Acculturation Gap The following pages discuss four research studies that empirically investigate the links between

acculturation gap and negative effects on child outcomes. Acculturation gap refers to the extent to which the individual acculturation levels differ between parents and adolescents. The study of acculturation gap is important for developing an understanding of how acculturation gap impacts psychological, emotional, and academic outcomes in adolescents. This paper will discuss descriptions of the measurements used, how acculturation gap is conceptualized, conclusions about its positive or negative affects, and the most significant features of the methodologies used in each of the research papers. Lastly, the paper will examine conclusions about methodological weaknesses and suggestions for future research. Bmaca-Colbert and Gayles (2010) What were they trying to find out? Bamaca-Colbert and Gayles (2010) were investigating which procedure among four different analytic measures best explained the interaction between cultural orientation dissonance, family functioning, and adolescent adjustment in sample of mother-daughter pairs of Mexican descent. Who did they study? Their sample included daughters in the 7th and 10th grades and their mothers. There were 159 early-adolescent girls, 160 late-adolescent girls, and 319 mothers who participated in the study. How did they do the study? Bamaca-Colbert and Gayles (2010) used the Bidimentional Acculturation Scale for Hispanics to determine mothers and daughters language-related cultural orientation. They used The Cultural Values Scale to measure mothers and daughters cultural orientation with respect to values. The frequency of conflict was assessed with a modified version of the Parent-Adolescent Conflict Scale. Daughters perceptions of their mothers

supportive parenting was assessed with the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment. Daughters depressive symptoms were measured with the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. Daughters anxiety states were assessed with the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children-Trait Version. They used for analytic procedures (two variable-centered approaches and two person-centered approaches) for examining the interplay between culture orientation dissonance, family functioning, and adolescent adjustment regarding acculturation, enculturation, and familism. The measures used were difference scores, interactions, matched/mismatched groups, and latent profile analysis (LPA). The two person-centered approaches, matched/mismatched groups and LPA, yielded low matched, mismatched, and high matched levels corresponding to acculturation, enculturation, and familism and five profile groups (Cultural Orientation Dissonance Dyads (P1), Low Acculturated Daughter Dyads (P2), Familism Matched Dyads (P3), Low Enculturated Dyads (P4), and Cultural Orientation Matched Dyads (p5)) respectively. What did they find? The difference score analysis showed that higher levels of parentchild conflict were related to higher levels of depressive symptoms, higher levels of maternal supportive parenting were related to lower levels of depressive symptoms, and that higher levels of conflict in daughters reports related to higher levels of anxiety. The Interactive Analytic Procedure showed that higher levels of conflict were related to higher levels of depressive symptoms, higher levels of maternal supportive parenting were related to lower levels of depressive symptoms, and it exhibited a grade x familism interaction. Only 7th graders showed that mother-daughter familism was related to depression. It also revealed that for daughters with average familism, a one-unit increase in mothers; familism level was related to a larger effect of daughter familism on depressive symptoms. Effects of daughter familism on depressive

symptoms were the greatest when mothers had high familism levels. Higher levels of conflict and enculturation were linked to higher anxiety levels in this analytic procedure. The matched/mismatched analytic procedure showed significant effects for maternal supportive parenting and for the mothers report of conflict. A significant enculturation group x mothers report of conflict interaction was also revealed. The procedure indicated that links between conflict and depressive symptoms were strongest for the mismatched enculturated group, moderate in the matched high Enculturated group, and non-existent in the matched low Enculturated group. There was a significant enculturation group x conflict interaction, and the links between conflict and anxiety were only visible in the high matched enculturated group. The LPA procedures significant results revealed that P1 had higher mean levels of depressive symptoms than all the other groups, P2 had higher mean levels of depressive symptoms than did P3, and that there was a significant cultural orientation by grade interaction. It also showed that P1 had a higher mean level of depressive symptoms than those in all the other groups for the 7th graders, daughters in P2 had higher mean depressive symptoms that those in P3 and P5, and 10th graders in P1 had higher mean depressive symptoms than those in P3. Significant findings in this procedure were a significant cultural orientation effect, P1 and P2 has higher mean levels of anxiety than P3 and P5, and P4 had a higher mean level of anxiety than did P5. What can they conclude from the study? The researchers concluded that results did indeed change depending on the procedure used and that LPA was the best analytic procedure used for explaining the interactions between cultural orientation, family functioning, and clarifying how adolescent adjustment changed as a function of mother-daughter cultural orientation dissonance and family functioning. Costigan and Dokis (2006)

