Chapter 1

Automotive Manufacturers and Reasons for Reducing Vehicle Emissions and Fuel Consumptions
1.0 Introduction:
Modern European automotive manufacturers face strict emission legislation standards and strict customer demands for improved fuel efficiencies while maintaining vehicle drivabilitys and performances. Customer demands for improved fuel efficiencies are mainly caused due to the growing concerns about oil shortages and their unstable rise on cost. Emission legislation standards such as the euro v and the upcoming euro vi are put into place by the European Union in order to reduce the phenomenon of the Global Warming and to reduce environmental issues that are caused from vehicle emissions. The three types of vehicle emissions that affect the environment and tend to speed the phenomenon of the global warming are the carbon dioxide (CO2), Hydrocarbons (HC) and Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx). To improve fuel economy and tailpipe emissions, the automotive manufacturers have introduced a number of inventions. Those inventions can identified as efficiency improvements known as variable valve actuation, direct injection, cylinder deactivation, and force induction techniques. Due to the fact that emission regulation standards are constantly becoming stringent, the automotive manufacturers had to combine those technologies with the following strategies: Engine Downsizing: is the method in which the capacity of an internal combustion engine is reduced for improving vehicle harmful emissions and fuel consumptions. Hybridization: is the method in which vehicles are powered by two or more distinct sources for improving vehicle harmful emissions and fuel consumptions. Alternative Fuels: is the method in which vehicles are powered by the use of nonconventional fuels known as biofuels, hydrogen and electricity for reducing vehicle harmful emissions and replacing the needs for fossil fuels. This document includes a comparison analysis between the different approached followed by the automotive manufacturers to reduce vehicle emissions and improve fuel consumptions and specify which method is more effective and efficient for the future. In this chapter (chapter 1) the aim is to investigate and discuss the issues that have forced the automotive manufactures to develop various technologies for reducing vehicle emissions and improving fuel consumptions. The main issue areas that will be under review and discussion are the global warming, regulations and oil shortages.

1.1 Global Warming:

Global Warming is the rise in temperature of the Earths atmosphere due to greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide and other pollutants which trap heat (solar radiation) near the earths surface that would otherwise escape the Earth. According to Jeremiah & Elizabeth This pollution comes largely from cars, power plants, factories and homes when we burn fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas, as well as from other human and natural processes. Cars and Global Warming (p8. 2005) The main green house pollutant that is produced by the automotive vehicles during the combustion of fossil fuels (Diesel or Petrol) is carbon dioxide (CO2). Carbon dioxide is a product of an insufficient or incomplete burning process during combustion process. Carbon dioxide is not the only greenhouse pollutant produced by the internal combustion engines; there are other hazardous emission products such as Carbon Monoxide (CO), Hydro Carbons (HCs), Oxides of Nitrogen (Nox) and Particulate Matters (PMs). Compression Ignition Engines are particulate matter free. According to Bert et al, greenhouse emission generally and globally has accounted for energy supply for about 26%, industry 19%, gases released from land-use change and forestry 17%, agriculture 14%, transport 13%, residential as well as commercial and service sector 8% and waste 3%. Climate Change (p27. 2007) The Figure 1.0 below represents the greenhouse gas emissions of transportation which include the motor vehicle sector and its impact to the environment. It can be seen that transport emissions are considerable increased at year 2004 compared to the year 1990. Figure 1.1.0 (Climate Change (p29. 2007))

Due to the increase of greenhouse gas emission and the negative effects to the environment and health, the European Union has placed various strict emission legislation standards to minimize the negative phenomenon of the Global Warming and its effects associated with health and the environment. (See next page emission standards)

1.2 Emission Regulations:

The tables 1.1 and 1.1 below represent the limitations to pollutant gas emissions put in force by the European Union in order to limit as much possible the negative effects and impact of road vehicles on the environment and health. According to the official website of the European Union and nextgreencar.com, the euro standards below are put in place by the European Union in order to cover vehicles of category M1 (Passenger Vehicles) with a reference to mass not exciting 2610kg. Table 1.2.0 (euro standards for diesel powered vehicles of category M1)

Compression Ignition Engines (Diesel)

Stage
Euro 1 Euro 2, IDI Euro 2, DI Euro 3 Euro 4 Euro 5a Euro 5b Euro 6a Euro 6b

Date
1992.07 1996.01 1996.01 2000.01 2005.01 2009.09 2011.09 2014.09 2015.09

CO (g/km)
2.72 (3.16) 1.0 1.0 0.64 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50

HC (g/km)
-

HC + NOx (g/km)
0.97 (1.13) 0.7 0.9 0.56 0.30 0.23 0.23 0.17 0.17

NOx (g/km)
0.50 0.25 0.18 0.18 0.08 0.08

PM (g/kg)
0.14 (0.18) 0.08 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005

PN (*/kg)
6.01011 6.01011 6.01011

Table 1.2.1 (euro standards for petrol powered vehicles of category M1)

Positive Ignition Engines (Petrol)

Stage
Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro 4 Euro 5 Euro 6a Euro 6b

Date
1992.07 1996.01 2000.01 2005.01 2009.09 2014.09 2015.09

CO (g/km)
2.72 (3.16) 2.2 2.30 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.1

HC (g/km)
0.20 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10

HC + NOx (g/km)
0.97 (1.13) 0.5 -

NOx (g/km)
0.15 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.06

PM (g/kg)
0.005 0.005 0.005

PN (*/kg)
6.01011 6.01011

The above tables represent the emission legislation changes from 1992 (Euro 1) to 2015 (Euro 6). It can be seen that the upcoming official legislation standards (euro 6) for emissions are reduced. For diesel engines, Hydrocarbons and Oxides of Nitrogen must be reduced from 0.23g/km to 0.17g/km. For petrol engines, Carbon Dioxide must be reduced from 1.0g/km to 0.1g/kg.

