The Political Repression of the Black Panther Party 1966-1971: The Case of the Oakland Bay Area Author(s):

Charles E. Jones Source: Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Jun., 1988), pp. 415-434 Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2784371 . Accessed: 07/05/2013 19:45
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THE POLITICAL REPRESSION OF THE BLACK PANTHER PARTY 1966-1971 The Case oftheOakland Bay Area
CHARLES E. JONES
Old Dominion University

American certain havebeen Throughout history, organizations ofpolitical is pulledintothemaelstrom repression. Repression action "government which grossly discriminates against persons to ororganizations a fundamental viewed as presenting challenge orkey because existing power relationships governmental policies, oftheir perceived political beliefs" (Goldstein, 1978:xvi).These aregenerally in America events perceived as aberrations despite their reoccurrence (Levin, 1971; Wolfe, 1973; Goldstein, 1978). orInthe late1960s, the BlackPanther wasoneofseveral Party at thehands ofgovernment offiganizations claiming repression of theFederalBureauof Investigation's cials. Recent releases theactivities of COINTELPRO (FBI) Memoranda, describing lendcredence to theBlackPan(Counterintelligence Program), that ther accusations. indicated One suchmemorandum Party's RacialIntelligence ofCOINTELPRO wasestablished the Section to"expose, orotherwise disrupt, misdirect, discredit neutralize the of blacknationalists" activities (Blackstone, 1975:30). Public in thelate 1960s madebykeygovernmental officials statements these oftheBlackPanther ThenVice also support claims Party.
OF BLACKSTUDIES,Vol.18No.4,June JOURNAL 1988 415-434 o 1988 SagePublications, Inc.

415

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416 JOURNAL OF BLACK STUDIES /JUNE1988

the Black Panther Partyas a President Spiro Agnewviewed ofcriminals" group (Amer"completely irresponsible anarchistic In a ican CivilLiberties similar vein,J. Edgar Union,1969). oftheFBI, considered theBlackPanther Party Hoover, director to thesecurity of the UnitedStates" the"number one threat 1969). Reflecting this sameatti(American Civil Liberties Union, Jerris attorney general during theNixon tude, Leonard, assistant as "nothing but characterized theBlackPanthers administration, gotto getthem" (American hoodlums" andinsisted that"we've that Attitudes suchas these indicate CivilLiberties Union, 1969). tousing thefedtheNixonadministration wasstrongly disposed to repress theBlackPanther Party. Atthelocal eralgovernment of the Cleveland Fraternal thepresident levelof government, theattitude of many law enforcement Orderof Policetypified "Thecountry when he stated, doesn't needtheBlack authorities be wiped Panther to mywayofthinking they should out" Party, 1969). (American Civil Liberties Union, that itwasvicIn short, theBlackPanther hascharged Party to destroy the organization. timof a governmental campaign theAmerican ethos that is suggests political repression However, oftheAmerican nota permanent fixture This political process. to demonstrate willattempt that actors and government study atthe andlowest levels in ofgovernment engaged agencies highest to render theBlack a systematic repression pattern ofpolitical Panther Party ineffective.
THE BLACK PANTHER PARTY

TheBlackPanther wasfounded byHuey P. Newton and Party in October 1966(Marine, California, BobbySeale in Oakland, and Seale'sfrustration and disillu1969;Seale, 1970).Newton's as theSoulStudents with localblack such sionment organizations Council andtheAfro-American Association provided Advisory for theBlackPanther thecatalyst 1969: Party (Marine, forming Newton that these and Seale argued groups 24-34).Specifically,

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Jones/ THE BLACK PANTHER PARTY

417

orientation thatprevented were dominated bya "middle-class" ofthemasses ofblackpeople. them from addressing theneeds of Party wasa blend Thebasicideology oftheBlackPanther identified nationalism that Newton Marxism-Leninism andblack (Pinkney, 1978: 98). Newton, as revolutionary blacknationalism of adopted theprinciples theorganization's majortheoretician, ofFanon, as elements from the writings scientific socialism as well problems to thespecific Mao, and Debray, and appliedthem notes inthe United States. Newton plaguing the black community moveParty grew outoftheBlackPower that "the BlackPanther into the ideology ofBlackPower ment, butthe party transformed Septema socialist a Marxist ideology" (BlackPanther, ideology, ber1,1971:10). in1967 Party propelled the BlackPanther Twomajor incidents of the The first was thedisruption intonational prominence. of29Panthers California State byanarmed delegation Legislature onMay2. ThePanthers the ofa bill protesting consideration were city limits a loadedweapon within that would havemadecarrying a crime. to the Panthers, thisproposed legislation According ofthe affect thePanther PolicePatrol. Members would adversely todeter taperecorders andcameras Panther PolicePatrol carried the black for quesrights ofany stopped the police from abridging to protect In addition, also carried loadedweapons tioning. they action. police retaliatory themselves from possible onOctober Thesecond incident 28ofthat year, occurred major onepoliceoffia Panther Policeshoot-out when erupted, leaving Newton's arrest cerdeadandHuey Newton wounded. subsequent for on murder became a rallying theBlackPanther point charges innational andstatus. which resulted visibility Party, from a In a spanoftwoyears, theBlackPanther Party grew of TheParty hada membership localto a national organization. in 15states over and32chapters November (BlackPanther, 2,000 1,1969: theorganization ableitimplewasfinancially 20).Where such as theFreeBreakmented development projects community Clinics. fast Liberation andMedical SuchproSchools, Program, from and support theblack increased membership grams Party that in thecountry. It is plausible this across growth community

