we deplete the hydrocarbon reserve of the formation, it will be replaced by surrounding water. Figure 2-18 shows that the water will adhere more closely to the rock grains than the oil or gas. As the proportion of water in a reservoir increases the thickness of this water jacket around each grain will also increase. When the water chokes off the pore throats, the oil / gas will no longer flow through the rock. Only the water will flow while substantial amounts of oil / gas remain bound in the remaining pore spaces. The amount of oil we can produce from a reservoir as a percentage of the original volume of oil contained in the reservoir is called the recovery factor. It is determined by grain size and geometry, degree of cementation, proximity to oil / gas - water contact, and production rates.

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Figure 2-23 Multi-phase fluid dynamics. Four grains of sandstone are depicted surrounded by a thin layer of water (top left) and a thicker layer of water (bottom right). The rest of the pore space is occupied by oil (black). The water adheres to the grains more closely than oil because it is more wettable. Note that the pore throats in the upper picture are open for the passage of oil. As oil is produced from a reservoir, it is replaced by water and the water jacket thickens. Eventually, the water pinches off the pore throats so that the remaining oil cannot be produced (bound oil). At this point, the reservoir is said to have watered out. Enhanced recovery techniques use methods to break down the water jacket and free the bound oil.

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E. Typical HydroCarbon Trap Types Oil and gas can become trapped in a variety of geological settings. Some traps are formed by structural deformation of the layers of sedimentary rocks (faulting and folding). Others result from changes in the thickness or type of material in a particular layer and are known as stratigraphic traps.

Figure 2-24 Some typical hydrocarbon traps.

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Figure 2-25 A model of a normal fault with a typical seismic expression. The small building on the right represents the Calgary Tower, a local landmark over 600 feet high (200 m).

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Figure 2-26 Braided stream and deposition sequence.

Figure 2-27 Meandering stream and deposition sequence.

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Figure 2-28 Basal cretaceous fluvial system.

Figure 2-29 Flooding and regression of the Albian Sea.

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Figure 2-30 Model of a Lateral Sand Bar.

Figure 2-31 Schematic cross-section of Little Bow Area.

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Figure 2-32 Cross-section through channel of interest and its seismic section.

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