What were they trying to find out? Costigan and Dokis (2006) were investigating the magnitude of parent-child acculturation differences among immigrant Chinese families in both acculturation and enculturation domains in British Columbia (BC), Canada. They were also wanted to add to the literature of past studies on acculturation gap by evaluating three aspects of adjustment and using multidimentional and orthogonal assessment of accultuation. Who did they study? They had 89 father, 91 mother, and 91 child participants. The children ranged in ages from 9 to 15. How did they do the study? The researchers identified public and private domains for acculturation. They took independent self-reports of accultuation from mothers, fathers, and children. They used the interaction analysis method between parents and childrens acculturation reports in regression analyses. Canadian and Chinese behavioral practices (public domains) of acculturation were assessed with a modified version of the Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans-II. Private domains of acculturations were assessed with measures of ethnic cultural values and host culture values of importance. Chinese values were assessed with the Asian Value Scale. Canadian values were assessed by examining the parents views of the appropriate amount of adolescent independence. Parent-child intensity of conflict was measured with the Issues Checklist. Childrens depressive symptoms were measured with the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale. Childrens achievement motication was measured with the Value of Academic Success Scale. What did they find? They found that higher conflict intensity was related with higher feelings of depression and lower achievement motivation and higher feelings of depression was related to lower achievement motivation. The following discussion contains significant findings from their research. As childrens chinese language use increased intensity of conflict would

decrease but only when moms also had high Chinese language use. As childrens chinese language use increased, feelings of depression decreased but only when moms also had high chinese language use. As chilrens chinese language use increased, depression would increase but only when moms had low chinese language use. As childrens chinese language use increased, achievement motivation increased but only when moms also had high chinese language use. As childrens chinese media use increased, intensity of conflict would decrease but only when moms also had high chinese media use. As childrens chinese media use increased, achievement motivation would increase but only when dads also had high Chinese media use. As childrens chinese values increased, intensity of conflict decreased but only when dads also had high chinese values. As childrens chinese values increased, feelings of depression decreased but only when dads had high chinese values as well. As childrens canadian media use increased, achievement motivation increased but only when moms also had high canadian media use. What can they conclude? They concluded that parents level of engagement in the Chinese culture was predictive of adjustment levels, whereas parents level of engagement in Cadian culture was not. They also concluded that egative outcomes can occur but not intense enough to have detrimental affects on the children. Kim and Park (2011) What were they trying to find? Kim and Park (2011) are trying to find a significant relationship between acculturation gap and distress. They wanted to see if mother-adolescent acculturation discrepancies would be associated with adolescents internalizing and externalizing symptoms and if parent-child communication would moderate the gap-distress relationship. Who did they study? The researchers had 77 Korean-American mother-adolescent pairs from the Midwest. The children were between 11 and 15 years of age.

How did they do the study? The researchers employed the difference score approach and the interaction term approach to look at how acculturation gap leads to depressive internal and external symptoms. Adolescent and mother self-reports were used to examine levels of acculturation and enculturation. Parent-adolescent communication and internalizing and externalizing symptoms were measured with the adolescent self-reports. Levels of acculturation and enculturation in mothers and adolescents were measured with the Asian American Multidimensional Acculturation Scale. Parent-Adolescent communication was assessed with the Parent-Adolescent Communication Scale. It measured the youths perceptions of the communication quality with their mother and father. The Youth-Self Report assessed adolescents internalizing and externalizing symptoms. What did they find? The researchers discovered that when parent enculturation was high, youth externalizing symptoms would increase but only when youth enculturation was also high. They also found that as enculturation gap increased, youth internalizing symptoms would also increase but only when father-adolescent communication was low. They were also able to see that adolescents perception of communication with their fathers significantly moderated the relationship between the enculturation gap and internalizing symptoms. What can they conclude from the study? The researchers concluded that poor fatheradolescent communication had negative impacts for youths internalizing symptoms and that under different conditions of father-child communication, different effects were seen. They also concluded that depending on the selection of methodologies and theoretical frameworks, the acculturation gap could affect the sensitivity of an association between acculturation gap and child distress. They also were able to see that even with no gap, it was not as protective as expected.