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418 JOURNAL OF BLACKSTUDIES /JUNE1988

size and visibility led government officials to conclude thatthe BlackPanther a potential threat to theAmeriParty constituted ofgovernment and cansystem andthus merited both monitoring concrete toundermine theorganization. adopting steps
POLITICAL REPRESSION: AMERICAN STYLE

on politicalrepression in the UnitedStatesis Literature Whether oris the extremely sparse. this is a deliberate oversight ofa genuine that is nota permaresult belief political repression nent andrecurring oftheAmerican fixture political system is una review ofthis clear. literature reveals three Nonetheless, major ofpolitical characteristics inthe United repression States: Represto be legalistic and subtle siontends (Levin,1971;Wolfe, 1973; itisconstrained andprocedures Grossman, 1976); bynorms (Balit of and is administered levels bus,1973); bymultiple government andLang,1970; (Kopkind Wolfe, 1973). The legalistic nature ofpolitical in the and subtle repression inthetendency for officials United States isreflected government to repress that to usethelawsandcourts organizations they perthe ceive as threatening status 1971: 1973: quo (Levin, 207;Wolfe, 95-102). Levin (1971:8) contends that this legalistic approach to a clearadrepression requires onlya minimal levelofviolence, inthe efforts torepress a target withvantage government's group outdrawing inordinate Thisis notto saythat publicattention. it is seldomtheprimary never violence predominates; rather, intheliberal method chosen democratic state. Thesecond characteristic ofpolitical intheUnited repression norms is theclearly defined andprocedures within which States of which officials mustoperate, theneglect necesgovernment of legitimacy theforfeiture sitates (Balbus,1973).Thissecond tothe ofpolitical isrelated characteristic legalistic quality represtheidea a major distinction exists between sioninAmerica-but of political of usingthelegalsystem as a primary instrument a legalistic norm-bound ofimandemploying method repression,

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Jones /THE BLACKPANTHERPARTY 419

in the thatrepression plementation. Balbus(1973:7) contends that are andprocedures bynorms United States is circumscribed indeed binding on political elites. Thesebinding restraints cominwhich legal rationality, identifies as a formal posewhat Balbus liberties (p. 6). oflaw,andcivil cludes therule oflaw,dueprocess means He notes that certain only that "formal rationality dictates operates to achieve political endsandtherefore canbe employed efficiency andexpediency" on political as a continual constraint theboundaries elites estabpolitical overstep (p. 6). Thuswhen with the unabated they areconfronted lished byformal rationality, ofmaintaining their legitimacy. difficulty Theparticipation ofgovernment conofseveral different levels in of political repression thethird majorcharacteristic stitutes ofthe pofederal structure a factor directly related tothe America, togovern is divided States thepower litical system. In theUnited has andlocalgovernments. Each ofthese state, among national, decisions ofmaking some independent capable itsown ruling body retheseparate ofitspower. Consequently, in thepreservation ofgovernment can produce oftherespective levels sponsibilities the andLang(1970)define levels ofrepression. Kopkind multiple from the nationofrepression as those actsemanating level higher thelower ofrepression arethose acts al government, while levels Anexactors. bystate andlocalgovernment that arecommitted wouldbe a raiddirected bythe repression ampleofhigher-level ofan individual or organizatheharassment FBI; alternatively, an act of tionby thelocal policeauthorities wouldconstitute lower-level repression.
PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY

information on available There islittle andscholarly systematic oftheBlackPanther Previous studies Party. political repression ofpolitical incidents such repression on particular havefocused 4, 1969,Chicagoraid(Chandler, as theDecember 1970;Clark 21 conspiracy case and Wilkens, 1973),theNewYorkPanther the NewHaven14case(Freed, Zimroth, 1974), (Chevingny, 1972;

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420 JOURNAL OF BLACKSTUDIES /JUNE1988