1.3 Oil Shortages:

According to Dr. M. King Hubbert the first geoscientist who has studied the peak oil effect, he stated that the oil in the US would peak in 1970 and it will follow a bell-shape curve. The prediction is proven to be true. Peak oil is defined as the critical point at which reservoirs can no longer produce increase amounts of oil, basically is the point at which maximum production is reached and afterwards no matter how many wells are discovered in a country, production begins to decline. Jonah (p7. 2008) Dr. Kenneth Deffeyes, a geologist and former oil and mining consultant who worked with Dr. Hubbert, he used Huberts method to determine the peak point of the worlds oil production. Dr. Deffeyes came to a conclusion that the worlds oil production is more likely to peak at the end of 2005. Deffeyes (p43. 2006) Similarly to Dr.Kenneth Deffeyes conclusion, a German non-profit group of European Scientists and few parliamentarians performed a comprehensive study according to when the worlds oil production is more likely to peak. Their results indicated that the oil peak is already happened in 2006.) (See figure 1.1 worlds oil Peak Point) Figure 1.3.0 (Oil Peak Point)

Schindler (p12. 2008) The downside effects of the Peak point are the prices of crude oil per barrel. Once peak point is reached, the next step is shortfall (see figure 1.1). Shortfall is the period at which the oil demands outstrip the available supply; basically the demands of oil are greater than what is available for use, as a result this causes the prices of oil to bid up. As the oil prices bid up, which is the current case worldwide; fuels for modern transportation become more expensive. In order to save fuel and costs, automotive manufacturers invent various technologies that will be reviewed further in this report. (See automotive inventions and systems next page)

Chapter 2
Engine Downsizing and Combined Technologies for Reducing Vehicle Emissions and Fuel Consumptions.
2.0 Engine Downsizing:
In this chapter the aim is to review the principle of engine downsizing and combined technologies. In this chapter, the author will specify the advantages and disadvantages of engine downsizing and combined technologies regarding to vehicle emissions and fuel consumptions. Driven by the customer demands for improved fuel economy as well as from emission legislation standards for reduced emissions, most of the engine manufacturers have turned towards to engine downsizing as one of the most efficient ways to meet these requirements. Engine downsizing is the conversion of engines from larger to smaller. Apostolos et al (p1. 2010) The main reason most automotive engine manufacturers have been drawn towards reducing the size of an internal combustion engine, is due to the advantages that are on offer compared to larger engines. Those advantages can be expressed as low cost due to the reduction of material, less overall cost of ownership, less weight and more installation space, less resistance to inertia, and in some specific areas of the engine less frictional resistance between rotating components. Brown et al (p61-62. 2010) The downside of reducing the capacity of an internal combustion engine is that the performance and power of the engine is lowered. In order to overcome this problem, Attard et al is expressing that for downsized engines to be comparable to their larger counterparts, the specific output performance must be increased by a ratio equal to the reduction in engine size. Turbocharging seems to be the most acceptable solution meeting the requirements, with high pressure ratios achievable and well documented improvements in efficiency. Attard et al (p1. 2009) The reason most automotive manufacturers have used the principle of force induction (turbocharger/supercharger) to improve the specific output performance of downsized engines, is due to the customer requirements for improved fuel efficiencies for better fuel economy and emission legislation standards for lower taxation. In addition to force induction, downsized internal combustion engines can be combined with other technologies and minimize the current issues of emissions and fuel consumptions. Those technologies can be classified as direct injections or otherwise called in-cylinder injection, variable valve timing/or actuation, cylinder deactivation and etc. All available technologies will be discussed and analyzed in the following pages of this report including force induction.

2.1 Force Induction:

The most efficient way to achieve the principle of force induction for reducing vehicle emissions and fuel consumptions is by the use of a turbocharger. A turbocharger is a device that forces air into the engines cylinders under a pressure which is higher than atmospheric . In simple terms, a turbocharger during operation results to an increase of air mass more than that of a naturally aspirated engine. The result of such as a device is that the charge air within the engine cylinders will increase the power density. According to Hilliers (p122. 2011) the advantages of a turbocharger are: 1. Higher torque for acceleration from low speeds 2. Lower exhaust noise and emissions 3. And better fuel economy The main reason turbochargers lower emissions and improve fuel consumptions is due to exhaust gas recirculation and more complete burning process. Exhaust gas recirculation is achieved when the energy containing molecules which are produced during exhaust stroke, instead of exiting the engine directly throughout the exhaust system are redirect to the turbine to power the compressor. As a result this tends to reduce harmful emissions. (See figure 2.1 below)

Figure 2.1.1

AR TURBO (arturbo.co.uk) In turbocharged engines fuel efficiencies are improved due to two reasons; the first reason is that turbocharged engines convert a greater amount of fuel into useful work compared to naturally aspirated engines and the second reason is that turbocharged engines are more thermal efficient than naturally aspirated engines. According to Jarut (p342. 2010), turbocharged engines are more thermal efficient than naturally aspirated engines due to the fact that turbochargers increase the intake air pressure prior entering it into the engine cylinders.