Kim, Chen, Li, Huang, and Moon (2009) What were they trying to find out? Kim, Chen, Li, Huang, and Moons goal was to look at the discrepancy between parent and child acculturation and at the discrepancy between parent and child heritage orientation and their affect on child outcomes in Chinese Immigrant Families. They also wanted to establish the impact that acculturation discrepancy has parenting practices (parental support) and how the level of support, in turn, affects adolescent depressive symptoms. Who did they study? The researchers had a sample of 388 father-child pairs with foreign born-father and 399 mother-adolescent pairs with foreign-born mothers. How did they do the study? They used a bidimentional view of acculturation. They assessed parent-child relationships as a function of affect and behavioral and communicative parenting by monitoring and inductive reasoning. They measured acculturation using a broader behavioral acculturation measure. They assessed acculturation with the Vancouver Index of Acculturation. They assessed parenting through measures adapted from the Iowa Youth and Families Project. They assessed adolescent depressive symptoms with the Center for Epidemiologic Studies of Depression Scale. They assessed their experience of discrimination with a scale developed by Kessler and colleagues. Fathers and mothers answered questions about family income and highest level of education attained. The acculturation scores for mothers, fathers, and children were assessed separately. Acculturation levels in both Chinese and American orientations were designated as low, medium or high What did they find? They found that if fathers and their children are discrepant in their American orientation, fathers are less likely to use monitoring and inductive reasoning, and children would be more likely to experience depressive symptoms. They also found that

supportive parenting mediates between acculturation gap and depressive symptoms only in father-child relationships. What can they conclude from the study? They concluded that generational dissonance is not limited to economic prospects, but may also relate to adolescent adjustment problems in other areas, especially depressive symptoms. They concluded that paternal parenting mediates the relationship between father-child acculturation divergence and adolescent depressive symptoms even when factors such as socioeconomic status, their sense of discrimination, parents length of time in the United States, and when adolescent age and sex were controlled.

Using hierarchical regression analyses of the interaction terms, 3 dependent variables were predicted (intensity of conflict, feelings of depression, and achievement motivation). How is acculturation gap conceptualized as well as operationalized in each study? In Bamaca-Colbert and Gayles (2010)s paper, there were four different analytical approaches to how the researchers conceptualized acculturation gap. Two approaches were variable centered. The other two were person centered. The variable centered approaches consisted of a difference score and an interaction measurement. The person-centered approaches were accomplished using match/mismatch groupings (arbitrary grouping) and acculturation profiles (latent profiles). Difference scores were calculated for three cultural orientation variables (mother and daughter acculturation, mother and daughter enculturation, and mother and daughter familism). The operationalization of the difference score for each variable was accomplished by subtracting the mothers acculturation score from the daughters acculturation score, subtracting the daughters enculturation score from the mothers enculturation score, and by subtracting the daughters familism score from the mothers familism score. The operationalization for the

interaction approach was accomplished by centering all the cultural orientation and family variables at the mean and then creating interaction terms for three cultural orientation variables: mother x daughter acculturation, mother x daughter enculturation, and mother x daughter familism. Interactions were also created for mother by daughter orientation by family factor, and mother by daughter orientation by grade. Match/mismatch groups were created for acculturation, enculturation, and familism levels. Mothers and daughters values were cross-tabulated separately for each of the variables, and three categorical grouping variables were created corresponding to acculturation, enculturation, and familism. Each of the variables had three levels: low matched, mismatched, and high matched. The low matched pairs contained mothers and daughters in the lower 33% of a distribution curve for acculturation, enculturation, and familism. The mismatched pairs contained mothers and daughters in opposite percentiles for each of the variables (e.g., daughters in the bottom 33% and mothers in the top 33% and vice versa). The high matched pairs contained mothers and daughters who were both in the top 66% of the distribution curve. Nine groups were created using this approach. The second personcentered approach was the latent profile/class analysis model. Individuals or mother-daughter pairs were classified into groups. In the first step, cultural orientation profiles were empirically derived for mothers and daughters independently using their cultural orientation levels and their responses on family conflict and maternal supportive parenting. In the second step, the researchers made groups where mothers and daughters were similar or different in their classifications of cultural orientation. The latent profile analysis yielded a five-profile solution. The profiles were created with respect to acculturation, enculturation, and familism level. The researchers provided labels for each of the five profiles. Profiles 1-5 were labeled Cultural

Orientation Dissonance Dyads, Low Acculturated Daughters Dyads, Familism Matched Dyads, Low Enculturated Dyads, and Cultural Orientation Matched Dyads respectfully.