FBI campaign tomanipulate andthe andsabotage relations 1973), between theBlackPanther and "US," a California-based Party cultural nationalist organization (Karenga, 1976). byHueyP. Theexception to this hasbeena study conducted former ofdefense ofthe Black Newton, the cofounder andminister Panther Party. Newton (1980)expanded thefocusof previous ofincidents ofpolitical studies a range repression. byexamining In addition totheFBI's attempt todiscredit Party programs and he also examined therepressive tactics engineered leadership, the BlackPanther Intelligence Agenagainst Party bytheCentral Internal a step beyond most cyandthe Revenue Service. Although toexamine the more comother work Newton available, neglected involving therank-andmon, routine actsofpolitical repression filemembers oftheParty. cannot be study Although Newton's itis a unique andvaluable source. considered objective, an attempt to overcome someshortThis study represents ofthe ofpolitical Black ofthe studies comings previous repression of the an in-depth examination Panther Partyby conducting officials the tactics against repressive employed bygovernment atitshome base-in theOakland 1966 Party BayArea-between thebirth of Thistime wasselected because1966marks and 1971. the Party.By theend of 1971the Partyhad beeneffectively intheParty's roleandideology Theultimate neutralized. change force was seenin itsentrance into as an effective revolutionary localelectoral politics (Pinkney, 1978:112). inthis is that ofcontent Theresearch method study employed ofanalysis content isa method primaranalysis. Although analysis itisan appropriate tostudy human ily employed communication, other forms ofsocialbehavior as well method for (Babanalyzing obtained from twonewsdatawere bie,1979: 233-264). Primary and theBlackPantherChronicle papers-theSan Francisco Each encounter documents. between the and from government that officials wasreported andgovernment BlackPanther Party to Wolfe's materials was categorized in theresource according ofPolitical Acts Classification Repressive (seeTable1).Thiswas the ofpolitical andoccurrence donetodetermine nature, pattern, theBlackPanther levied Party. repression against

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Jones/ THE BLACK PANTHER PARTY

421

LEGAL REPRESSION OF THE BLACK PANTHER PARTY

ofpolitical a major characteristic According tosome observers, States is often theuseofthelegalsystem repression intheUnited 1976). This 1971; Wolfe, 1973; Grossman, tostifle dissent (Levin, visited tobethe caseinthe systematic repression certainly appears findings reParty. Thecontent analysis upontheBlackPanther wasthe in Table 1 indicate that theBlackPanther Party ported of92 actsoflegalrepression. nearly victim Thisfigure represents against the ofthetotalrepressive acts(128)levied three-fourths BlackPanther thetime period observed. Party during in the The lawsmost usedto repress thePanthers frequently and publicorder. OaklandBay Areawerethoseofharassment laws wereemployed butonlyminimally. Political and process represtheinclusion lawwasusedfor There wasnoevidence that all the to the that memThiswasprimarily due fact sive purposes. oftheParty U.S. citizens. bers were 42 different times. Wolfe laws wereemployed Harassment law that a was defines harassment as "when simple (1973:95) The nopolitical isusedtorepress." with purpose originally passed charharassment violations were weapon assault, robbery, typical murder (seeTable2). Outofthe42 Panthers ges,andattempted ofharassment thatfallunder thedefinition on charges arrested For example, on had their charges dropped. laws,15eventually for members ofthePanther werearrested twooccasions Party Thefirst andboth the were armed times charges dropped. robbery when four Panthers-Robert occasion wasonApril Bay, 13,1968, Richard and Glen Stafford-were arrested Linyard, Terry Caridy, a shoestore courier. Soon afterward, on forallegedly robbing April 19,1968: 3). inrendering theBlackPanther Harassment lawsassisted Party oftheabuse inseveral result different Onemajor ineffective ways. oforganization lawswasto causethedissipation ofharassment WhenPanther ofitsnormal andthedisruption activities. funds to spend theorganization wasforced its members were arrested,
April 18, the chargeswere dropped (San Francisco Chronicle,

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422 JOURNAL OF BLACKSTUDIES /JUNE1988

TABLE I

Coding Scheme: Wolfe's Classification of Political Repression in the United States

Category
1) Legal Repression

Definition
The use of laws and or the legal system for the purpose of stifling dissent When a law that was originally passed with no political purpose is used to repress Determines who should be included in society A law that punishes a person for considering and planning to commit a criminal act Actions which create disorder

Example

Harassment Laws

Robbery, Assault charges

Inclusion

Laws

Restrictive Immigration Policies Conspiracy charges

Process

Laws

Public

Order Laws

disturbing the peace; illegal use of sound equipment Frequent arrest and long jail sentences

Preventive Practices

Practices employed to control the members of an organization and to discourage others from joining that organization Laws A law which is enacted for the specific purpose of stifling dissent The practice of spying on an organization and causing disruption within that organization To stifle dissent by using the police and or the military

Political

Smith Act

2)

Political IntelligenceCovert Repression

informers and agent provocateurs, sending anonymous letters Raids, the use of the National Guard