Some other reasons that make turbocharged engines more fuel efficient than nonturbocharged engines is that they can be designed to be smaller and lighter compared to larger engines for the same power output (see page 5). As known operating with less weight results to less fuel consumptions, and having smaller engines, the frontal area of the vehicles can be reduced for better aerodynamic drag. Less aerodynamic drag results to lower fuel consumptions. Brown et al (p61. 2010) A single turbocharger (single-stage turbocharging) as mention above offers a wide range of advantages. Despite the fact that a single-stage turbocharger is an acceptable and efficient solution for upgrading the lowered performance of downsized engines, turbochargers in the recent automotive/motorsport sector are improved even further by becoming a dual-stage turbochargers. (See dual-stage turbocharging below) Figure 2.1.2

MAN (mandieselturbo.com) A dual-stage turbocharger is a device which combines the operational function of two turbochargers joint together under a synchronization which is set by the responsible manufacturer or user. According to Byungchan (p11/12, 2009) the immediate benefit of installing a dual-stage turbocharger to an internal combustion engine is that the specific power level across a broad range of speeds is improved. This effect is due to that the boost levels provided to the engine cylinders by a dual-stage turbocharger is much higher than that provided by a single-stage turbocharger. In addition to the above, a dual-stage turbocharger can provide a better overall efficiency at high intake manifold pressures (compared to a single-stage turbocharger) due to the reason that the compression of the engine is done in two stages instead of one.

The downside of a single-stage turbocharger is that is unable to offer the levels of efficiency provided by the dual-stage turbochargers because at high intake manifold pressures in excess of 3.5 bars or more, the efficiency of single-stage turbocharger becomes unacceptably low whereas the dual-stage turbocharger operates more efficiently as the pressure ratio at each stage is well within the efficient region in the performance map. Byungchan (p12, 2009) Another advantage of the dual-stage turbochargers over the single-stage turbochargers is that they are effective in reducing the possibility to what is so called compressor surging. Compressor surging is a high pitch vibration which originates from the compressor side of the turbocharger. Surging is caused when a breakdown of the gas flow takes place and a reversal of air scavenging though the turbochargers diffuser and impeller blades into the compressor. This then causes a rise of vibrations which are referred as surging. Surging must be avoided due the reason it may lead to damage of both, turbocharger and engine. Dual stage turbochargers minimize the effect of surging because the pressure ratio created by the turbocharger is divided into two smaller steps without affecting the mass of the flow rate. Basically the first stage occurred by the first and smaller turbocharger is more robust in terms of the surge limit. Lastly, by using dual-stage turbochargers the transient behavior of the engine during operation is improved even further because of the two turbochargers combined to one. The smaller turbocharger is a high pressure turbocharger and the larger turbocharger is a low pressure turbocharger. By configuring the two turbochargers together with an appropriate engine matching, this type of turbocharger provides significantly better boosting characteristics at steady and transient conditions. The smaller turbocharger at its high pressure stage provides more power to the compressor enabling a higher boost at early state of acceleration and steady state of low speed operation. The large turbocharger on the other hand offers sufficient pressure ratio from medium to high engine speeds from where the smaller turbocharger is unable to provide the engine cylinders with sufficient pressure. The downside of dual-stage turbochargers related to downsized engines is that extremely downsized engines may not be able to operate efficiently with the adaption of two turbochargers. This is due to the reason that the exhaust gas energy produced during combustion process may not be sufficient to operate or drive the turbines efficiently.

In order to boost up the power and torque outputs of extremely downsized engines, there is an alternative solution to this problem. The alternative solution is a single variable geometry turbocharger or otherwise called variable nozzle turbocharger. (See variable geometry/nozzle turbocharger bellow) Figure: 2.1.3

Fast Motoring (fastmotoring.com) The variable geometry turbochargers offer some capacities that the single and dual-stage turbochargers are not able to provide to extremely downsized engines. Firstly, variable geometry turbochargers are able to operate with the gas energy which is produced by the operational function of extreme downsized engines (dual-stage turbochargers face some disadvantages in this case) and secondly are able to supply enough power to the compressor to create the boost pressure which is required for low speeds and transient conditions from where single geometry turbochargers which are fixed are unable to provide efficiently. The main advantage of variable geometry turbochargers is that they reduce turbo lag. Turbo lag is the time required for an internal combustion engine to produce boost pressure between transients, basically is a delay due to large requirements of energy from the engine to operate the turbocharger to produce the required boost pressure needed.

The reason variable geometry turbochargers reduce turbo lag is due to the pivoting vanes which are integrated into the turbo. The pivoting vanes are able to change the speed and angle of the exhaust gas as it enters the turbine rotor. Then the vanes of the variable geometry turbo during low speeds are set so that the compressor blades are positioned at the most efficient angle possible. This in combination with the engine boost requirements judged by the engine manufacturer helps to reduce the turbo lag during operation.

According to Hawley et al (p.148-149, 1999) a comparison test between a fixed geometry turbocharger and a variable geometry turbocharger related to NOx, Smog, and specific fuel consumptions has indicated that the variable geometry turbocharger is more efficient. The results received from the tests (eleven mode tests) indicated that the variable geometry turbocharger contributed to lower NOx emissions apart from mode number five. The smog results where similar for both turbochargers but the specific fuel consumption results indicated that the internal combustion engine is more fuel efficient with the operation of variable geometry turbocharger as a force induction device. (See table of results below) Figure 2.1.4

Further improvements to downsized internal combustion engines can be achieved with the adaption of a device which is called charge air cooler which is most often adapted to engines which are turbocharged. An intercooler is a component which is also known as a heat exchanger or charge air cooler. The main use of an intercooler is to reduce the charge intake heat that a turbocharged engine has put into the engine cylinders during the intake stroke. In a turbocharged engine the intercooler is positioned between the turbocharger and the intake manifold as shown below. Figure 2.2

Popular Mechanics (popularmechanics.com) The figure 2.2 above represents how the charge air temperature it has been increased by the action of the turbocharger to force air by compression into the engine cylinders. Due to the fact that the density of the air at the end of the intercooler is increased, the results are: more efficient combustion process, lower emissions, and more power output.

