Special Purpose Diodes Special Diodes

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Principle of Operation: The LED is a specialized form of PN junction that uses a compound junction. The commonly used semiconductor materials including silicon and germanium are simple elements and junction made from these materials do not emit light. The semiconductor material used for the junction must be a compound semiconductor. Junctions made from compound semiconductors emit light. e.g. gallium arsenide, gallium phosphide and indium phosphide are compound semiconductors and junctions made from these materials emit light. These compound semiconductors are classified by their valence bands. For gallium arsenide, gallium has a valency of three and arsenic a valency of five and this is what is termed a group III-V semiconductor. When a voltage is applied across a general purpose diode to make it forward biased, current flows in the junction. Holes from the p-type region and electrons from the n-type region enter the junction and recombine to enable the current to flow. When this occurs energy is released, in the form of heat. LED emits light when it is forward biased. When a voltage is applied across the junction to make it forward biased, current flows as in the case of any pn-jn. Holes from the p-type region and electrons from the n-type region enter the junction and recombine like a normal diode to enable the current to flow. When this occurs energy is released in the form of light photons.

 To produce light which can be seen the correct materials must be chosen. Pure gallium arsenide releases energy in the infra read portion of the spectrum (invisible light). To bring the light emission into the visible red end of the spectrum aluminium is added to the semiconductor to give aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs). LEDs made from a combination of the elements gallium, arsenic, and phosphorus (called gallium-arsenidephosphide =GaAsP) glow bright red, and are some of the most common LEDs manufactured. For other colours other materials are used to altering the chemical constituency of the PN junction. Phosphorus can also be added to give red light. For example : gallium-phosphide (GaP) gives red / green light and aluminium indium gallium phosphide give yellow / orange light.

Construction and Operation:

LEDs operate at voltage levels from about 1.5V to about 3.3V with currents from 5mA to about 30mA range. Response time = nanoseconds Power requirement from 10 to 150mW. The positive power is applied to one side of the LED semiconductor through a lead (1 anode) and a whisker (4). The other side of the semiconductor is attached to the top of the anvil (7) i.e. the negative power lead (2 cathode). It is the chemical makeup of the LED semiconductor (6) that determines the color of the light the LED produces. The epoxy resin enclosure (3 and 5) has three functions: It is designed to allow the most light to escape from the semiconductor, it focuses the light (view angle), and it protects the LED semiconductor from the elements. The entire unit is totally embedded in epoxy. This is what make LEDs virtually indestructible. There are no loose or moving parts within the solid epoxy enclosure.

 In an electronics circuit an LED, light emitting diode behaves very much like any other diode. As they are often used to indicate the presence of a voltage at a particular point, often being used as a supply rail indicator. When used in this fashion there must be a current limiting resistor R placed in the circuit. This should be calculated to give the required level of current. For many devices a current of around 20 mA is suitable, although it is often possible to run them at a lower current. If less current is drawn the device will obviously be dimmer. When calculating the amount of current drawn the voltage across the LED itself may need to be taken into consideration. The voltage across a LED in its forward biased condition is just over a volt, although the exact voltage is dependent upon the diode, and in particular its color. Typically a red one has a forward voltage of just under 2 volts, and around 2.5 volts for green or yellow. White LEDs need 3.6VDC and use approximately 30 milliamps of current, a power dissipation of 100 milliwatts.

LED Applications:
LEDs are and will continue to be very widely used as small indicator lamps, the number of applications they can find is increasing as the technology improves. New very high luminance LEDs are now available and are even being used as a form of illumination, an application which they were previously not able to fulfill because of their low light output. New colours are being introduced. White and blue LEDs, which were previously very difficult to manufacture are now available. In view of the ongoing technology development, and their convenience of use, these devices will remain in the electronics catalogues for many years to come.

