Transport of hormones

Basics certain hormones are bound for the transport of carrier proteins in the blood. the carrier proteins are synthesized in the liver. the proportion of the bound hormone is different depending on Hormonart. only the free hormone capable of binding to the receptor. there is an equilibrium between free and bound hormone.

Hydrophobic hormones poorly water-soluble hormones (eg, steroid and thyroid hormones) are tied for the transport through the bloodstream to specific carrier proteins.

Hydrophilic hormones highly water-soluble hormones (eg insulin, TSH, LH) do not require transport proteins in general. Exception: IGF-1 has different binding proteins. Factors which affect the binding of proteins leading to a change of the concentration of bound hormone: change in the concentration of the binding proteins

Estrogens increase (pregnancy), the concentration of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG), corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG) increase of total hormone concentration. Hyperthyroidism increases the concentration of SHBG. Protein deficiency (malnutrition, nephrotic syndrome) leads to decrease in the concentration of binding proteins. decrease of total hormone concentration

o o

Displacement from the protein binding o eg by drugs with high affinity plasma protein binding.

Since an equilibrium between free and bound hormone, does not cause changes in binding proteins for endocrine or over functions. Diagnostic consequence: if possible, determine the concentration of free hormone

MODES OF HORMONE TRANSPORT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction Traditional endocrinology Function of the endocrine system Glands and hormones of the human endocrine system Growth and development Endocrine-related developmental disorders Ectopic hormone and polyglandular disorders Endocrine changes with aging Related Contributors & Bibliography

Most hormones are secreted into the general circulation to exert their effects on appropriate distant target tissues. There are important exceptions, however, such as self-contained portal circulations in which blood is directed to a specific area. A portal circulation begins in a capillary bed. As the capillaries extend away from the capillary bed, they merge to form a set of veins, which then divide to form a second capillary bed. Thus, blood collected from the first capillary bed is directed solely into the tissues nourished by the second capillary bed.

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Two portal circulations in which hormones are transported are present in the human body. One system, the hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal circulation, collects blood from capillaries originating in thehypothalamus and, through a plexus of veins surrounding the pituitary stalk, directs the blood into the anterior pituitary gland. This allows the neurohormones secreted by the neuroendocrine cells of the hypothalamus to be transported directly to the cells of the anterior pituitary. These hormones are largely, but not entirely, excluded from the general circulation. In the second system, the hepatic portal circulation, capillaries originating in the gastrointestinal tract and the spleen merge to form the portal vein, which enters the liver and divides to form portal capillaries. This allows hormones from the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas, such as insulin and glucagon, as well as certain nutrients absorbed from the intestine, to be transported into the liver before being distributed through the general circulation. In serum, many hormones exist both as free, unbound hormone and as hormone bound to a serum carrier or transport protein. These proteins, which are produced by the liver, bind to specific hormones in the serum. Transport proteins include sex hormone-binding globulin, which binds estrogens and androgens; corticosteroid-binding globulin, which binds cortisol; and growth hormone-binding protein, which binds growth hormone. There are two specific thyroid hormone binding proteins, thyroxine-binding globulin and transthyretin (thyroxine-binding prealbumin), and at least six binding proteins for insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1).

In serum, protein-bound hormones are in equilibrium with a much smaller concentration of free, unbound hormones. As free hormone leaves the circulation to exert its action on a tissue, bound hormone is immediately freed from its binding protein. Thus, the transport proteins serve as a reservoir within the circulation to maintain a normal concentration of the biologically important free hormone. In addition, transport proteins protect against sudden surges in hormone secretion and facilitate even distribution of a hormone to all of the cells of large organs such as the liver. The production of many transport proteins is hormone-dependent, being increased by estrogens and decreased by androgens; however, the biological importance of this sensitivity to sex steroids is not well understood. The affinity (attraction) of hormones for binding proteins is not constant. The thyroid hormonethyroxine, for example, binds much more tightly to thyroxine-binding globulin than does triiodothyronine. Therefore, triiodothyronine is readily released as a free molecule and has easier access to tissues than thyroxine. Similarly, among the sex steroids, testosterone binds more tightly to sex hormone-binding globulin than do other androgens or estrogens.

BIORHYTHMS
Some hormones, such as insulin, are secreted in short pulses every few minutes. Presumably, the time between pulses is a reflection of the lag time necessary for the insulin-secreting cell to sense a change in the blood glucose concentration. Other hormones, particularly those of the pituitary, are secreted in pulses that may occur at one- or two-hour intervals. Pulsatile secretion is a necessary requirement for the action of pituitary gonadotropins. For example, pituitary gonadotropin secretion increases substantially and is maintained at increased levels when gonadotropin-producing cells (gonadotrophs) are stimulated at 90- to 120-minute intervals by the injection of hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone. If, however, the gonadotrophs are subjected to a continuous injection of gonadotropin-releasing hormone, gonadotropin secretion is inhibited. In addition to pulses of secretion, many hormones are secreted at different rates at different times of the day and night. These longer periodic changes are called circadian rhythms. One example of a circadian rhythm is that of cortisol, the major steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex. Serum cortisol concentrations rapidly increase in the early morning hours, gradually decrease during the day, with small elevations after meals, and remain decreased for much of the night. This particular rhythm is dependent on night-day cycles and persists for some days after airplane travel to different time zones. The transitional period is reflected in the well-known phenomenon of jet lag. Other hormones follow different circadian rhythms. For example, serum concentrations of growth hormone, thyrotropin, and the gonadotropins are highest shortly after the onset of sleep. In the case of gonadotropins, this sleep-related increase is the first biochemical sign of the onset of puberty. In addition, women have monthly biorhythms, which are reflected in their menstrual cycles.

Endocrine dysfunction
ENDOCRINE HYPOFUNCTION AND RECEPTOR DEFECTS
In some cases, a decrease in hormone production, known as hypofunction, is required to maintainhomeostasis. One example of hypofunction is decreased production of thyroid hormones during starvation and illness. Because the thyroid hormones control energy expenditure, there is

survival value in slowing the bodys metabolism when food intake is low. Thus, there is a distinction between compensatory endocrine hypofunction and true endocrine hypofunction.