PROOF THAT THE PRIMES OF FIBONACCI ARE

INFINITE IN NUMBER


Ing. Pier Francesco Roggero, Dott. Michele Nardelli, Francesco Di Noto

Abstract
In this paper we show that the primes of Fibonacci are infinite in number plus other
topics.


















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Index:

1. PERIODICITY WITHIN THE FIBONACCIS SEQUENCE............................................................ 3
1.1 PROOF THAT THE PRIMES OF FIBONACCI ARE INFINITE ....................................... 5
1.2 DIVISORS
n
p OF THE GROUPS
p
a B........................................................................... 6
1.3 TABLE OF DECOMPOSITION OF THE FIBONACCIS NUMBERS.............................. 8
1.3.1 TABLE OF THE FREQUENCIES FOR INCREASING PERIODICITY....................... 10
1.3.2 TABLE OF THE FREQUENCIES FOR P INCREASING ............................................. 13
1.4 DISTRIBUTION OF THE FIBONACCIS PRIME NUMBERS....................................... 14
1.5 FIBONACCI NUMBERS AND ABC CONJECTURE ...................................................... 18
2. PYTHAGOREAN TRIPLE AND ABC CONJECTURE.................................................................. 20
3. PYTHAGOREAN QUADRUPLES AND ABC CONJECTURE EXTENDED............................... 22
3.1 PROOF OF PYTHAGOREAN QUADRUPLES ................................................................ 24
4. TRIBONACCI NUMBERS AND ABC CONJECTURE EXTENDED............................................ 25
4.1 PROOF OF TRIBONACCI NUMBERS............................................................................. 27
5. TRIANGULAR NUMBERS AND ABC CONJECTURE EXTENDED .......................................... 28
6. N 1 OR N NTH POWERS SUMMING TO AN NTH POWER AND ABC CONJECTURE
EXTENDED.......................................................................................................................................... 30
7. PROOF OF GOLDBACH'S CONJECTURE.................................................................................... 34
8. PROOF OF THE WEAK GOLDACH CONJECTURE.................................................................... 37
9. CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................................ 39



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1. PERIODICITY WITHIN THE FIBONACCIS SEQUENCE


The Fibonacci numbers are a sequence in the frequency of natural integers N+, where each number
of the sequence is the result of the sum of the previous two.

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144,

By definition, the first two Fibonacci numbers are 0 and 1, and each subsequent is the sum of the
previous two. The sequence is defined by assigning the values of the first two terms, F
0
: = 0 and F
1
: =
1, and asking that for every next number is:
F
n
= F
n-1
+ F
n-2
,
with
F
0
= 0, F
1
= 1.


Now given a prime factor p its periodicity within the Fibonacci sequence is given by:

If the prime factor ends with the digits 1, 9, the periodicity is f = a divisor of (p-1) or the same (p-1)

If the prime factor ends with the digits 3, 7 the frequency is f = a divisor of (p +1) or the same (p +1)

See tables in section 3.


Only with the prime factor p = 5, which is a prime number special, the only one that ends with the digit
5 the periodicity is given by f = 5k

For p = 2, another prime special, the only even prime, the periodicity is f = 3k

The prime factors p taken separately are all present in the Fibonacci sequence.
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Since the Fibonacci sequence is a subset of the set of natural numbers N, DO NOT exist all prime
factors with powers greater than 1.
For example, the factor 2
2
does not appear anywhere in the list.

This does not mean that the Fibonacci numbers are not divisible by 4, but which, however, some Fn
are divisible by powers of 2 larger, i.e. for 8, 16, 32, 64 and consequently are also divisible by 4.

We note that 8, 16, 32 and 64 are all multiples of 8, number that is connected with the modes that
correspond to the physical vibrations of a superstring by the following Ramanujan function:



( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
3
1
8
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

. (1)


If we choose a prime number n of Fn then its decomposition gives rise to prime factors ALL news and
ALL DISTINCT (with power equal to 1), which are all prime factors that have not yet appeared in the
Fibonacci sequence for n lower.
Only for n primes we can have Fibonacci numbers Fn primes.