Advantages:
Operating Life: Long = approx 20 years Because LEDs are solid-state devices they are not subject to sudden failure when operated within design parameters. DDP LEDs are designed to operate upwards of 50,000 hours at 25C ambient temperature. Operating life is characterized by the degradation of LED intensity over time. When the LED degrades to half of its original intensity after 50,000 hours it is at the end of its useful life although the LED will continue to operate as output diminishes. Unlike standard incandescent bulbs, DDP LEDs resist shock and vibration and can be cycled on and off without excessive degradation.

Multicolor LEDs:
Other colors may be obtained by combining two or more primary-color (red, green, and blue) LEDs together in the same package, sharing the same optical lens. This allowed for multicolor LEDs, such as tricolor LEDs (commercially available in the 1980's) using red and green (which can create yellow) and later RGB LEDs (red, green, and blue), which cover the entire color spectrum.

Eye Protection LEDs are very bright. DO NOT look directly into the LED light!! The light can be intense enough to injure human eyes.

Photo Diode

Ref: All about circuits=sp diodes

A photodiode is a diode optimized to produce an electron current flow in response to irradiation by ultraviolet, visible, or infrared light. A photodiode is a type of photo-detector capable of converting light into either current or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation. Principle of Operation: It is based on a principle that if a reversed biased diode is illuminated then the current flow varies linearly with the light flux. Silicon is most often used to fabricate photodiodes; though, germanium and gallium arsenide can also be used. The junction through which light enters the semiconductor must be thin enough to pass most of the light on to the active region (depletion region) where light is converted to electron-hole pairs.
A
K

Symbol of a Photodiode

Photodiode: Schematic symbol and cross section.

Construction:

A
K

Photodiode: Schematic symbol and cross section.

In Fig. a shallow P-type diffusion into an N-type wafer produces a PN junction near the surface of the wafer. The P-type layer needs to be thin to pass as much light as possible. A heavy N+ diffusion on the back of the wafer makes contact with metallization. The top metallization may be a fine grid of metallic fingers on the top of the wafer for large cells. In small photodiodes, the top contact might be a sole bond wire contacting the bare P-type silicon top. Photodiode consists of this pn-junction is embedded in a clear plastic case. One side of this plastic case is transparent, on which light is made to fall. The remaining sides are either painted black or are enclosed in a metallic case. Entire unit is very small, having dimensions of the order of a few tenths of a volt.

Ref: All about circuits=sp diodes

Photo Diode Operation:

Light is made to fall on the transparent side of the reverse biased diode. Light entering the top of the photodiode fall off exponentially in with depth of the silicon. The thin top P-type layer allows most photons to pass into the P, N and the depletion regions where electron-hole pairs are formed. The electric field across the depletion region due to the built in diode potential causes electrons to be swept into the N-layer, holes into the P-layer. Many of the electron-hole pairs formed in the P and N-regions recombine. Only a few do so in the depletion region. Thus, a few electron-hole pairs in the N and P-regions, and most in the depletion region contribute to photocurrent, the current resulting from light falling on the photodiode.

Fig: Motion of photo-generated carriers in a p-n photodiode.

The voltage out of a photodiode may be observed. Operation in this photovoltaic (PV) mode is not linear over a large dynamic range, though it is sensitive and has low noise at frequencies less than 100 kHz. The preferred mode of operation is often photocurrent (PC) mode because the current is linearly proportional to light flux over several decades of intensity, and higher frequency response can be achieved. PC mode is achieved with reverse bias or zero bias on the photodiode. A current amplifier (transimpedance amplifier) should be used with a photodiode in PC mode. Linearity and PC mode are achieved as long as the diode does not become forward biased. High speed operation is often required of photodiodes, as opposed to solar cells. Speed is a function of diode capacitance, which can be minimized by decreasing cell area. Thus, a sensor for a high speed fiber optic link will use an area no larger than necessary, say 1 mm2. Capacitance may also be decreased by increasing the thickness of the depletion region, in the manufacturing process or by increasing the reverse bias on the diode.