2.3 Direct Injection:

The two major fuel delivery systems which provide fuel within the late technologically advanced engines are known as port indirect injection systems and direct injection systems. The main difference between the two systems is that port indirect injection systems delivers the fuel into the engine cylinder by the use of an intake port behind the intake valves and the direct injection systems by delivering the fuel directly into the engine cylinders. Both

systems offer a number of advantages and disadvantages. In the case of fuel economy and reduction of harmful emissions, direct injection systems are more efficient. (See direct injection system below) Figure: 2.3 (Car and Driver (caranddriver.com))

The reason direct injection systems are more efficient than indirect injection systems is due to the fact that they allow more accurate control over fuel metering (stoichiometric air/fuel mixture) and precise injection timing. Because the injector nozzles are placed to spray fuel directly within the engine cylinders, the injectors can be relocated accordingly to the most efficient position for optimal spray pattern within the engine cylinders. The results of such a system are internal cooling due to efficient fuel evaporation, higher knock margin allowing higher compression ratios, more complete combustion process, higher power outputs, less emissions, and lastly improved fuel consumptions. Jones et al (p48-49. 2011) and Brown et al (p61. 2010) Zhao et al (p512. 1999) states that the GDI (Gasoline Direct Injection) engines which are under the use of charge stratification (concentrating the spraying of the fuel close to the spark plug rather than throughout the whole of the combustion chamber) offer the potential for

reducing the part-loaded fuel consumptions by 20-25% when the gas cycle, heat transfer and geometric configuration are optimized. It also important to note that the direct injection engines are able to reduce the pumping losses due to the un-throttle part-load operations, increase the cycle efficiency to the incrementally specific heat ratio of lean mixtures, and lastly decrease the heat losses of the cylinder wall and combustion chamber due to the stratified combustion process. Direct injection engines as mention above reduce vehicle emissions. The ways GDI engines achieve this reduction of emissions is by eliminating the formation of a liquid fuel film on the intake port of the cylinder head. This elimination is due to the systems ability to reduce fuel metering errors. By accurately controlling the fuel metering, issues such as running from a liquid pool in the inlet port which are faced by indirect injection systems is not possible. The problem raised by running the internal combustion engine with excess fuel in the inlet ports of the engine is that the UBHC emissions (Un-burnt Hydrocarbon emissions) are raised at both, cold start and warm up faces. With a GDI system, this issue is minimized and the engine response under cold start and transient conditions is improved. The downside of GDI engines is that the rate of NOx emissions produced during operation is considerably higher when compared to the indirect port injection systems. This problem is due to the higher pressures and temperatures produced during compression and combustion process of the air-fuel mixture which results to the formation of NOx emissions. In addition to the issue mention, GDI engines are mostly designed to operate which lean-burn (more air and less fuel) to improve fuel consumptions. Lean burn tend to increase even further the of NOx emissions. In order to overcome this issue, automotive manufacturers have introduced a new family of catalyst converters called lean NOx converters. Conventional catalysts are insufficient for capturing the required amount of nitrogen oxides required. The new family of lean NOx catalysts includes of a catalyst which contains zeolite microporous and a precious metal for conditions where oxygen is rich. A second catalyst is also used for storing and converting NOx emissions during intermittent short periods of controlled over fueling. During conversion, a chemical reaction within the catalyst converts nitrogen oxides to nitrogen gas and water vapor. The result of using such a catalyst is a reduction to NOx emissions.

2.4 Variable Valve Actuation:

Variable valve actuation is referred to as variable valve timing (VVT), variable valve lifting (VVL) or both systems together (VVTL). Variable valve timing is the continuous change in valve timing in relation to the processing signals of the ECU. The electronic control unit of the vehicle processes input signals related with engine speed and load and then operates the cam timing actuators to shift the angle of the camshaft/camshafts clockwise or anticlockwise. (See figure 1.5 below) Figure: 2.4

2carpros (2carpros.com)

At slow engine speeds the electronic control unit of the vehicle sends signals to the variable valve timing module in order to alter the inlet valves so they open late (retard the timing). Due to late inlet valve openings, all the exhaust gases would be expelled through the exhaust valves and the cylinders will be filled with fresh air. As a result, this leads to a good burning of the air/fuel mixture and therefore the engine will operate smoothly and stable at idle. At high engine speeds on the other hand, the electronic control unit of the vehicle, advances the valve timing (inlet valves are open earlier). By advancing the inlet valve timing at high engine speeds, fresh mixture can be drawn into the engine cylinders due to the depression caused by the flow of the exhaust gases though the exhaust valve. This increases the volumetric efficiency of the engine which improves power and torque outputs. A well know variable valve timing systems are the BMWs Vanos Systems and Toyotas VVT-I Systems. Similarly to variable valve timing, variable valve lifting is the continuous change in valve lifting periods in relation to the processing signals of the ECU. The electronic control unit of the vehicle processes input signals related with engine speeds and loads and then operates a third camshaft or actuators to increase or decrease the opening periods of the exhaust or inlet valves. (See figure 1.6 next page)

The figure below represents the variable valve lifting system that Audi uses to improve vehicle efficiencies on Q5 models. Figure: 2.5

Wheels 24 (wheels24.co.za) When the engine is operating at low to medium engine speeds, the valve opening periods are set accordingly to allow sufficient air to enter the engine cylinders for providing a good engine performance and stability. At high engine speeds, the valve opening periods are

increased by increasing the valve openings which provide an increase in volume efficiency. When the engine intake valves open for a longer duration, more fresh air can enter the engine cylinders increasing the power output of the engine. The same applies for exhaust valves which result to a better scavenging. Hilliers (p127. 2011)

Both systems (VVT and VVL) including VVTL, lower vehicle emissions and improve fuel consumptions. The reason for this is due to that the ECU of the vehicle can sense when the vehicle is cruising, and set the timing to what is called maximum valve overlap. Maximum overlap can allow some of the exhaust gases to be recirculated back into the engine cylinders for reducing emissions, and as a part of air/fuel mixture is replaced by exhaust gases, less fuel is needed.