3)

Violent

Repression

SOURCE: Wolfe (1973:93-124).

to meet funds thecostofbailandlawyers for those members of the whowere organization these injail; funds could otherwise have beenusedfor community programs, political information, cam-

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Jones/ THE BLACK PANTHER PARTY TABLE 2

423

Acts of Political Repression Levied Against the Black Panther Partyin the Oakland Bay Area 1966-1971
Category 1) Legal Repression Harassment Laws Inclusion Laws Process Laws Public Order Laws Preventive Laws and Practices Political Laws Total 2) Political IntelligenceCovert Repression Political Espionage
Agent-Provocateur

Arrests/Incidents

43 0 4 44 0 1 92

26
1

Total 3) Violent Repression Raids National Guard Shoot Outs Total

27 5

4 9

(N = 128)

SOURCES: San Francisco Chronicle (May3,1967:1; May24, 1967:2;October29, 1967:1; January 17,1968: 2; February 28,1968:5; April 7,1968:3; November 20,1968:1; December 29, 1968: 1; April 29, 1969),Black Panther (August 6, 1969; 13; September 6, 1969:12; February 6,1971:5; July 3,1971:14),U.S. Congress (1976:187-223).

andorganization In part because ofthis paigns, expansion. police abuseofauthority, theParty wasunable to devote thetime and tobuild resources needed a masspolitical organization. A second harassment lawsaidedinrendering the wayinwhich BlackPanther ineffective wasbycreating adverse Party publicity for theParty. When thepublic readaboutmembers oftheorganization forrobbery in a Panther arrested while being van,they more thana and as little beganto viewthePanthers negatively

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424 JOURNAL OF BLACKSTUDIES /JUNE1988

wasoften not group ofthugs andcriminals. However, thepublic lawsas a pretext aware ofhowgovernment officials usedcriminal activities. Party to arrest Panthers for thepurpose ofdisrupting the Party lost public supTheconsequence ofthis practice wasthat the for itspolicies. Becauseitwasvery to convince port difficult of malicious was a victim governmental publicthattheParty much oftheir enerrepression, the Panthers were forced todevote on"lawandorder" ofgaining issues gytofinding ways sympathy to support thepoliceandlaw thepublic where was predisposed enforcement generally. the The secondkindof law employed to repress extensively BlackPanther disorder law.Thislawmakes Party wasthepublic the peace.Fortyitillegal tocreate a disorder-that is,disturbing for four were arrested disorder laws(see Panthers violating public ofthePanthers Table2). Charges fourteen were eventualagainst members of theBlackPanther on Party ly dropped. Arresting because ofdisorder wasrelatively government public charges easy A caseinpoint ofdiscretion. ficials possess an enormous amount theconsideraof23 Panthers wasthearrest whowere protesting that thePanthers from tionoflegislation wouldhaveprevented their inpublic. ThePanthers didnotbreak any carrying weapons General's charged them California law,buttheAttorney Office thepeaceandsetbailat $2,200 foreachperson. with disturbing Theoutcome ofpublic disorder lawsis similar to that ofharassitsenergies ment laws.OnceagaintheParty wasforced todivert itsmembers andresources toward outofjail. Hencethis bailing thePanthers distraction from effectively implementing prevented theorganization's andpolicies, that is,theFreeBreakprograms fast andthefree health clinics. Program There wasonly oneincident ofrepression law;that bya political enactment ofthe wasthe which bill, made Mulford-sponsored gun itillegal to carry loadedweapons theOakland city limits. within Thefact onepolitical isnot that lawwasused surprising since, only has noted, officials as Wolfe seldom needto enact government lawsbecause haveso many other, equally effective, political they attheir legalmeans disposal.

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Jones/ THE BLACK PANTHER PARTY

425

duringthis of Panthermembers Undoubtedly, the 92 arrests potential Black PantherPartymemperiodservedto intimidate forgunviolatwo arrests members. After bersas wellas current resigned minister ofeducation, tions,GeorgeMurray, theParty's theorganization. Indeed,frequent arrests and prisonsenand left for methods of an organization are effective tencesformembers individuals from joiningthatorganization. discouraging

COVERT REPRESSION OF THE BLACK PANTHER PARTY

A totalof27 incidents wereuncovered in whichpoliticalintelto neutralize theBlack Panther ligence operations wereemployed in an attempt to disrupt the Party.These acts wereperpetrated theoperationof itsnewspaper, Program, Party'sFree Breakfast and speakingengagements, and to cause dissensionwithinthe ranksoftheorganization. ofseveral The Panthers' FreeBreakfast was thetarget Program covertactions,one ofwhichwas theuse of anonymous different letters sentto contributors to theprogram. The FBI sentinflamMarkets, SafewayStores,Inc., and the matory letters to Mayfair in an effort to dissuadethesecomJack-in-the-Box Corporation in an atto theFree Breakfast contributing Program paniesfrom to stifle fromSan Francisco thatprogram (memorandum tempt to FBI Headquarters11/ Field Office 30/ 60, citedin U.S. Senate SelectCommittee, 1976:210). Another tactic property bytheFBI wasto discourage employed andchurches from thePanthers tousetheir faciliowners allowing tiesfortheFreeBreakfast Program. During1970,theFBI sentan to a property that ownerin Haight-Ashbury anonymousletter read: Dear Mr.(excise): I would callandtalkto youaboutthis butI am not matter, to how I not become emsure and do wish personally youfeel, on with It seems the owners broiled that property neighbors.

