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Life without Electroscopes

In this article I look at three Leaving Certificate Physics experiments where, traditionally, the gold-leaf electroscope is used. The electroscope, in one form or another, dates back to around the year 1600 so maybe its time to take a look at more modern ways of doing things.
Jimmy Brophy, Our Lady's Secondary School, Castleblayney, Co. Monaghan

The electroscope can be unreliable and a bit confusing for students. We can use it as an indicator of charge or capacitance or potential difference. But what does it really measure? It measures the PD between the leaf and the case, maybe to the nearest 100V, if you are lucky. Granted, one of its advantages is that its got a very high resistance when dry and can detect the presence of small charges. The three experiments we look at here are: The factors affecting the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor. The distribution of charge on different insulated conductors. The photo-electric effect. In these experiments we use a capacitance meter, a coulombmeter and a charge sensor (part of a datalogging system).

What do you do? Set up the apparatus as in the photograph. Make sure the multimeter is set to capacitance (pF or nF if possible). Measure the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor. Change the distance between the plates and measure the capacitance again. Change the common area between the plates, keeping the distance between them constant, and measure the capacitance. Thirdly, place the polythene sheet (or other dielectric) between the plates and measure the capacitance. So what happened? Your measurements should show that the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor increases with common area and decreases as the distance between the plates increases. The capacitance should also show an increase with the presence of the polythene ( whose permittivity is greater than that of air). A These results are summarised in the formula C = d Where C is capacitance, is the permittivity of the medium, A is the common area of the plates and d is the distance between them. What next? Radios contain tuned circuits. When you tune in a station you are matching the frequency of the tuned circuit to that of the station you want to listen to. Older radios had parallel metal plate capacitors in them, whose common area changed as you adjusted the tuning control on the radio. Try and find an old radio and see can you locate this variable capacitor inside. Watch what happens as you turn the tuning control. In modern radios (and TVs) variable capacitance (varicap) diodes are used instead of metal plate variable capacitors. They are cheaper, simpler, with no moving parts, and can be very useful in various radio and electronics circuits. The capacitance of a varicap diode decreases with increase of the reverse voltage applied across it. This widens the depletion layer, and so effectively increases the distance between the plates of the diode, thereby reducing the capacitance.

The Parallel Plate Capacitor

To demonstrate the factors affecting the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor. What will you will need? Parallel plate capacitor, capacitance meter (multimeter which can measure capacitance down to pF or nF level), polythene sheet (or other dielectric).

Figure 1. Parallel plate capacitor and capacitance meter

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The distribution of charge on different insulated conductors

What will you will need? Insulated conductors of different shapes, proof plane, coulombmeter, perspex and polythene rods, dry cloth.

The Photoelectric Effect

Background The photoelectric effect involves the emission of electrons from the surface of a metal by electromagnetic radiation. This radiation must be of a certain minimum frequency (threshold frequency) for the electrons to be emitted. This frequency depends on the work function of the metal. In this experiment we use a zinc plate. The work function of zinc is such that the threshold frequency is in the UV region of the electromagnetic spectrum. What will you will need? Computer (running DataStudio), Pasco USB Link, Analog Adapter (needed if you have the older Pasco analog sensors), charge sensor, zinc plate, UV lamp, small sheet of glass, Perspex and polythene rods.

What do you do? Charge one of the rods by rubbing it with the dry cloth Use this charged rod to charge the pear shaped conductor by induction. (You could use the Van de Graaff generator to charge it). Make sure that the coulombmeter is discharged. Use the proof plane to take a number of spoons of charge from the sharp end of the pear shaped insulated conductor to the coulombmeter. Measure the charge on the coulombmeter. Repeat the experiment for the rounded end and for other insulated conductors. Use the same number of spoonfuls to make the comparison more valid. Compare your results for the sharp ends and for the rounded ends of the conductors. Repeat the experiment taking the charge from the rounded end first and then from the sharp end. So what happened? The coulombmeter will show a bigger increase of charge when you take spoons of charge from the sharp end of a pear shaped conductor. This shows that the charge is more concentrated at the sharp end. The experiment will show that charge is evenly distributed round a spherical conductor. What next? Because charge is more concentrated at sharp points, it is more likely to leak off there. Lightning conductors have sharp points at the top where you want charge to leak off. A Van de Graaff generator has a smooth, rounded dome so that charge does not easily leak off. Attach a sharp pin to the top of the Van de Graaff, switch it on and see what happens. What do you do? Use sandpaper to thoroughly clean the surface of the zinc plate. Set up the apparatus as shown. Clip the positive lead from the charge sensor to the zinc plate. You can clip the negative lead to a metal part of the retort stand. Make sure that the plate is insulated from its surroundings and that it is close to and directly in front of the opening on the UV housing. Run DataStudio. When you plug in the USB lead with the analog adapter attached, a list of sensors appears. Choose Charge Sensor. Double click on Graph in the displays section. It is now setup to show a graph of charge against time. Maximise this window. Press the zero (discharge) button on the sensor. You are now ready to collect data. Collecting Data Switch on the UV lamp. (Do not look directly at the UV radiation, and leave the UV lamp on only for as long as is necessary.) The graph will show the quantity and nature of the charge on the zinc plate. Place the glass plate between the zinc plate and the UV lamp, being careful not to touch the zinc plate. You can use the polythene or perspex rods to charge the plate negatively or positively and see what happens. You can also vary the distance of the UV lamp from the plate and see how does it affect the rate at which the charge on the plate is changing.

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So what happened? The graph shows when electrons are being emitted charge increases in the positive direction. When the UV lamp is moved away from the plate the graph shows a less rapid increase in positive charge (or less rapid decrease in negative charge). The graph does not show an increase when the glass is between the plate and the UV lamp UV does not penetrate ordinary glass. There are types of glass which allow it through. It is easier to remove electrons from a negatively charged plate they are repelled; but the experiment will work with an uncharged plate. Visible light will not eject electrons from the zinc surface because it has not got sufficient energy to do so. Its range of frequencies is below that of UV. Some metals have a higher work function than zinc and may not work with your UV lamp. What next? Einstein won the Nobel Prize for Physics for his explanation of the photo-electric effect. This explanation describes electromagnetic radiation in terms of quanta (photons) whose energy depends on the frequency of the radiation. Further application of this idea to all forms of energy lead ultimately to the development of quantum physics. The above experiment can also be carried out using the coulombmeter instead of the charge sensor and datalogging system.