CHAPTER

Vectors
1.1 VECTOR ANALYSISA LANGUAGE OF PHYSICS

Physicists have developed their own language for the description of the physical world. The beauty of their language lies in the fact that the physical laws, when expressed in that language are concise, elegant and transparent. Vector is a language in which the laws of mechanics and electro-magnetism have simple appearance. There are many physical quantities, which require magnitude and direction both for their specification. Such quantities are displacement, velocity, force, angular momentum, torque, etc. These are called vector quantities. On the other hand those quantities, which require only magnitude for their specifications, are called scalars. Mass, volume, density, work, energy, pressure etc. are such quantities. In order to differentiate vector from scalar, the former is written in bold face letters or letters with arrow mark over it. Ordinary letter denotes the magnitude of the vector. For example a represents vector whereas a or |a| its magnitude. Graphically, a directed line segment represents a vector. The length of the line represents the magnitude of the vector and the arrow direction of the vector. Two vectors are said to be equal if they have the same magnitude and direction. If two vectors a and b have the same magnitude but opposite direction, then one is said to be negative of the other and we write a = b.
a a b
Fig. 1.1

1.2 ADDITION OF VECTORS

Let a and b be the two vectors which are to be added. Draw a directed line segment AB such that the length of AB represents the magnitude of vector a and the direction of AB be parallel to a. Now draw another directed segment BC equal to vector b such that the tail of vector BC lies at the head of vector AB as shown in Fig. (1.2). The directed line segment AC represents the vector sum of a and b.

Introduction to Mechanics

Thus AC = AB + BC = a + b (1.1)

Fig. 1.2: Addition of vectors

We may also add the vector in reverse order. In this case we draw the directed line segment AD equal to b and then the line segment DC equal to a. Again the vector sum of b and a is the line segment AC. Thus AC = AD + DC = b + a (1.2) From Eqns. (1.1) and (1.2), we see that a+b=b+a (1.3) Thus vector addition is commutative. Here we see that the diagonal of the parallelogram formed by vectors a and b as its adjacent sides represents the sum or resultant of two vectors. For this reason we say that the law of vector addition follows the parallelogram law of addition. The addition of all vector quantities follows this law. Conversely we define vectors as those quantities, which have magnitude and direction both and whose law of addition follows the parallelogram law of addition. There are quantities, which are assigned magnitude and direction both, but they are not regarded as vectors. Such quantities do not obey the parallelogram law of addition. Finite rotation of a rigid body is assigned magnitude and direction both but it is not regarded as vector. However, infinitesimal rotations are regarded as vectors.

1.3 REPRESENTATION OF FINITE ROTATION

Consider a finite rotation q of a disc about an axis passing through its center and perpendicular to its plane, as shown in the Fig. (1.3). The rotation q is represented by vector OP whose length is proportional
P

O q O

Fig. 1.3

Vectors

to the angle q and the direction of rotation is given by right hand rule. To assign direction, curl the axis of rotation by right hand fingers such that the fingers follow the sense of rotation and the thumb stretched outward, then the thumb gives the direction of angle of rotation q. The angular velocity w of a rigid body about an axis is a vector quantity whose direction is assigned along the axis of rotation and the sense is given by right hand rule.

1.4 SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS

The subtraction of vector b from a is equivalent to the addition of b to a. Draw vector AB equal to a and BC equal to b. The vector AC represents the difference a b.
b

A
a ab C

a b

Fig. 1.4: Subtraction of vectors

1.5 MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A SCALAR

Consider a vector a and a scalar l (positive or negative). The product l a is another vector whose magnitude is l times the magnitude of a and the direction is the same as that of a if l is positive, and is opposite to that of a if l is negative.

1.6 UNIT VECTOR n

Let a be a vector and a or | a | its magnitude, then the unit vector in the direction of a is defined by

n=

a a or n = Hence a = an a a

(1.4)

1.7 COMPONENT OF A VECTOR ALONG SOME SPECIFIED DIRECTION

Let OP (= a) be a vector whose component along OQ is to be determined. Let a be the angle between OP and OQ and n the unit vector along OQ. The projection of OP on OQ is OP cos a or a cos a. The component of a parallel to n is (a cos a)n.
O a P a

Fig. 1.5

Introduction to Mechanics

1.8 RECTANGULAR CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM AND CARTESIAN COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR

Let OX, OY and OZ be three mutually perpendicular lines. Now take a right handed screw and set its screw parallel to OZ. Now rotate the screw from OX to OY through 90, then the direction in which the screw advances is taken as the positive direction of Z-axis. Similarly by setting the screw parallel to OX axis and rotating it from OY to OZ through 90 we may find the positive direction of X-axis. The set of three mutually orthogonal lines OX, OY, and OZ. With positive directions defined by right-handed screw rule, as described above, constitute what we call righthanded coordinate system. If the direction of any axis is reversed then the new set of axis constitute left handed coordinate system. Fig. (1.6).
Z R. H. O X Y X Z O L. H. Y

Fig. 1.6

Let i, j and k be unit vector along OX,OY and OZ respectively. These unit vectors are called fundamental system of vectors. Let OP = a be a vector whose components along the coordinate axes are to be determined. Complete a rectangular parallelepiped with OP as diagonal and edges along the coordinate axes as shown in the Fig. (1.7). Vectors OA, OB and OC are the components of vector OP (= a) in the directions of i, j and k respectively. Let us denote the magnitudes of the components in the directions of i, j, k by a1, a2, a3. Then OA = a1 i, OB = a2 j, OC = a3 k
Z C P a3

O A a1

a2 D

X
Fig. 1.7: Cartesian components of a vector

Vectors

From the Fig. (1.7), we have a = OP = OD + DP = OA + AD + DP = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k Also a2 = OP2 + DP2 = OA2+ AD2+ DP2 = a12 + a22 + a32 If the vector OP makes angles a, b, g with X, Y and Z-axes respectively then the ratios
2 2 + + + + + a2 + a3 are called the direction cosines of the vector a. In terms of d.c we can express the vector a as a = (a cos a)i + (a cos b)j + (a cos g)k 2 a1 2 a2 2 a3 2 a1 2 a2 2 a3 2 a1

(1.5a) (1.5b)

cos a =

a1

, cos b =

a2

, cos g =

a3

(1.6)

1.9 SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS

The scalar product of two vectors a and b is defined to be the scalar a b cos q, b where q is the angle between them. If q is acute, the scalar product is positive and if q lies between p/2 and p, the scalar product is negative. The scalar product is also denoted by a . b and is referred to as the dot product. We have q a a . b = ab cos q (1.7) Fig. 1.8 Since the scalar product of two vector is a scalar, therefore a.b=b.a (1.8) That is, the scalar product is commutative. Self product: The scalar product of a vector with itself is called self-product. a . a = a2 Scalar product of orthogonal vectors: If a and b are orthogonal vectors then their scalar product vanishes. a . b = ab cos(p/2) = 0 Unit vectors i, j and k: From the definition of scalar product we have i.i=j.j=k.k=1 i . j = j . k = k. i = 0 Dot product of two vectors in component from: Let and a = a1i + a2j + a3k b = b1i + b2j + b3k Then using Eqns. (1.9) and (1.10), we obtain a . b = a1b1+ a2b2 + a3b3 (1.13) Physical significance of scalar product: If a particle undergoes a displacement d under the influence of a force F then F . d is defined to be the work done on the particle. Similarly if v (x, y, z, t) represents the velocity of fluid and s an area in the fluid then v . s represents the volume of fluid crossing per sec. through the area. (1.11) (1.12) (1.9) (1.10)

Introduction to Mechanics

1.10 VECTOR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS

The vector product of two vectors a and b is defined to be another vector given by (ab sin q) n where n is a unit vector orthogonal to both a and b and such that a, b and n form a right handed system, q is the angle between the vectors. The vector product is denoted by a b and hence it is also read as cross product. Thus we have a b = (a b sin q)n (1.14) Since b, a and n form a right handed system, it follows that b a = (ab sin q)(n) = a b (1.15) a b = ( ab sin q ) n Thus vector product is non-commutative. If a and b are orthogonal, then b a b = ab n (1.16) n If a product (q = 0) or anti-parallel (q = p), their q cross product vanishes. a The cross product of a vector with itself is zero n aa=0 The fundamental system of vectors i, j, k satisfy the ba relations. ii=jj=kk=0 Fig. 1.9: Vector product of two vectors i j = j i = k j k = k j = i k j = i k = j (1.17)

1.11 VECTOR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS IN COMPONENT FORM

Let a = a1i + a2j + a3k b = b1i+ b2j + b3k Then a b = (a1i + a2j + a3k) (b1i + b2j + b3k) = 0 + a1b2k a1b3j a2b1k + 0 + a2b3i + a3b1j a3b2i + 0 = (a2b3 a3b2)i + (a3b1 a1b3)j + (a1b2 a2b1)k
i j a2 b2 k a3 b3

= a1 b1

(1.18)