In Costigan and Dokis (2006)s paper, they used the interaction approach to conceptualize acculturation gap. The researchers divided the sample into terciles to describe the extent of acculturation dissonance and cross-tabulated parent and childrens reports on each acculturation variable (e.g., Chinese language use, Canadian language use, Canadian media use, etc.). They took the mothers acculturation scores for each of the acculturation variables and multiplied them by their childs acculturation scores for each variable to come up with the interaction terms. They did the same with the acculturation scores for the fathers in the study. They looked for significant interactions and graphed them. They wanted to determine if a high acculturation score on one of the acculturation variables by parents and a low score on that same acculturation variable by children led to an acculturation gap and vice versa. They took parent and childrens multiplicative scores and graphed them to see if the slopes were either positive or negative. They looked at childrens acculturation level in predicting intensity of conflict, feelings of depression, and achievement motivation at high and low levels parents acculturation. Six hierarchical regression analyses were done for each dependent variable, one for each of the acculturation variables. In Kim and Park (2011)s paper, the researchers used the difference score approach and the interaction term method to conceptualize acculturation gap. The difference scores for acculturation gap were calculated by subtracting mothers acculturation scores from the youths acculturation scores. The difference scores for enculturation gap were calculated by subtracting youths enculturation scores form the mothers enculturation scores. The acculturation and

enculturation scores were derived from the Asian American Multidimensional Acculturation Scale. The interaction term method was operationalized by mean-centering the mothers and youths acculturation and enculturation scores and then multiplying the mothers acculturation/enculturation score by the youths acculturation/enculturation score to produce an interaction term. Hierarchical multiple regression was then used to test for main effects of mothers and youths acculturation and enculturation levels and the interaction of those variables. In Kim, Chen, Li, Huang, and Moon (2009)s paper, the researchers used an acculturation classification to conceptualize acculturation gap. They divided the sample in terms of low, medium, and high acculturation. The bottom 33% was labeled low in acculturation. The next 33% was labeled medium in acculturation, and the highest third was labeled high in terms of their acculturation score. If both the daughter and mother were low, medium, or high in terms of their acculturation levels, they were assigned a score of 1. A score of 1 meant that a small gap in acculturation was present. If the child was medium and the mother was low, a child medium and the mother high, or if the child was high and the mother was medium in terms of their acculturation scores, they were assigned a score of 2 meaning that there was a medium level of acculturation gap present. If the mother was high and the child was low, or if the mother was low and the child was high, they would be assigned a score of 3. A score of 3 meant that a large acculturation gap was present. Four acculturation discrepancy scores were derived from adolescents responses on the American orientation subscale measure when cross-classified with parents responses (father-adolescent and mother-adolescent American orientation discrepancy and father-adolescent and mother-adolescent Chinese orientation discrepancy).

Which of the four approaches to conceptualizing/operationalizing acculturation gap do you find most convincing? The latent profile analysis approach was the most sensitive instrument in assessing the interactions among cultural orientation, family factors, and youth adjustment. It was a more rigorous approach than the other person-centered approach because the groups were empirically derived versus arbitrarily derived. It also displayed the heterogeneity among the group being studied the best, and it was able to better capture unusual patterns such as mothers being more acculturated than their children. Across the three papers (Bmaca-Colbert & Gayles, 2010; Costigan & Dokis, 2006; Kim, Chen, Li, Huang, & Moon, 2009), what can you conclude about whether acculturation gap has a positive or negative effect on child development in minority/immigrant families? After analyzing the findings in the paper by Bamaca-Colbert and Gales (2010), their study demonstrated that acculturation gap led to negative adolescent adjustment. The researchers found that cultural discrepancies coupled with high conflict and low maternal supportive parenting was the most detrimental to the adjustment of the sample of adolescents they studied. They identified various other forms of acculturation dissonance. All of which led to negative developmental outcomes such as depressive symptoms and anxiety. In Costigan and Dokis (2006)s paper, their study showed that enculturation discrepancies were the most harmful for child development in terms of conflict intensity, depressive feelings, and achievement motivation when parents were highly oriented toward their ethnic culture. Differences in endorsement of the host culture between parents and children did not significantly affect adolescent development except for 1 out of 18 interaction terms in the Canadian dimension.