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426 JOURNAL OF BLACKSTUDIES /JUNE1988

trouble inthe pastwithout bring(excised) street havehadenough youarenotaware, butthe Black ingintheBlackPanthers. Maybe ifyoudrive deleted). Perhaps Panthers havetaken over(address aregoing to do to property up thestreet youcan see whatthey a nearby garage with bigBlack values. They havealready plastered Panther posters. -A concerned owner property Field Office to FBI Head[memorandum from San Francisco inSenate Select Committee, 1976: 200]. quarters 10/21/70, cited to disruptthe Panthers'Free Breakfast ProThese attempts tothwart BlackPanther Party gramwere partoftheFBI's strategy The efforts to build a largerbase within the black community. its Free Breakfast ProBlack PantherPartyhad been operating ofwhich ofcitiesacrossthenation, several were gramin a number in theOakland Bay Area. A secondtarget oftheFBI's covert actionwas theParty's newstheBlack Panther, official newspaper, paper.The organization's circulation. whichsold for25 centsa copy,had a nationwide By 1970,thePartysold over 100,000copies of thepaper each week 1971: 86). The FBI initiated (U.S. House of Representatives, theoperation ofthenewspaper because severalactionsto disrupt To this end, FBI headquarterssent a of its wide circulation. to San Francisco, memorandum requesting proposalsforwaysto stated: hinder thepaper'ssuccess.Thismemorandum The BlackPanther is one ofthemosteffective newspaper Party ofthe BPP. Distribution ofthis newspaper propaganda operations rate a greater isincreasing ata regular number thereby influencing intheUnited extremist States theblack lines. ofindividuals along tosubmit counterEachrecipient isrequested by6/5/70 proposed will the measures that hinder vicious being propaganda intelligence inexcess hasa circulation spread bytheBPP. TheBPP newspaper It is thevoiceoftheBPP andifitcouldbe effectively of139,000. inhelping theBPP. A deadline result is itwould hindered cripple for the recommendations setinviewoftheneedto receive being action oftaking expeditiously [memorandum purpose appropriate

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Jones /THE BLACKPANTHERPARTY 427

from San Francisco FieldOffice to FBI Headquarters 5/15/70, inU.S. Senate cited Select Committee, 1976: p.200]. a Soon afterward, the San Francisco Field Officesubmitted schemefordisrupting the operationof the newspaper. The San FranciscoOffice recommended thefollowing actions: A vigorous inquiry bytheInternal Revenue Service to havethe "BlackPanther" report their income from thesaleofover100,000 liaison atSOG [seat papers eachweek. Perhaps the Bureau through It is noted ofgovernment] sucha course ofaction. couldsuggest that is receiving International Revenue Service at San Francisco copiesofBlackPanther Party funds andletterhead memoranda from San Francisco to FBI Head[memorandum Field Office in U.S. SenateSelectCommittee, quarters, 5/22/70, cited 1976: 214]. Theinterference theoperation oftheBlackPanther with Party's violationoftheFirst weekly newspaper by theFBI was in direct thefreedom of the press.The FBI Amendment right protecting efforts to providethe to hinder Panther systematically attempted public withalternative views,at a timewhenthe Pantherswere fortheir gaining increasing support organization. theorganization from cirEfforts pursued bytheFBI toprevent also includeddisruption of the Party's culatingits viewpoints In 1969,the San Franciscooffice of the speakingengagements. FBI initiated to prevent actions BobbySeale from fulfilling schedis theresult in Oregon.The following uled speaking engagements ofone suchactionimplemented a bombing incibytheFBI, after dentin Eugene,Oregon: Asthis wasonthe eveofSeale'sspeech, this seemed tobevery poor for totelephone advance Seale.... Itwas... determined publicity to be a friend from Mrs.Seale (BobbySeale'smother) claiming thewarning itmight for that be dangerous Seale Oregon, bearing tocomeup.Thiswasdone. totheBPP headthis Mrs.Sealereported Shortly thereafter, an unknown brother had senta warning to quarters, claiming