2.5 Cylinder Deactivation:

According to Croistorescu et al (p1. 2010), Cylinder deactivation is part of a tool that the auto industry is using to improve fuel economy and reduce CO2 emissions. This technology allows the engine to operate with a reduced number of cylinders when the power demands are low and the vehicle is cruising at highway roads. By deactivating engine cylinders, the internal combustion engine reduces fuel consumptions and emissions while still having the flexibility to demand more power when needed. The system allows the driver to operate on two, three or four cylinders, depending on the driving conditions. (See example figure 2.6 below, deactivation from six cylinders to four and then to three) Figure: 2.6

Honda (Honda.co.nz) The downside of conventional internal combustion engines is that during cruise speeds they operate with a low percentage of the vehicles available power using partial throttle openings. This tends to limit the amount of air entering the engine cylinders making the combustion process incomplete which results to an increase amount of a fuel consumptions and emissions. As mention, by utilizing a system such as a cylinder deactivation system, a specific number of cylinders can shut down, and during cruising modes, the pumping losses can be reduced. This is due to large amount of throttle valve openings. In simple terms, when the cylinders are shut down, the throttle valve openings must increased in order to equal the speeds that the engine would achieved with all cylinders in operation. With larger throttle valve openings, the engine can breathe more easily and the piston drag is reduced.

Chapter 3
Alternative Fuels for Reducing Vehicle Emissions and Fuel Consumptions.
3.0 Biofuels:
In this chapter the aim is to review the available type of alternative fuels that take the biggest attention to the automotive industry and their ability to reduce the level of vehicle emissions and provide the dependence from fossil fuels. Biofuels are fuels that are produced from plats such as corn and sugar canes or animal based materials such as fat. These fuels are generally referred to as biomass. According to Ramage et al (p51. 2008), biofuels provide the opportunity to sustainably produce liquid fuels, reduce oil imports, and reduce carbon dioxide emissions for the transportation sector because the CO2 emitted from their combustion is captured in the next plant growth cycle. In this document, the specific fuel type that will be discussed the most is the one receiving the biggest attention to the automotive and motorsport industry. This fuel is identified as Ethanol or Bioethanol when combined with a fossil fuel. According to Robert et al (p49-50. 2008), the main produces of Ethanol in the world is the US and Brazil. The amount of ethanol produced in the United States in 2006 was 18.4 billion liters within areas of 5.1 million hectares. In Brazil the amount of ethanol produced was 17.8 billion liters with areas of 2.9 million hectares. Together in 2006, United States and Brazil have produced 36 billion liters of ethanol which is less than 1 percent of the petroleum use. According to a Brazilian physicist, Professor Jose Goldemberg, the production of Ethanol in the future will increase. Production in Brazil is expected to be increased for about double the amount by the Year 2015, in the United States approximately triple the amount by the year 2022, and in Europe production will increased for about 15 billion liters of Ethanol per year by 2022. At that point, ethanol could replace 6 percent of the gasoline used in the world. Robert et al (p50. 2008) Despite the fact that the availability of the ethanol increases, the downside of this fuel is the cost and energy content. The price of ethanol is unstable, which means that it can be more or less expensive than petrol. This issue is due to the following factors: Prices of corn and sugar canes Production costs Transportation costs and taxes

According to Ramage et al (p51. 2008), the energy content of ethanol is approximately twothirds that of gasoline thus, 35 billion gallons replaces about 24 billion gallons of gasoline.

However, the octane rate of the ethanol is higher than gasoline, which means that the engines can tuned and optimized to operate at higher compression rations and be more efficient. Ethanol blends (Bioethanol) are study and found that when used as an alternative fuels for internal combustion engines contribute to lower CO emissions, particularly when the mixtures are rich; this is due the fact that the available oxygen contained within the ethanol fuel molecule is higher than what is available within a conventional fuel molecule. More oxygen within a fuel molecule results to a more complete combustion process reducing CO emissions. The effects of ethanol blends related to NOx emissions are found to be lower than conventional fuels especially when the ratio of the ethanol blend is increased. When the ethanol blend mixture is increased, the enthalpy of evaporation also increases resulting to a lower pre-combustion and lower flame temperature lowering the in-cylinder temperatures. As mention above in section 2.3 of this document, the formation of NOx emissions is due to the high in-cylinder temperatures. It can be seen from this statement that the cooling effects which are provided by the use of ethanol blends, helps to reduce the NOx emissions more than conventional fossil fuels. Another benefit of ethanol blends over conventional fuels is the laminar burning velocity. According to Turner et al (p2000, 2010) a test comparison between ethanol, petrol and a DMF (Dimethylfuran) fuel has indicated that the ethanol is approximately faster by 30%. From this it can be seen that the ethanol mixtures have shorter combustion durations which lead to the reduction of NOx emissions even further. The downside of ethanol blends is that conventional vehicles must be modified in order to operate and run on ethanol blends, or specially designed and put in production by official automotive manufacturers. Vehicles that are modified or designed to operate with ethanol blends are known as flex-fuel vehicles. According to Alberto (p154, 2010) the modifications required to be done to conventional vehicles in order to run on ethanol blends are as follows. Hardware and engine control modifications, specially selected materials that provide the appropriate durability to withstand the increase compression ratios which are produced by ethanol blends (components such as valves, valve seats, engine studs and etc), and lastly, the fuel delivery system must be modified using ethanol compatible materials for efficient and effective injection functionality. Despite the fact that ethanol blends reduce vehicle emissions, the production of ethanol leads to some environmental issues. The first environmental issues produced by the production of ethanol is the large amounts of land which are required to be sacrificed in order to produce the corps for obtaining ethanol. When large amounts of land are sacrificed, the problems arise are soil erosion, deforestations, fertilizer run-off and salinity. In addition to this problems, disposal of water fermentation liquors during the end of each process leads to major environmental problems. EasyChem (easychem.co.au)