In Kim, Chen, Li, Huang, and Moon (2009)s paper, acculturation gap demonstrated to have negative effects on child development in the minority families of their study. The researchers study found that American orientation discrepancies between fathers and adolescents were associated with unsupportive parenting practices, which, in turn, was associated with more depressive symptoms in adolescents. Does Kim and Park (2011) complicate the findings made in the other three papers about the relationship between acculturation gap and child outcomes in minority/immigrant families? Why or why not? Kim and Park (2011) found that parents and their children who were highly match in terms of their enculturation led to higher levels of externalizing problems. The literature on acculturation has hypothesized that not as many problem behaviors would be present when a match occurs. Kim and Park found higher levels of delinquency despite this common prediction. What are the most salient features of the study methodology or approach that you believe is useful to maintain/discard if you were to design a future study on this topic? Bamaca-Colbert and Gayles (2010)s study had many methodological positives and negatives. The researchers only studied mothers and daughters. Other studies have found the overwhelming importance of the fathers role in child development. A positive aspect in the methodology of the study was that they examined early adolescent and late adolescent groups. The study of both groups allowed them to compare the degree and variability of the outcomes between the two groups. In general, affects were stronger for early adolescents. Costigan and Dokis (2006)s study used a snowball sampling technique. Participants helped find someone else like them, and as a result, the sample may have lost its randomness. It could also be a benefit because the families may have similar traits.

Kim and Park (2011)s study took place in the Midwest, where less ethnic minorities are found. Their study was unique, and their findings were different from everyone elses. The differences may have been due to the geographical region. Their recruitment methodology may have been a limitation in their study. The researchers relied on Korean churches to gather their sample. They may have been artificially selecting people that were highly enculturated because of their Korean church attendance. Another limitation was that they didnt sample fathers directly. They used the children to sample and report on their fathers. This could have artificially inflated the negative perceptions that children had about their fathers if they were disgruntled. Kim, Chen, Li, Huang, and Moon (2009)s implementation of a cross-sectional study design may have been a limitation. This method may have distorted the ability to test for alternative directions of influence in the constructs. A positive aspect of their methodology was that the researchers assessed the associations between parental quality as defined by affective, behavioral, and communicative parenting and discrepancies in American and Chinese orientations between parents and children. Future Research Direction and Summary of Two Peer Reviewed Papers Future research should directly incorporate more fathers into studies. Fathers appear to have a significant role in the relationship between acculturation gap and father-child relationship quality on child development. A study by Schofield, Parke, Kim, and Coltrane (2008) found that acculturation gaps were related to increased parent-child conflicts only for father-child acculturation gaps. They also found that father-child acculturation gaps were related to more father-child conflict only in families with low father-child relationship quality. Another study by Weaver and Kim (2008), demonstrated that fathers supportive parenting was lower

when adolescents were more oriented toward the host culture and fathers were more oriented toward their heritage culture.

References Bmaca-Colbert, M. Y., & Gayles, J. G. (2010). Variable-centered and person-centered approaches to studying Mexican-origin motherdaughter cultural orientation dissonance. Journal of Youth And Adolescence, 39(11), 1274-1292. doi:10.1007/s10964-009-9447-3 Costigan, C. L., & Dokis, D. P. (2006). Relations between parent-child acculturation differences and adjustment within immigrant Chinese families. Child Development, 77, 1252-1267. Kim, M., & Park, I. K. (2011). Testing the moderating effect of parentadolescent communication on the acculturation gapdistress relation in Korean American families. Journal of Youth And Adolescence, 40(12), 1661-1673. doi:10.1007/s10964-011-9648-4 Kim, S. Y., Chen, Q., Li, J., Huang, X., & Moon, U. J. (2009). Parent-child acculturation, parenting, and adolescent depressive symptoms in Chinese immigrant families. Journal of Family Psychology, 23, 426-437. Schofield, T. J., Young, K., Parke, R. D., & Coltrane, S. (2008). Bridging the Acculturation Gap: ParentChild Relationship Quality as a Moderator in Mexican American Families. Developmental Psychology, 44(4), 1190-1194. doi:10.1037/a0012529

Weaver, S., & Kim, S. (2008). A Person-centered Approach to Studying the Linkages among ParentChild Differences in Cultural Orientation, Supportive Parenting, and Adolescent Depressive Symptoms in Chinese American Families. Journal Of Youth & Adolescence, 37(1), 36-49. doi:10.1007/s10964-007-9221-3