Volt-ampere (V-I) Characteristics of Photodiode:

When no light falls on the reverse biased photodiode: The majority carriers are not allowed to cross the junction. Current flows through the photodiode due to the thermally generated minority carriers which fall down the junction barrier or potential hill. This current corresponds to the reverse saturation current or leakage current and is called the Dark Current. The applied voltage may be as low as 10 mV or as high as 50 V and the dark currents may vary from pA to A depending upon the junction area and the process used. Dark current is always specified at a particular value of reverse applied voltage. When the reversed biased pn-junction is illuminated: New electron-hole pairs are generated. These electron-hole pairs are proportional to the number of incident photons or light flux. The magnitude of the photocurrent generated by a photodiode is dependent upon the wavelength of the incident light. With increasing light intensity the current increases and then becomes constant. From this value onwards the current generated is independent of the applied reverse voltage.

Applications:
Photodiodes are used both to detect the presence of light and to measure light intensity. Switching purposes Solar cells ( type of semiconductor device) Burglar alarms Photodiodes are also used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and televisions.

Schottky Diode/ hot carrier diode

The Schottky diode (named after German physicist Walter H. Schottky; is also known as hot carrier diode) is a semiconductor diode with a low forward voltage drop and has a very fast switching action. A Schottky diode is a special type of diode with a very low forward-voltage drop. When current flows through a diode there is a small voltage drop across the diode terminals. A normal diode has between 0.7-1.7 volt drops, while a Schottky diode voltage drop is between approximately 0.15-0.45 volt this lower voltage drop translates into higher system efficiency.

Construction:
A Schottky diode uses a metal-semiconductor junction known as a Schottky barrier (instead of a semiconductorsemiconductor junction as in conventional diodes). metal used may be gold and the semiconductor silicon This Schottky barrier results in both very fast switching times and low forward voltage drop. The Schottky barrier diode can be manufactured in a variety of forms. The most simple is the point contact diode where a metal wire is pressed against a clean semiconductor surface. This was how the early Cat's Whisker detectors were made, and they were found to be very unreliable, requiring frequent repositioning of the wire to ensure satisfactory operation. Fig. Point contact Schottky diode

Construction: 2nd methodSchottky point contact diodes were subsequently replaced by a technique in which metal was vacuum deposited. One of the problems with the simple deposited metal diode is that breakdown effects occur around the edge of the metalised area. This arises from the high electric fields that are present around the edge of the plate. Leakage effects are also noticed. To overcome these problems a guard ring of P+ semiconductor fabricated using a diffusion process is provided along with an oxide layer around the edge. In some instances metallic silicides may be used in place of the metal.

Fig. Deposited metal Schottky barrier

Fig. Deposited metal and oxide film Schottky diode

Fig. Symbol of Schottky diode

Operation:
Reverse recovery time of Schottky: The most important difference between p-n and Schottky diode is reverse recovery time, when the diode switches from non-conducting to conducting state and vice versa. Where in a p-n diode the reverse recovery time can be in the order of hundreds of nanoseconds and less than 100 ns for fast diodes, Schottky diodes do not have a recovery time, as there is nothing to recover from. The switching time is ~100 ps for the small signal diodes, and up to tens of nanoseconds for special highcapacity power diodes. With p-n junction switching, there is also a reverse recovery current, which in high-power semiconductors brings increased EMI noise. With Schottky diodes switching essentially instantly with only slight capacitive loading, this is much less of a concern. It is often said that the Schottky diode is a "majority carrier" semiconductor device. This means that if the semiconductor body is doped n-type, only the n-type carriers (mobile electrons) play a significant role in normal operation of the device. The majority carriers are quickly injected into the conduction band of the metal contact on the other side of the diode to become free moving electrons. Therefore no slow, random recombination of n- and p- type carriers is involved, so that this diode can cease conduction faster than an ordinary p-n rectifier diode. This property in turn allows a smaller device area, which also makes for a faster transition.
When the signal applied to a diode changes from forward to reverse bias, conduction continues for a short time, while carriers are being swept out of the depletion region. Conduction only ceases after this tr reverse recovery time has expired. Schottky diodes have a shorter reverse recovery time. Regardless of switching speed, the 0.7 V forward voltage drop of silicon diodes causes poor efficiency in low voltage supplies. This is not a problem in, say, a 10 V supply. In a 1 V supply the 0.7 V drop is a substantial portion of the output. One solution is to use a Schottky power diode which has a lower forward drop.