3.1 Electricity:
Electricity is a basic part of the nature and it is one of the most widely used forms of energy. This type of energy is known as a secondary energy source due to the fact that is produced by other means of energy such as oil, coal, natural gas, nuclear power and etc. With the use of chemical reactions, electricity can be stored into batteries or otherwise stored into capacitors using the principle of separation (atom separation). Due to the fact that electricity is a form of energy able to be stored, the automotive industry found the opportunity to use this energy as an alternative fuel to resolve the current issues related to fuel consumptions and emissions. Vehicles that are purely powered by electric energy are known as Electric vehicles (EVs). (See electric vehicle in figure 3.1 below) Figure 3.1.0

Daily News (nydailynews.com) Pure electric vehicles have only one energy source which is the electric energy which is stored within the battery or any other means of electric storage device. The consisting components of EVs in addition to the energy storage device are the traction motor, power electronics and subsystems which make sure that the EV components communicate and function as designed and programmed. The energy storage device (fuel cell) is responsible for providing the electrical energy to the electric motor to propel the vehicle. For both, fuel cell and the traction motor there is a controller. The role purpose of the fuel cell controller is to control the charging and

discharging faces of the fuel cell. The traction motor controller is responsible to control the speed or/and torque of the motor by controlling the power electronics. Each controller contains a sub-controller known as interface for receiving signals and power of high and low voltages (see figure 3.1.1). High voltages are received from the propulsion system and low voltages are received from certain specific devices such as sensors. The voltages are then channelized by the interface controller and directed to the traction motor or the fuel cell for controlling. Figure 3.1.1 (Electric Vehicle Schematic) Chris et al (p33, 2011)

It can be seen from the above figure that EV systems consist of various systems. One of the most important systems is the vehicles controller. The vehicle controller is responsible of making decision according to the various signals received from the various sensors around the vehicle such as velocity, load, and driver petal position to adjust the torque needed from the traction motor. In addition, this controller is able to receive additional signals such as the fuel cell state of charge and make decisions whether to present regenerative braking energy to recharge the fuel cell or not. All information signals in an EV system related to the vehicles operating conditions are transmitted between to the various systems discussed above using a controller area network otherwise known as CAN bus. CAN bus is a computerized network from where a single wire contains multiple information signals multiplexed together. This type of network then prioritizes the signals in relation to the importance of each one. For example, information signals related to door switches reconsidered not very important and they can delay. Signals on the other hand which are related to the braking system, are considered safety signals (very important signals) and they must transmitted to their direction gate immediately. The advantages and disadvantages of using such a system are detailed in the next page of this chapter.

According to Kenber et al (p8-9. 2012) the advantages of electric vehicles are: Running Costs: One of the main benefits of electric vehicles is the reduced costs of refueling due to the fact that electricity is much lower on cost compared to fossil fuels. Road Tax: Vehicles which are powered purely by electricity using an electric storage device such as battery are road tax free. Capital Allowances: Cars with CO2 emissions of 110g or less receive a 100% capital allowance in their first year of purchase. This concession is currently valid until 2013 Vehicle Grants: The government is offering a grant to cover 25% of the cost of an electric vehicle (up to five thousand pounds per vehicle).

Environmental Issues: Electric vehicles produce zero emissions therefore no impact to the environment during driving cycle. Operational Benefits: Vehicles which are powered by 100% by electricity contain fewer moving components therefore less maintenance and less failures. The use of electric motors make electric vehicles perfect for start and go application due to no gear and clutch movements. Lastly, electric vehicles are less noise.

According to Argueta (p6. 2010) the disadvantages of electric vehicles are as follows: Limited in the distance that can be driven before the complete failure of the battery. Accessories, such as air conditioning and radios drain the battery. Heavier car due to the electric motors, batteries, chargers, and controllers. More expensive because of cost of the parts.

Lastly, the AEA Energy and Environment Group (p5. 2007) states the following as an important disadvantage of electric vehicles: Although electric-powered vehicles create zero orfewer emissions than petrol or diesel cars when in use, there are emissions released when the anymains electricity used is actually being produced. These emissions should be taken into accountwhen assessing the net environmental benefits of EVs. If renewable energy is used to generate the electricity then the impact on the environment is much less than other vehicle technologies. If nonrenewableenergy is used, then the environmental benefits are reduced. In addition, hybrid electricvehicles cause greater pollution during manufacture and disposal than conventional vehicles..