However, if we choose a number n that isnt prime of Fn, then in the decomposition of it we have
prime factors that are already present in the previous Fibonacci numbers in the sequence for n lower
and there is at least one new prime factor (one or more than one) .


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1.1 PROOF THAT THE PRIMES OF FIBONACCI ARE INFINITE IN NUMBER



We know that so far have been discovered the following 33 n primes of Fn (except n = 4 that is even)
n = 3, 4, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 23, 29, 43, 47, 83, 131, 137, 359, 431, 433, 449, 509, 569, 571, 2971, 4723,
5387, 9311, 9677, 14431, 25561, 30757, 35999, 37511, 50833 e 81839.
The first 14 are the following:

2, 3, 5, 13, 89, 233, 1597, 28657, 514229, 433494437, 2971215073, 99194853094755497,
1066340417491710595814572169, 19134702400093278081449423917,
475420437734698220747368027166749382927701417016557193662268716376935476241




Since all prime factors p taken separately are present in the Fibonacci sequence, then in the
decomposition of the Fibonacci numbers Fn with n prime number we have always NEW prime factors
all distinct or prime factors with power equal to 1.

The number of prime factors m resulting from the decomposition of Fn may be m = 1, 2, 3 or m 1.

Because the number of the news prime factors is cyclic, with the increase of magnitude of the
Fibonacci numbers also increases the number m of the single prime factors.

This cyclicity is due to the fact that there is a periodicity of the prime factors inside the Fibonacci
sequence.
All the new prime factors of a decomposition of Fn with n prime numbers give rise to a periodicity k*n
or a cyclicity on the number of the new prime factors that are repeated, in fact, with the periodicity
k*n.

It then becomes increasingly rare to find new prime numbers for n increasing of Fibonacci.

However, the number of prime factors m is cyclic and therefore will find always a new prime number
of Fibonacci Fn with a single prime factor m = 1 for some n prime and with periodicity given by k*n.


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1.2 DIVISORS
n
p OF THE GROUPS
p
a B


We have seen that the divisors distinct p of a group a
p
b are given by the following formula:

p divisor of a
k(dn)+s
b

with dn divisor of p - 1


Thus if p is a divisor of a
p-1
b then p
2
is a divisor of a
p(p-1)
b.

In general we have that p
n
is a divisor of
( )
b a
p p
n

1
1


If there is a divisor dn of p 1 the above formula is simplified in this way:

p
n
is a divisor of
( )
b a
dn p
n

1


In the specific case of p
2
one has:

p
2
is a divisor of a
p(dn)
b


The periodicity a
p
b, instead, is given by:

chosen any s for a
s
b, as divisor p
n
we have

p = (a
s
b)
n-1
(a
s
b - 1) + s and if it is true that there is a divisor dn of p 1, we have:

p = k (p)
n-1
(dn) + s

with p
n
divisor of
s dn + ) ( k(p)
1 - n
a b

with dn divisor of p - 1

In the specific case of p
2
one has:
2
p divisor of
s dn + ) ( kp
a b


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Observation.

Each group a
p
b does not contain NEVER all the prime factors taken separately or raised to
the power.
This is because each group is only a subset of the set of natural numbers N.
That is why, for example, in the group of Mersenne 2
p
- 1 never exist the distinct prime factors
1093 and 3511 but only their squares 1093
2
and 3511
2
respectively for p = 364k and p = 1755k

In the group of Fibonacci, for example, never exists the factor 2
2
, but all the other powers of 2
n
with n
= 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 ... are present including so obviously the 2.