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428 JOURNAL OF BLACK STUDIES / JUNE 1988

and seriously tookthisvery Headquarters from Oregon. Bobby hedecided nottogoNorth arrived thereafter, shortly when Bobby He subsequently canceled on up there." "alltheaction going with telephone Itisbelieved that theabove-mentioned a trip toSeattle. inpersuading home [memoSealeto stay callwasa pivotal point FieldOffice to FBI Headquarters from San Francisco randum 1976: 214]. Committee, Select cited inU.S. Senate 5/15/70, such as thiscaused of speakingengagements sabotaging Fruitful theoverneededto bolster Partyto lose funds theBlack Panther it hamperedthe of the organization. Similarly, all effectiveness newmembers. Panthers' ability to recruit majorFBI program was aimedat In thesame category, a third the Party.The FBI and without both within causingdissension to members of the Black PantherParty, letters sentanonymous theorganiand possiblerifts within existing problems exploiting theFBI hopedto createdistheuse ofthistactic, zation.Through and paranoia among Partymembers.Along sension,distrust, a plantodiscredit Donald inJuly 1969theFBI initiated these lines, an organization Freed,whoheadedthe"FriendsofthePanthers," of the Black PantherParty.In a phase of of whitesympathizers in Oakland,theFBI had leaflets placedin a theplan implemented NationalConference, Party-sponsored parkneara BlackPanther (U.S. Senate Select allegingthat Freed was a police informant onceagainto discredit 1976:208). The FBI attempted Committee, theBlackPanther and cause a rift between Party and thePanthers to Ed Pearl,a member theuse ofa letter with white organizations is an FBI memoofthePeace and FreedomParty.The following theletter: randum describing heis nota member oftheBPP, he that Thewriter states although Thewriter advised whois trusted is a Mexican byBPP members. inPFP BPP members that certain whites from hehaslearned that in a violent willbe dealtwith whogetinthewayofthePanthers letter between inthis istocausea breach Theobject manner. sought hadbeen furnishthePFP andtheBPP. Theformer organization from C. Moore tothe latter andsupport [memorandum ingmoney

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Jones/ THE BLACK PANTHER PARTY

429

toW. C. Sullivan, inU.S. Senate 12/27/68, cited Select Committee,1976: 2081.

Another scheme, engineeredby the FBI to discreditthe leadership of the Party, "leaked" informationto friendlynewspapers reporting that Huey Newton lived in a luxuryapartment.The FBI gave thisinformationto the San Francisco Examiner, which published an articleabout the apartmentin February 1971. The article stated,"Huey P. Newton, BPP Supreme Commander, had moved into a $650-a-monthapartmentoverlooking Lake Merrittin Oakland, California, under the assumed name of Donn Penn" (U.S. Senate Select Committee, 1976: 219-220). Soon afterthe article appeared in print,the FBI sent copies of it to various chapters of the Black Panther Party across the nation. Following this,a memorandum was sent to FBI Headquarters, explaining the result of this particularplan. The memorandum stated:

of after the BPP Headquarters with wasbesieged inquiries printing the article andthe atheadquarters SanFrancisco Examiner people orother refused toanswer the media callers onthis news question. that a representative oftheRichThissource hasfurther reported BPP contacted on 2/18/71, mond, Virginia headquarters stating it hadreceived a xeroxed andbelieved they copyof... thearticle hadbeenforwarded to know ifitwas wanted bythepigsbutstill true from FieldOffice toFBI HeadSan Francisco [memorandum in U.S. SenateSelectCommittee, cited 1976: quarters, 2/15/17, 220].
This typeof counterintelligence activityproved a valuable tool in renderingthe Black Panther Party ineffective by creatingmistrustand dissension among the membersof the organization. One other counterintelligence program employed by the FBI was the exploitation of the rift between Huey Newton and Eldridge Cleaver. The two leaders differed over tactics; Cleaver wanted the Party to engage in urban guerrillawarfare,while Newton stressed theneed forsurvivalprogramsand building a stronger community base. The FBI sent various anonymous letters to Newton and Cleaver with the intentionof increasing suspicion and animosity

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OF BLACKSTUDIES /JUNE1988 430 JOURNAL