Chapter 4
Hybrid Eclectic Technology for Reducing Vehicle Emissions and Fuel Consumptions.
4.0 Hybrid Eclectic Vehicles:
In this chapter the aim is to discuss the benefits that are offered by the use electric hybrid vehicles related to the reduction of vehicle emissions and fuels consumptions. In addition to this, in this part of the report the author will compare the three main types of electric hybrid vehicles and their advantages. Hybrid Electric vehicles combine at least two energy converters, usually the internal combustion engine and the electric drivers (electric motors). According to Brown et al (p68. 2010) the main aim of a hybrid electric vehicle is to provide the equivalent power, range, and safety as a conventional vehicle while reducing fuel consumptions and harmful emissions. In this chapter, the aim is to discuss and compare the three main architectures of hybrid electric vehicles. These are the series, parallel, and series/parallel architectures. The comparison will include how each one of them is used for satisfying the objectives of reducing vehicle emission, improving fuel efficiencies and performance. As mention above hybrid electric vehicles are means of transportation which are powered by the combination of an internal combustion engine and an electric motor or motors. When the two power devices are connected in series, the architecture is called series hybrid architecture. When the two power devices are connected in parallel, the architecture is called parallel hybrid architecture. The series hybrid architecture is a type of arrangement in which the mechanical drive is provided to the vehicles wheels only by the electric motor. The parallel electric architecture is the type of arrangement in which the mechanical drive is provided to the vehicles wheels by both, the electric motor and the internal combustion engine. Lastly the series/parallel architecture combines both, power to wheels only by the electric motor or power to the wheels by using both, the internal combustion engine and the electric motor. The main advantage of hybrid electric architectures over pure eclectic architectures (electric vehicles) is that the electric motor or motors of the system can be either used to provide drive to the wheels, or become a generator when appropriate to capture kinetic energy which is usually lost though the brakes and transmission. This is used to recharge the systems batteries (or any other means of energy storage device such as flywheel and capacitors) which is not able with the function of pure electric vehicles. According to Chris et al (p11, 2011) the area where pure electric vehicles are limited in driving range, the HEVs extend the driving range by capturing kinetic energy which is usually lost though the brakes (regenerative braking). More details for HEVs are discussed in the next pages of this document.

4.1 Series Hybrid Electric Vehicles:

The main energy converter of series hybrid vehicles is the fossil fuel which is used to power the internal combustion engine. Once the internal combustion engine is powered, the fuels chemical energy is converted into mechanical and then into electrical with the use of an alternator/generator which is mechanically linked to the engine. The electrical energy produced by the generator will be then used to power either the systems electric motors, or used to charge the systems batteries. It is important to note that the electric energy can be directed to both, electric motors and batteries. The direction of the electrical energy is depended on the driving conditions and the ECUs programmed judgments. In this architecture the engine is decoupled from the vehicle wheels and as a result the engine speed can be controlled independently from the vehicle speed (see figure 4.1.1). According to Chris et al (p12, 2011) the advantage of this separation is that it simplifies the control of the engine which can allow the engineers to set the engine to operate at its optimum speeds for achieving the best fuel economy. Figure 4.1.1 Chris et al (p12, 2011)

According to a TCRP report (p7, 2009) the advantages and disadvantages of series hybrid architectures are as follows:

Advantages and Disadvantages of Series Hybrid Electric Architectures Advantages Disadvantages

Engine configuration is relative easy and simple to control Engine is able to operate in the regions of its peak efficiency Engine is more efficient at modest speed and at high load, this results in superior FE Allow the optimization of the engine technology Can reduce severe transient load demands on the engine leading to lower emissions This architecture has excelled dynamic performance at low speed and acceleration This architecture is most suited to city-type driving only There are large energy losses by the generator and motor It has relatively large battery energy losses Engine, generator, motor, and the energy storage device contribute to vehicle mass -----------------------------------------------------

4.2 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles:

In parallel hybrid architectures, the internal combustion engine and the electric motor/s can both provide power to the vehicle wheels in parallel (see figure 4.2.1). In this architecture the engine and electric motor/s are placed and installed to the vehicles transition system though two or more mechanical links. The mechanical links can be components such as integrated clutches, belts, pulleys or gears. Figure 4.2.1 Chris et al (p14, 2011)

The power delivered to the vehicle wheels in this system it can be done by both, electric motor and internal combustion engine (combined mode) or each separately. As in the series hybrid systems, so do in the parallel hybrid systems, the electric motor can be either used to power and propel the vehicle, or used as an electric generator to capture lost energy during braking or downhill potential. The captured energy will be recovered and then converted to an electric energy and stored into the vehicles batteries. It is important to note that in some cases which the battery or any other means of electric energy storage device are extremely discharged, the traction motor can absorb some of the engines power to charge the batteries up with sufficient energy. According to a TCRP report (p8, 2009) the advantages and disadvantages of parallel hybrid architectures are as follows:

Advantages and Disadvantages of Parallel Hybrid Electric Architectures Advantages Disadvantages

This type of architecture offers good energy efficiency during steady-state operation The use of smaller engine and traction motor helps to reduce vehicle mass Performs well in high average power and high load conditions Performs well during both, stop-and-go as well as cruising operations Transient operation cannot avoided due to the direct link between engine and the wheels Transient operation contributes to more emissions than the emission produce by series hybrid architectures The design of a parallel hybrid architecture is more complex than a series architecture Less braking can be captured due to the smaller size electric motor

4.3 Series / Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles:

A series / parallel architecture is the type of configuration which incorporates the features of both, series and parallel architectures. Due to the ability of incorporating both features, the series / parallel configuration is able to operate as a series or a parallel HEV. When a series / parallel configuration is compared with the series hybrid architecture, the only difference is an additional mechanical link which connects the internal combustion engine with the differential. By adding a connection link, the internal combustion engine is able to directly propel the vehicle the same way parallel HEVs do. In the case of comparing between a series / parallel configuration and a parallel configuration, the only difference is that the series / parallel configuration uses an additional electric motor which is used as a generator. In this way, the traction motor of the vehicle is able to receive electric energy from the generator and then propel the vehicle in the same way series hybrid vehicle operate. (See series / parallel architecture below) Figure 4.3.1

Chris et al (p15, 2011) Hybrid electric vehicles which operate based on series / parallel architectures offer better fuel efficiency, drivability and lower emissions. This is due the reason that series / parallel architectures combine all the advantages of both, series and parallel architectures (see page 20 & 21). The downside of this architecture is the additional weight and complexity due to more operating components in addition to increased cost.