1.12 VECTOR AREA

Area is regarded as a vector quantity. Its direction is specified as follows. Let S be plane area and n be unit vector normal to one side of the area. The n is unit vector normal to the other side. Now take a right hand screw and set its screw parallel to n. Rotate the screw in the direction in which boundary of the area is traversed. The direction in which the screw advances gives the direction of the area. (Fig. 1.12). Thus

Vectors

S = Sn

b q

bsinq

a
Fig. 1.10

Geometrical Significance of a b: The magnitude of area of parallelogram whose sides are the vectors a and b is ab sin q, which is the magnitude of a b. Thus the magnitude of the cross product a b represents the area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are the vectors a and b. Let F be the force acting on a particle located at point r referred to origin 0.Then the cross product r F is defined to be the torque or the moment of the force about the origin 0. Similarly if p is the linear momentum of a particle whose position vector is r, then r p is defined to be the angular momentum of the particle about origin.
t=rF O r O r L=rp F p

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1.11: (a) Moment of force; (b) Angular momentum

F = q(v B) B

Fig. 1.12: Lorentz force

1.13 LORENTZ FORCE

When a charged particle carrying charge q is fired into a magnetic field of strength B with velocity v, it is acted upon by a force F whose magnitude and direction is given by equation F = q (v B) (1.19) This force is called the Lorentz force.

Introduction to Mechanics

1.14 SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT

Let a, b and c three non-zero and non-coplanar vectors. A product of the form a . b c is scalar and is called scalar triple product. It is also written as [a b c]. If a = a1i + a2j + a3k b = b1i + b2j + b3k c = c1i + c2j + c3k
i j k b3 c3

Then b c = b1 b2 c1 c2

= (b2c3 b3c2) i + (b3c1 b1c3) j + (b1c2 b2c1) k a . b c = a1(b2c3 b3c2) + a2(b3c1 b1c3) + a3 (b1c2 b2c1)
a1 a2 b2 c2 a3 b3 c3

(1.20)

= b1 c1

(1.21)

Similarly we can show that

b1 b . c a = c1 a1
And
c1

b2 c2 a2

b3 c3 a3

(1.22)

c2 a2 b2

c3 a3 b3

c . a b = a1 b1

(1.23)

Making use of the properties of determinants we can show that a . b c = b . c a = c .a b Taking the first and last terms we have a.bc=c.ab or a.bc=ab.c The above relation shows that the dot and cross operations can be interchanged in scalar triple product. If any vector in the scalar triple product repeats then scalar triple product vanishes. Thus [a a c] = [b b c] = [a c c] = 0 The scalar triple product of unit vectors is unity. [i j k] = i . j k = 1

Vectors

Geometrical meaning of scalar triple product

Taking a, b, and c as co-terminus edges, construct a parallelepiped as shown in the figure. Let n be unit vector normal to the plane containing b and c. a Now n a . b c = a . n bc sin q = (a . n) (bc sin q) b = (a cos a) (bc sin q) a = Volume of the parallelepiped q c (1.24) Thus the scalar triple product a . b c equals Fig. 1.13 the volume of the parallelepiped formed by vectors a, b and c. If the three vectors a, b and c are coplanar, no solid figure can be formed from these vectors and hence the volume of the parallelepiped is zero. Conversely, if the scalar triple product of three nonvanishing vectors is zero, then the vectors will be coplanar.

1.15 VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT

The vector product b c is orthogonal to b and c. Then a (b c) lies in the plane containing b and c. Therefore a (b c) may be expressed as a linear combination of b and c. Hence a (b c) = a b + b c where a and b are unknown constants. Multiplying the above equation with a scalarly we have a . a (b c) = a a . b + b a . c Left hand side is zero by virtue of property of scalar triple product. Therefore aa.b+ba.c=0 a b = g ( say ) or a .c = a . b Then a = g (a . c) and b = g (a . b) Substituting the value of a and b in eqn. (1.15), we obtain a (b c) = g (a . c) b g (a . b) c For special case a = c = j and b = i we have j (i j) = g (j . j)i g (j . i)j g=1 Hence a (b c) = (a . c) b (a . b) c (1.25)

1.16 SCALAR PRODUCT OF FOUR VECTORS: (a b) . (c d)

(a b) . (c d) = m . (c d) where m = a b = (m c) . d = {(a b) c} . d = {c (a b)} . d = [(c . b) a (c . a) b] . d

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Introduction to Mechanics

= (c . a) (b . d) (c . b) (a . d) =

a .c c .b a.d b .d

(1.26)