Characteristics:
The Schottky diode is what is called a majority carrier device. This gives it tremendous advantages in terms of speed because it does not rely on holes or electrons recombining when they enter the opposite type of region as in the case of a conventional diode. By making the devices small the normal RC type time constants can be reduced, making these diodes an order of magnitude faster than the conventional PN diodes. This factor is the prime reason why they are so popular in radio frequency applications. The overall I-V characteristic is shown below. It can be seen that the Schottky diode has the typical forward semiconductor diode characteristic, but with a much lower turn on voltage. Schottky diode has higher current density. At high current levels it levels off and is limited by the series resistance or the maximum level of current injection. In the reverse direction breakdown occurs above a certain level. The mechanism is similar to the impact ionisation breakdown in a PN junction.

Figure :Linear plot of current versus voltage for a Schottky diode illustrating the concept of a diode turn-on voltage.

Applications:
High switching speed is the reason why Schottky diodes are useful in switch-mode power converters; the high speed of the diode means that the circuit can operate at frequencies in the range 200 kHz to 2 MHz, allowing the use of small inductors and capacitors with greater efficiency than would be possible with other diode types. Small-area Schottky diodes are the heart of RF detectors and mixers, which often operate up to 50 GHz. While standard silicon diodes have a forward voltage drop of about 0.7 volts and germanium diodes 0.3 volts, Schottky diodes' voltage drop at forward biases of around 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.46 V, which makes them useful in voltage clamping applications and prevention of transistor saturation. This is due to the higher current density in the Schottky diode.

The Schottky barrier diodes are widely used in the electronics industry finding many uses as diode rectifier. Its unique properties enable it to be used in a number of applications where other diodes would not be able to provide the same level of performance. In particular it is used in areas including: RF mixer and detector diode Power rectifier details in Ref: Schottky Diode1 Power OR circuits Solar cell applications Clamp diode - especially with its use in LS TTL
Limitations The most evident limitations of Schottky diodes are the relatively low reverse voltage rating for silicon-metal Schottky diodes, 50 V and below, and a relatively high reverse leakage current. The reverse leakage current, increasing with temperature, leads to a thermal instability issue. This often limits the useful reverse voltage to well below the actual rating, but the diodes are improving. The voltage ratings are now at 200 V.

Tunnel Diode / Esaki Diode

In 1958, Leo Esaki, a Japanese scientist, discovered

Construction and Operation:

The tunnel diode is similar to a standard p-n junction in many respects except that the doping levels are very high. Also the depletion region, the area between the p-type and n-type areas, where there are no carriers is very narrow. Typically it is in the region of between five to ten nano-metres - only a few atom widths. The normal junction diode uses semiconductor materials that are lightly doped with one impurity atom for tenmillion semiconductor atoms. This low doping level results in a relatively wide depletion region. Conduction occurs in the normal junction diode only if the voltage applied to it is large enough to overcome the potential barrier of the junction. In the TUNNEL DIODE, the semiconductor materials used in forming a junction are doped to the extent of onethousand impurity atoms for ten-million semiconductor atoms. This heavy doping produces an extremely narrow depletion zone similar to that in the Zener diode. Basic principle is that if a semiconductor junction diode is heavily doped with impurities, it will have a region of negative resistance. Explanation of why a tunnel diode has a region of negative resistance is best understood by using energy levels: The theory is known as quantum-mechanical tunneling. Quantum-mechanical tunneling is an effect due to which an electron can cross a PN- junction without having sufficient energy to do so otherwise. Because of the heavy doping the width of the depletion region is only one-millionth of an inch. The process may be considered to simply be an arc- over between the N- and the P-side across the depletion region.

Figure 1 (A)Tunnel diode energy diagram with no bias.