4.4 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles:

The architectures discussed above can offer further improvements by storing electricity from an external source into the systems batteries prior driving. These hybrid electric vehicles are called plug-in hybrids (see figure below). Figure 4.4.1

Auto21 (auto21.uwinnipeg.ca) By recharging the energy storage device to maximum prior driving, the distance the vehicle can travel is extended even further than the distance the standard hybrid electric vehicles can travel. Due to the extended driving distance of the vehicle, the refueling process is reduced. The results are better fuel savings and a significant reduction of emissions. Another advantage of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles is the energy cost savings. Because the plug-in hybrid electric vehicles use electricity for the initial driving range of the driving cycle as well as to parts of the driving cycle, the energy costs are lowered due to the fact that the cost of electricity is lower than fossil fuels. However, the cost of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles is higher than the cost of the alternative type of hybrid electric vehicles of the same category (e.g. cost of plug-in series hybrid electric vehicles is higher than the cost of standard series hybrid electric vehicles). This is mainly due to the increased number of components used. Lastly, the maintenance costs of plug-in electric hybrid vehicles as well as standard hybrid electric vehicles are lowered than conventional vehicles. This is due to the excessive use of regenerative braking which increases the life of the brake pads and brake fluid. Since the engine is able to shutdown during regenerative braking, the intervals of the engine such as oil and other maintenance services can last for longer period.

Conclusion:
This paper provides a review description between the three most technologically developed approaches that are used by the automotive manufacturers in order to reduce the vehicle emissions and fuel consumptions. Basically, the sole purpose of this review was to

investigate and identify the path that is most likely to be taken and followed by the automotive manufacturers in order to meet the upcoming emission legislation standards for improving the current problems related with the environment, and the issues related with the customer demands and oil shortages. The three recent technological developed approaches that were discussed in this document were the engine downsizing, alternative fuels and vehicle hybridization. During the review undertaken, it was found that each of the approaches studied and discussed, offered unique efficiency perspectives. Between the different approaches discussed, the least developed is found to be the method of using alternative fuels. Firstly electricity, the potential of electricity as a power source offers the advantage of zero emissions and low cost of refueling once electricity is cheaper than fossil fuels. The downside of this approach on the other hand is that it is limited in mileage range. This is due to the inability of refueling sufficiently and effectively. The time required to recharge an electric vehicle is approximately eight hours, making the vehicle ineffective for constant and long driving patterns. In addition, electric vehicles face the disadvantage of limited power and top speed (for a commercial EV approximately 70mph) which makes them unattractive to vehicle customers. Lastly, EVs are becoming more unattractive to customers due to the cost of ownership. Electric vehicles cost approximately 30,000, much more expensive than small size conventional vehicles. Regarding to ethanol as an alternative fuel, ethanol is a fuel which offers a wide range of advantages. Ethanol blends contain a higher octane number than conventional fuels making ethanol more resistive to detonation and pre-ignition. In addition, ethanol reduces the engines in-cylinder temperatures and its oxygen content is higher than conventional fuels. As a result, internal combustion engines are able to operate at higher compression ratios leading to a more complete combustion with fewer emissions and more power outputs. The disadvantage of ethanol is its availability. In countries such as the USA and Brazil ethanol is widely used and is available at most fuel stations. In European countries such as UK, Germany and France, ethanol blends are not as much available as in the USA and Brazil making ethanol difficult to find. In addition, the potential of ethanol in the automotive

industry is low; the season for this is due to the fact that most automotive manufacturers such as BMW, HONDA, FORD, TOYOTA and others disapprove ethanol (disapprove blends over 15% ethanol). The reason for this, is due to that ethanol attracts carrion. According to automotive manufactures the use of ethanol in internal combustion engines lead to a rabid corrosion which affects components such as the vehicles fuel delivery system. This may become very costly to vehicle owners when malfunction due to ethanol usage. Amanda (dailycaller.com, 2011) Another disadvantage of ethanol is the issues related to the environment. During the production of ethanol the two main problems arise are soil erosion and deforestation. Soil erosion is caused due the disposal of water liquors during the end of each production process, and deforestation because of the large amounts of land required for growing crops to obtain ethanol. Lastly, ethanol becomes more unattractive to drivers due to cost. Ethanol prices are unstable, sometimes are higher than fossil fuels and sometimes lower than fossil fuels. The ethanol prices are mainly depended on the amount of corps or sugar canes produced each season and transportation costs. In addition, vehicle running costs may become more expensive due to the low energy content of ethanol. This is depended on the efficiency of the internal combustion engine. The disadvantages of using alternative fuels lead most of the automotive manufacturers towards engine downsizing and vehicle hybridization. The main advantage of engine downing is the low cost of ownership. In addition to this, engine downsizing offers good fuel efficiencies and emission reductions up to the requirement levels. The potential of engine downsizing for the future is highly supported by many automotive manufactures due to the fact that they can be combined with late technological advanced systems such as the ones discussed in chapter two of this document. This improves even further the efficiencies of the downsized engine. Finally, vehicle hybridization is another method which is highly supported and followed by many automotive manufactures. This is due to the reason that unlike pure electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles are not depended only by external recharging sources and are also able to be combined with efficient downsized engines for superior fuel efficiencies and extreme reduction of vehicle emissions. The only downsized of hybrid electric vehicles is that they contribute to high weight and are more expensive than conventional downsized vehicles. It is important to note that some automotive manufacturers support the idea of pure electric vehicles but their vehicles are not supported by drivers due to the disadvantages discussed above.

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