to EldridgeCleaverby theFBI written between them.One letter personal secrewhowasNewton's "ConnieMatthews," and signed tary, read as follows: the with aredreadfully disorganized headquarters Things around The newsnotmaking decisions. proper Comrade Commander No oneknows TheForeign is inshambles. whoisincharge. paper no support.... I fear there is rebellion working gets Department ridoftheSupreme thesurface....Wemust either get justbeneath or getrid of disloyal members [memoCommander [Newton] FieldOffice to FBI Headquarters from randum San Francisco 1976: 204]. Select Committee, inU.S. Senate 2/15/71, cited weresentto Huey Newtoncriticizing Similarletters Eldridge letter to Cleaver.On one occasion,theFBI mailedan anonymous thatCleaverwas "playing footsie" with Timothy Newtonclaiming Leary, who had escaped fromprison in Californiaand had a forbeinga druguser(U.S. Senate SelectCommittee, reputation 1976:202). Learywas askingCleaverforpoliticalasylumin Aldruguse,saw policyagainst geria.The FBI, awareofthePanthers' thetwoleaders between an opportunity to exploitthedifferences further. The San FranciscoField Office happilynotedthatthe Black in February of 1971,in PantherPartywas in a stateof disarray good part due to the Bureau's covertactions againstthe two stated: November. This office leaderssincetheprevious ispositive is oftheBPP areatlowebb.... Newton there Fortunes in Algeria in Headquarters. Cleaver isolated an informant feels andtheSupreme and outofcontact Newton Commander's with hasdisappeared andbeen Matthews] secretary [Connie [Newton's] from San Francisco FieldOffice toFBI denounced [memorandum citedin U.S. SenateSelectCommittee, 2/15/71, Headquarters, 1976: 206]. theBlack PanThe covert bytheFBI against actionsemployed in the United therPartysupportLevin's thesisthatrepression thisform of repression is Statesis subtle.In spiteof itssubtlety,

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Jones /THE BLACKPANTHERPARTY 431

very effective, as evidenced bytheexperiences oftheBlackPanther Party.

THE VIOLENT REPRESSION OF THE BLACK PANTHER PARTY

A minimal amount of violent repression was leviedagainst theBlackPanther Party between theyears1966and 1971(see Table 2). Raids,which are theprimary method of violent repression, occurred only five times during theaboveperiod. None ina shoot-out, ofthese resulted although four ofthem didresult in thearrest arefour ofsomeParty members. In addition, there inwhich incidents thepoliceandthePanthers exchanged gunfire inthe ofonePanther that resulted death anda police officer. Also, theraids tookplaceintheOakland that BayAreawere relatively the peaceful, with exception ofoneconducted bytheSan Francisco PoliceDepartment theBlackPanther FieldOfagainst Party fice, on April 28, 1969.On this occasion, thepoliceusedtear gas outthe toflush a total of16Party members Panthers andarrested thecharona charge ofillegal useofsound equipment. However, 12ofthePanthers gesagainst were dropped. number ofviolent areoffered for thesmall Two explanations in theBlackPanther actsofrepression employed against Party intheUnited Oakland is States BayArea.Oneis that repression Theuseofmassive ofviolent primarily legalistic. amounts represtheBlackPanther sionagainst was unnecessary because Party other tactics officials were successemployed bygovernment very in theUnited ful.The other is Balbus'sthesis explanation that, are constrained and procedures. elites norms States, bycertain When to abidebythese officials norms and government neglect totheir tostifle attention procedures, unwanted isdrawn attempt inturn thenumber ofsympathetic dissent-which increases supfor the porters organization being repressed. politConsequently, icalelites utilize caution orrisk overt widenmust with repression Pivens andCloward ingthescopeofconflict. (1977:29) describe therisk involved:

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432 JOURNAL OF BLACKSTUDIES /JUNE1988

therisks entailed inusing masNeither couldthegovernment run inthe1930s. It couldnot, inother thestrikers sive force tosubdue ofrepression. Foronething, availitself ofthe words, simply option that were thestriking hadaroused strong sympathy among groups unless For another, insurgent crucial supporters of theregime. leaders ofthe groups are virtually of outcast status, permitting to mobilize hatred unregime popular against them, politically stable other cannot be safely groups predicted. A case inpointwastheChicagoraidon December 4,1969,when of Fred Hamptonand Mark Clarkwerekilled.A majorsegment at thisovert act ofpolitical repression thepublicbecameoutraged actionsagainstthePanthers and began to questiongovernment (Chandler,1970;Clarkand Wilkens, 1973).

CONCLUSION

in a liberal-democratic the characteristics of politicalrepression statesuchas theUnitedStates.Overall,92 ofthetotal128actsof the category of legal repression. fall within politicalrepression These findings support the contentionthat repressionin the in nature UnitedStatestendsto be legalistic (Levin, 1971;Wolfe, in which thatthemethod sion substantiates Balbus'sthesis politi-

thesystematic ofthe Thisstudy analyzed political repression intheOakland 1966and BlackPanther Party BayAreabetween with 1971.The repression levied against thePanthers coincided

1973; Balbus, 1973). In addition, the number ofviolent small actsofpolitical repres-

can repress a political cal elites is constrained by organization and procedures. to operative norms Thus there is a tendency Thestudy found that theBlack repress via political intelligence. Panther wasthevictim of27 actsofpolitical "intelligence." Party thestudy's indicate that from thevariofficials Finally, findings inthe ofgovernment ouslevels repression of actively participated thePanthers. Theoverall outcome ofthis itprevented the repression wasthat BlackPanther from an effective Party becoming revolutionary