1.17 VECTOR PRODUCT OF FOUR VECTORS (a b) (c d)

(a b) (c d) = m (c d), where m = a b = (m . d) c (m . c) d = (a b . d) c (a b . c) d = [a b d] c [a b c] d Putting c d = m, we have (a b) (c d) = (a b) m = m (a b) = (m . a) b (m . b) a = (c d . a) b (c d . b) a = [c d a] b [c d b] a Equating the two expressions obtained in two ways we have [a b d] c [a b c] d = [c d a] b [c d b] a [c d b] a [c d a] b + [a bd] c [a b c] d = 0 The above equation can be written as d=

(1.27)

[dbc] a + [dca] b + [dab]c [abc]

(1.28)

This relation expresses the fact that any vector such as d can be written as linear combination of any three non-coplanar vectors a, b and c.

1.18 RECIPROCAL SYSTEM OF VECTORS

If a, b and c are three non-coplanar vectors, then the vectors a, b and c defined by

bc ca ab , b = , c = a = [a, b, c] [a, b, c] [a, b, c]

are called the reciprocal system of vectors.

(1.29)

Properties of reciprocal system of vectors

If a, b, c and a, b, c are two sets of reciprocal vectors then (1) a . a = b . b = c . c = 1 (2) a . b = a . c = b . a = b . c = c . a = c . b = 0 (3) a a + b b + c c = 0 (4) [a, b, c] = 1/[a, b, c]

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11

(5) If a = (b c)/[a, b, c], b = (c a)/[a, b, c] and c = (a b)/[a, b, c] then a = (b c)/[a, b, c], b = (c a)/[a, b, c] and c = (a b)/[a, b, c] Proof (1) Similarly (2) Now
a.b c =1 [ a, b , c ] b . b = 1, c . c = 1

a . a =

a . b =

a .c a =0 [a, b, c]

Similarly other relations can be proved. (3) a a = b b = c c = \ (4)

a (b c) (a . c)b - (a . b)c = [a, b, c] [a, b, c] (b .a)c - (b .c)a [a, b, c]

(c . b )a - (c .a)b [a, b, c]

a a + b b + c c = 0 a. b c = =

bc ca ab (b c).(c a) (a b) [a, b, c] = = . [a, b, c] [a, b, c] [a, b, c] [a, b, c]3 [a, b, c]3

2

1 a , b [ , c] (c a) (a b )

(5) \

b c = a=

[a, b, c]

[a, b, c] a = a = a a , b , c [ ] [a, b, c]2 [a, b, c]

b c a [ , b , c ]

Similarly other relations can be proved.

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1: If a = 2i + j k, b = 3i 2j + 2k, find (1) a . b (2) angle between the vectors (3) a b (4) Unit vector normal to the plane of a and b (5) magnitude of the area of the parallelogram formed by vectors a and b. Solution: (1) a . b = (2) (3) + (1) (2) + (1) (2) = 10

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Introduction to Mechanics

(2) cos q = (a . b)/a b = (10/102)

i j k (3) a b = 2 1 -1 = - j - k -3 -2 2
ab = 2

(4) Unit vector normal to the plane of a and b is

n= a b -j - k = ab 2

Area of parallelogram a b = 2 units Example 2: A particle is displaced from point (1, 1, 2) to point (2, 4, 5) under the influence of a constant force i 3j + 8k. Calculate the work done on the particle. Solution: Displacement d = (2i + 4j +5k) (i + j +2k) = i + 3j + 3k Work done = F . d = (i 3j +8k) . (i +3j +3k) = 16 units

Example 3: A particle is located at point (3, 4, 5) and is acted upon by a force 4 i j k. Calculate the torque exerted on the particle about the origin. Solution: Position vector of the particle r = 3i + 4j + 5k

i j k Torque t = r F = 3 4 5 = i + 23j - 19k. 4 -1 -1

Example 4: A particle at point r = i j + k has linear momentum 2i + 5j 3k. What is its angular momentum about the origin? Solution:

i j k Angular momentum J = r p = 1 -1 1 = -3i + 5 j + 7k 2 5 -3

Example 5: If a = i + 2j + k, b = 2i + 3j + 4k, c = 3i + k. Find a . b c, a (b c) and (a b) c. Solution:

1 2 1 a . b c = -2 3 4 = 22 3 0 1

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13

a (b c) = (a . c) b (a . b) c =4b8c = 32 i + 12j + 8k (a b) c = c (a b) = (c . a) b (c . b) a = 4b + 2a = 6i + 16j + 18k. Example 6: Show that a (b c) + b (c a) + c (a b) = 0. Solution: a (b c) = (a . c) b (a . b) c b (c a) = (b . a) c (b . c) a c (a b) = (c . b) a (c . a) b Adding we get the desired result. Example 7: Prove that [(a + b), (b + c), (c + a)] = 2 [a, b, c]. Solution: (a + b) . (b + c) (c + a) = (a + b) . (b c + b a + c a) =a.bc+b.ca = 2 a . b c = 2 [ a, b, c]. Example 8: Prove that (a b).(b c) (c a) = [a,b,c]2 Solution: (b c) (c a) = m (c a) where m = b c = (m . a) c (m . c)a = (b c . a) c (b c . c)a = [b, c, a]c 0 = [a, b, c]c \ (a b).(b c) (c a) = (a b).c[a, b, c] = [a, b, c] [a, b, c] = [a, b, c]2. Example 9: Show that the vectors a = 2i + j k, b = 3i 2j + 2k, c = i + 2j 2k are coplanar. Solution: Scalar triple product of vectors

2 1 -1 a . b c = -3 -2 2 = 0 -1 2 -2 Hence the given vectors are coplanar.

PROBLEMS
1. If a = 2i j + k, b = i + 2j 3k, c = 3i + 2j + k, find a . b, b . c, c . a,(a + b) . (a b), (b + c) . (b c), (a + 2b 3c) . (a 3b + 2c)

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Introduction to Mechanics

2. Find the angle between vectors a = 5i 4j + 2k and 4i + 3j + 25k. 3. For what value of a the vectors 5i + 6j k and 2i + (3 + a)j ak are orthogonal. 4. A particle moves from point (1,2,3) to point (3,2,5) under the action of forces 2i + j + 3k and 3i 4j 2k. Find the work done by the force. 5. If a = 2i +3j 4k, b = i +2j + 3k, find a b, b a, (a + b) (a b), unit vector normal to the plane of a and b, area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are a and b. 6. The position vector of a particle is 4i 3j + k, It is acted upon by a force 2i 4j + 8k. Find the moment of the force about origin. 7. A particle of mass 2 kg is moving with velocity 5i + 4j 2k m/s. What is its angular momentum about origin at the instant its position vector is (i + j + k) m? 8. Find the volume of the parallelepiped whose adjacent sides are 3i j k, i + j + k, 2i +2j + 3k. 9. For what value a the vectors i + 2j 3k, -aj + k, i + k are coplanar? 10. Show that i (a i) + j (a j) + k (a k) = 2a. 11. Obtain a set of vectors reciprocal to the three vectors i + j + k, i j + k, and i + j k 12. Show that i, j, k are self-reciprocal system of vectors.

VECTOR CALCULUS
1.19 DIFFERENTIATION OF VECTORS
If to each value of some scalar t there corresponds a vector A then A is said to be vector function of scalar variable t and is denoted by A (t). Let A (t) and A (t + d t) represent the vector function corresponding to the scalar variables t and t + d t respectively. Let A (t + d t) A (t) = dA. The limit of the quotient
dt 0

lim

dA A(t + dt ) - A(t ) = lim dt 0 dt dt

provided it exists, is called the derivative of vector A with respect to t and is denoted by, dA/dt. The derivative of a vector is also a vector.

A(t + dt)

dA = A(t + dt) A(t)

A(t) O

Fig. 1.14

Thus

dA dA A(t + dt ) - A(t ) = lim = lim dt 0 d t dt dt dt 0

(1.30)

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15

If A1(t), A2(t) and A3(t) are the components of vector A then

dA dA1 dA dA i + 2 j+ 3 k = dt dt dt dt

(1.31)

A(t) = A1(t) i +A2(t) j +A3(t) k

Time derivative of position r(t ) of a moving particle

Let r(t) and r(t + dt) be the position vectors of the particle at time t and t + dt. The displacement dr of the particle is given by dr = r (t + dt) r(t) The limit of the quotient dr/dt as dt tends to zero is called the velocity v of the particle v = lim dt 0 and is denoted by v=
dr dt

dr dx dy dz = i + j +k dt dt dt dt dv r =  dt

(1.32)

The acceleration of the particle is a= (1.33)

1.20 RULES OF VECTOR DIFFERENTIATION

In the following A and B are vector functions of scalar variable t, c is a constant vector, and j is a scalar function.
dc =0 dt dkA dA = k dt dt

(1.34) (1.35) (1.36) (1.37) (1.38) (1.39)

d (A B) dA dB = dt dt dt
d jA dA dj +A = j dt dt dt dB dA d ( A B) = A + B dt dt dt

dB dA d ( A B) = A + B dt dt dt