Figure 1A-shows the equilibrium energy level diagram of a tunnel diode with no bias applied. In view A that the valence band of the P-material overlaps the conduction band of the N-material. The majority electrons and holes are at the same energy level in the equilibrium state. If there is any movement of current carriers across the depletion region due to thermal energy, the net current flow will be zero because equal numbers of current carriers flow in opposite directions. The zero net current flow is marked by a "0" on the current-voltage curve illustrated in view B.

Figure 2A.Tunnel diode energy diagram with 50 millivolts bias. Figure 2B.Tunnel diode energy diagram with 50 mvolts bias.

Figure 2- A, shows the energy diagram of a tunnel diode with a small forward bias (50 millivolts) applied. The bias causes unequal energy levels between some of the majority carriers at the energy band overlap point, but not enough of a potential difference to cause the carriers to cross the forbidden gap in the normal manner. Since the valence band of the P-material and the conduction band of the N-material still overlap, current carriers tunnel across at the overlap and cause a substantial current flow. The amount of current flow is marked by point 2 on the curve in view B. In view A that the amount of overlap between the valence band and the conduction band decreased when forward bias was applied.

Figure 3-A.Tunnel diode energy diagram with 450 millivolts bias. Figure 3-B.Tunnel diode energy diagram with 450 millivolts bias.

Figure 3-A, is the energy diagram of a tunnel diode in which the forward bias has been increased to 450 millivolts. The valence band and the conduction band no longer overlap at this point, and tunneling can no longer occur. The portion of the curve in view B from point 2 to point 3 shows the decreasing current that occurs as the bias is increased, and the area of overlap becomes smaller. As the overlap between the two energy bands becomes smaller, fewer and fewer electrons can tunnel across the junction. The portion of the curve between point 2 and point 3 in which current decreases as the voltage increases is the negative resistance region of the tunnel diode.

Figure 4-A. Tunnel diode energy diagram with 600 millivolts bias.

Figure 4-B.Tunnel diode energy diagram with 600 millivolts

Figure 4-A, is the energy diagram of a tunnel diode in which the forward bias has been increased even further. The energy bands no longer overlap and the diode operates in the same manner as a normal PN junction, as shown by the portion of the curve in view (B) from point 3 to point 4.

Characteristics of Tunnel Diodes:

Tunnel diodes are heavily doped in both the P and N regions, 1000 times the level in a rectifier. When a small forward-bias voltage is applied across a tunnel diode, it begins to conduct current. As the voltage is increased, the current increases and reaches a peak value called the peak current (IP). If the voltage is increased a little more, the current actually begins to decrease until it reaches a low point called the valley current (IV). If the voltage is increased further yet, the current begins to increase again, this time without decreasing into another valley. The forward voltages necessary to drive a tunnel diode to its peak and valley currents are known as peak voltage (VP) and valley voltage (VV), respectively. The region on the graph where current is decreasing while applied voltage is increasing (between VP and VV on the horizontal scale) is known as the region of negative resistance. Tunnel diodes are able to transition between peak and valley current levels very quickly, switching between high and low states of conduction much faster than even Schottky diodes. Tunnel diode characteristics are also relatively unaffected by changes in temperature.

Tunnel diode (a) Schematic symbol.

(b) Current vs voltage plot.

Ref: Tunnel Diode.doc

Negative Resistance Region of Characteristics:

The heavy doping produces an unusually thin depletion region. This produces an unusually low reverse breakdown voltage with high leakage. The thin depletion region causes high capacitance. To overcome this, the tunnel diode junction area must be tiny. The forward diode characteristic consists of two regions: Normal forward diode characteristic with current rising exponentially beyond VF, 0.3 V for Ge, 0.7 V for Si. Between 0 V and VF is an additional negative resistance characteristic peak. This is due to quantum mechanical tunneling involving the dual particle-wave nature of electrons. The depletion region is thin enough compared with the equivalent wavelength of the electron that they can tunnel through. They do not have to overcome the normal forward diode voltage VF. The energy level of the conduction band of the N-type material overlaps the level of the valence band in the Ptype region. With increasing voltage, tunneling begins; the levels overlap; current increases, up to a point. As current increases further, the energy levels overlap less; current decreases with increasing voltage. This is the negative resistance portion of the curve.