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Jones/ THE BLACK PANTHER PARTY

433

force within the Black Liberation Movement. Therepression hamperedthecommunity outreach efforts oftheParty, and it also created distrust anddissension within the organization. This isnot to suggest that state repression wasthesolereason for theParty's To be sure, there at work, demise. wereother factors suchas a recruiting emphasis on theblacklumpen proletariat, thelackof ideological clarity, andorganizational weaknesses, all contributing tothe Party's decline. Nonetheless, political repression didplay a pivotal roleintheeventual collapse oftheBlackPanther Party. In closing, a major ofthis is somewhat implication study pesIt can be posited simistic. thatas longas governmental officials rely on political intelligence andthelegalsystem to repress dissident itwill rather thanovert ofrepression, organizations tactics be difficult both todetect the political repression andtoconvince inillegal American public that the government isactually engaged thelessons activities. Unless wechoose tolearn offered bytheexofthe1960s, fuperiences ofthe Panthers andother organizations ture political repression may well be successful.

REFERENCES
inP. S. Foner(ed.) The American CivilLiberties Union(1969) "Newsrelease,"pp.263-265 Black Panthers Speak. New York:J.B. Lippincott. CA: Wadsworth. BABBIE, E. R. (1979) The PracticeofSocial Research.Belmont, New York:RussellSage. BALBUS, I. (1973) The DialecticsofLegal Repression. The FBI's SecretWar on PoliticalFreedom.New BLACKSTONE, N. (1975) Cointelpro: York:Vintage. CHANDLER, C. (1970) "The Black Pantherkillingsin Chicago." New Republic 162 (January): 41-49. CHEVINGNY, P. (1972) Cops and Rebels:A StudyofProvocation. NewYork:Pantheon. A ReportbytheCommission CLARK, R. and R. WILKENS (1973) Searchand Destroy: of Inquiryinto the Black Panthersand Police. New York: MetropolitanResearch Center. FREED, D. (1973) Agonyin New Haven: The Trial of BobbySeale, ErickaHugginsand theBlack Panther Party.New York: Simon& Schuster. GOLDSTEIN, R. (1978) PoliticalRepressionin ModernAmerica:1870 to the Present. New York: Schenkman. inthedemocraticstate."Polity 8 (Spring):358GROSSMAN, J.B. (1976)"Politicaljustice 388. Conflict: The Perverse and DeadKARENGA, M. (1976) The Roots oftheU.S.-Panther lyGamesPolice Play. San Diego, CA: Kawaida.

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434 JOURNAL OF BLACK STUDIES / JUNE 1988 115 (February): Current KOPKIND, A. and F. LANG (1970) "The face of repressions." 36-38. NewYork: The Democratic Capacity forRepression. LEVIN, M. (1971) PoliticalHysteria: Basic Books. Library. New York: New American MARINE, G. (1969) The Black Panthers. in America." NEWTON, H. P. (1980) "War againstthe Panthers:a studyof repression ofCalifornia, Santa Cruz. Ph.D. dissertation, University intheUnitedStates.New PINKNEY, A. (1970) Red, Blackand Green:BlackNationalism York: Cambridge Univ.Press. WhenTheySucceed, PIVENS, F. F. and R. CLOWARD (1977) Poor People's Movement: How TheyFail. New York: Pantheon. SEALE, B. (1970) Seize theTime: The StoryoftheBlack PantherPartyand Huey Newton.New York: Random House. Committee on Internal Politics: U.S. House ofRepresentatives, Security (1971) Gun Barrel 1stSession. The Black Panther DC: H.R. 92-470,92nd Congress, Party.Washington, to StudyGovernment Operations U.S. Senate(1976) Final ReportoftheSelectCommittee DC: S.R. No. 94-755, 94thConwithRespectto Intelligence Operations. Washington, gress, 2nd Session. in theUnitedStates.New WOLFE, A. (1973) The SeamySide ofDemocracy:Repression York: David McKay. ofJustice: The Prosecution and Acquittal ofthePanther ZIMROTH, P. (1974) Perversion 21. New York: Viking.

of PoliticalScience at Old Dominion Professor CharlesE. Jonesis an Assistant He State University. He receivedhis B.A. in 1976from Fayetteville University. of Idaho and a Ph.D. in 1985from earnedhis M.A. in 1979fromthe University Move"Simultaneous His recentpublications include Washington State University. Directions?" (coauthorNicholas P. Lovich) in theReviewof mentin Conflicting Black Caucus, of the Congressional and "An Overview Personnel Administration 1970-1985"cited in Tandy Tollersonand FranklinD. Jones (eds.) Readings in working on a book 1987).He is currently American PoliticalIssues(Kendall/Hunt, Black Caucus. of theCongressional thatexaminestheroleand effectiveness

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