Applications:
Tunnel diodes are not good rectifiers, as they have relatively high leakage current when reverse-biased. Tunnel diodes find application only in special circuits where their unique tunnel effect has value. To exploit the tunnel effect, these diodes are maintained at a bias voltage somewhere between the peak and valley voltage levels, always in a forward-biased polarity (anode positive, and cathode negative). Perhaps the most common application of a tunnel diode is in simple high-frequency oscillator circuits as in Figure (c). A tunnel diode biased to operate in the negative resistance region can be used as either an oscillator or an amplifier in a wide range of frequencies and applications. Very high frequency applications using the tunnel diode are possible because the tunneling action occurs so rapidly that there is no transit time effect and therefore no signal distortion. Tunnel diodes are also used extensively in high- speed switching circuits because of the speed of the tunneling action.
Tunnel diode

VF
(c) Oscillator.

Varactor Diode / Varicap

Construction and Operation:
The VARACTOR, or varicap, as the schematic drawing in Figure 1 suggests, is a diode that behaves like a variable capacitor, with the PN junction functioning like the dielectric and plates of a common capacitor. A variable capacitance diode is known as a varicap diode or as a varactor. If a diode is reverse biased, an insulating depletion region forms between the two semiconductive layers. In many diodes the width of the depletion region may be changed by varying the reverse bias. This varies the capacitance. This effect is accentuated in varicap diodes. The varicap thus acts as a variable capacitor under the effect of variable reverse bias voltage.

Figure 1.Varactor diode schematic symbols.

Figure 2 shows a PN junction. Surrounding the junction of the P and N materials is a narrow region void of both positively and negatively charged current carriers. This area is called the depletion region. The size of the depletion region in a varactor diode is directly related to the bias. Figure 2-PN junction Forward biasing makes the region smaller by repelling the current carriers toward the PN junction. If the applied voltage is large enough (about .7 volt for silicon material), the negative particles will cross the junction and join with the positive particles, as shown in Figure 3. This forward biasing causes the depletion region to decrease, producing a low resistance at the PN junction and a large current flow across it. This is the condition for a forward-biased diode. . Figure 3-Forward-biased PN junction.

 On the other hand, if reverse-bias voltage is applied to the PN junction, the size of its depletion region increases as the charged particles on both sides move away from the junction. The collection of holes on the P-side act similar to a positive electrode The collection of electrons on the N-side act similar to a negative electrode Figure 4-Reverse-biased PN junction. The depletion region between these conducting electrodes acts as the insulation dielectric as no charge carriers are allowed to pass through this depletion region. This condition, shown in Figure 4, produces a high resistance between the terminals and allows little current flow (only in the microampere range). This is the operating condition for the varactor diode, which is nothing more than a special PN junction. As the figure shows, the insulation gap formed by reverse biasing of the varactor is comparable to the layer of dielectric material between the plates of a common capacitor. Furthermore, the formula used to calculate capacitance is

Cd
Where A = plate area, K = a proportionality constant value, d = distance between plates can be applied to both the varactor and the capacitor. In this case, the size of the insulation gap of the varactor, or depletion region, is substituted for the distance between the plates of the capacitor.

Varactor diode Characteristics:

By varying the reverse-bias voltage applied to the varactor, the width of the "gap" may be varied. An increase in reverse bias increases the width of the gap (d) which reduces the capacitance (C) of the PN junction. Therefore, the capacitance of the varactor is inversely proportional to the applied reverse bias. The ratio of varactor capacitance to reverse-bias voltage change may be as high as 10 to 1. Figure 5 shows one example of the voltage-to-capacitance ratio. View A shows that a reverse bias of 3 volts produces a capacitance of 20 picofarads in the varactor. If the reverse bias is increased to 6 volts, as shown in view B, the depletion region widens and capacitance drops to 5 picofarads. Each 1-volt increase in bias voltage causes a 5-picofarad decrease in the capacitance of the varactor; the ratio of change is therefore 5 to 1. Of course any decrease in applied bias voltage would cause a proportionate increase in capacitance, as the depletion region narrows. Notice that the value of the capacitance is small in the picofarad range.

Capacitance range 2pF to 100pF

Applications:
A variable capacitance diode is known as a varicap diode or as a varactor. If a diode is reverse biased, an insulating depletion region forms between the two semiconductive layers. In many diodes the width of the depletion region may be changed by varying the reverse bias. This varies the capacitance. This effect is accentuated in varicap diodes. The schematic symbols is shown in Figure below, one of which is packaged as common cathode dual diode. In general, varactors are used to replace the old style variable capacitor tuning. They are used in tuning circuits of more sophisticated communication equipment and in other circuits where variable capacitance is required. One advantage of the varactor is that it allows a dc voltage to be used to tune a circuit for simple remote control or automatic tuning functions. One such application of the varactor is as a variable tuning capacitor in a receiver or transmitter tank circuit like that shown in Figure 6.

Varactor diodes may be used in: frequency multiplier circuits Voltage controlled oscillators Capacitors in IC form

Zener Effect:

Zener Diode

With the application of sufficient reverse voltage, a p-n junction will experience a rapid avalanche breakdown and conduct current in the reverse direction. Valence electrons which break free under the influence of the applied electric field can be accelerated enough that they can knock loose other electrons and the subsequent collisions quickly become an avalanche. When this process is taking place, very small changes in voltage can cause very large changes in current. When the P and N-regions are heavily doped, direct rapture of covalent bonds takes place because of the strong electric fields, at the junction of the PN diode. The new e--h+ pairs created increase the reverse current in the reverse biased diode. The increase in current takes place at a constant value of reverse bias about less than 6volts for heavily doped diodes. The breakdown process depends upon the applied electric field, so by changing the thickness of the layer to which the voltage is applied, Zener diodes can be formed which break down at voltages from about 4 volts to several hundred volts. When breakdown occurs under the reverse bias condition, the voltage across the diode remains constant, although the current through the diode increases as shown in fig.

symbol

or Vz

The location of the Zener region can be controlled by varying the doping levels. An increase in doping, producing an increase in number of added impurities, will decrease the Zener potential. Zener diodes are available having Zener potentials of 1.8 to 200 V with power ratings from to 50W. Because of its higher temperature and current capability, silicon is usually preferred in the manufacture of Zener diodes. The complete equivalent circuit of the Zener diode in the Zener region includes a small dynamic resistance and & battery equal to the Zener potential, as shown in Fig a. For all applications to follow, however, we shall assume as a first approximation that the external resistors are much larger in magnitude than the Zener-equivalent resistor and that the equivalent circuit is simply the one indicated in Fig. b.

Figure 1. Zener test charact (Fairchild 1N961).

Zener Diode Model:

For the Zener diode we are using a model with a breakdown voltage Vz and an effective resistance Rz in the breakdown as shown on Figure 2 and illustrated on Figure 1.

Approximate Model of the Zener diode under

Zener Equivalent Voltage

Zener Diode Regulator:

The constant reverse voltage of the Zener diode makes it a valuable component for the regulation of the output voltage against both variations in the input voltage from an unregulated power supply or variations in the load resistance. The current through the Zener will change to keep the voltage at a constant value equal to the Zener break down voltage within the limits of the threshold of Zener action and the maximum power it can dissipate.

The zener diode is widely used as a voltage regulator because of its capacity to maintain a constant voltage over a sizeable range of currents. It can be used as a single component across the output of a rectifier or incorporated into one of the variety of one-chip regulators.

7v 10v =3v

Zener diode Regulator

Numericals on!!!

Analysis:
1. Determine the state of the Zener diode ON or OFF by (a) removing it from network=> open circuit (b) calculate the voltage across the open circuit=> open circuit voltage

Solution:

For Zener diode to be ON: Vi Vz

For Zener diode to be OFF: Vi < Vz Calculate the voltage V applying the voltage divider rule:

Numericals on Zener Diode !!!