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1.3 TABLE OF DECOMPOSITION OF THE FIBONACCIS NUMBERS


1 1 1
2 1 1
3 2 2
4 3 3
5 5 5
6 8 2^3
7 13 13
8 21 3 7
9 34 2 17
10 55 5 11
11 89 89
12 144 2
4
3
2

13 233 233
14 377 13 29
15 610 2 5 61
16 987 3 7 47
17 1597 1597
18 2584 2
3
17 19
19 4181 37 113
20 6765 3 5 11 41
21 10946 2 13 421
22 17711 89 199
23 28657 28657
24 46368 2
5
3
2
7 23
25 75025 5
2
3001
26 121393 233 521
27 196418 2 17 53 109
28 317811 3 13 29 281
29 514229 514229
30 832040 2
3
5 11 31 61
31 1346269 557 2417
32 2178309 3 7 47 2207
33 3524578 2 89 19801
34 5702887 1597 3571
35 9227465 5 13 141961
36 14930352 2
4
3
3
17 19 107
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37 24157817 73 149 2221
38 39088169 37 113 9349
39 63245986 2 233 135721
40 102334155 3 5 7 11 41 2161
41 165580141 2789 59369
42 267914296 2
3
13 29 211 421
43 433494437 433494437
44 701408733 3 43 89 199 307
45 1134903170 2 5 17 61 109441
46 1836311903 139 461 28657
47 2971215073 2971215073
48 4807526976 2
6
3
2
7 23 47 1103
49 7778742049 13 97 6168709
50 12586269025 5
2
11 101 151 3001
51 20365011074 2 1597 6376021
52 32951280099 3 233 521 90481
53 53316291173 953 55945741
54 86267571272 2
3
17 19 53 109 5779
55 1,39583862445000000E+11 5 89 661 474541
56 2,25851433717000000E+11 3 7
2
13 29 281 14503
57 3,65435296162000000E+11 2 37 113 797 54833
58 5,91286729879000000E+11 59 19489 514229
59 9,56722026041000000E+11 353 2710260697
60 1,54800875592000000E+12 2
3
3
2
11 31 41 61 2521
61 2,50473078196100000E+12 4513 555003497
62 4,05273953788100000E+12 557 2417 3010349
63 6,55747031984200000E+12 2 13 17 421 35239681
64 1,06102098577230000E+13 3 7 47 1087 2207 4481
65 1,71676801775650000E+13 5 233 14736206161
66 2,77778900352880000E+13 2
3
89 199 9901 19801
67 4,49455702128530000E+13 269 116849 1429913
68 7,27234602481410000E+13 3 67 1597 3571 63443
69 1,17669030460994000E+14 2 137 829 18077 28657
70 1,90392490709135000E+14 5 11 13 29 71 911 141961
71 3,08061521170129000E+14 6673 46165371073
72 4,98454011879264000E+14 2
5
3
3
7 17 19 23 107 103681
73 8,06515533049393000E+14 9375829 86020717
74 , 1304969544928657 73 149 2221 54018521
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1.3.1 TABLE OF THE FREQUENCIES FOR INCREASING PERIODICITY


2 3k
3 4k
3^2 12k
5 5k
2^3 6k
13 7k
7 8k
7^2 56k
17 9k
11 10k
89 11k
2^4 12k
233 13k
29 14k
61 15k
47 16k
1597 17k
19 18k
37, 113 19k
41 20k
421 21k
199 22k
28657 23k
23, 2^5 24k
5^2, 3001 25k
521 26k
53, 109 27k
281 28k
514229 29k
31 30k
557, 2417 31k
2207 32k
19801 33k
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3571 34k
141961 35k
3^3, 107 36k
73, 149, 2221 37k
9349 38k
135721 39k
2162 40k
2789, 59369 41k
211 42k
433494437 43k
43, 307 44k
109441 45k
139, 461 46k
2971215073 47k
2^6, 1103 48k
97, 6168709 49k
101, 151 50k
6376021 51k
90481 52k
953, 55945741 53k
5779 54k
661, 474541 55k
14503 56k
797, 54833 57k
59, 19489 58k
353, 2710260697 59k
2521 60k
4513, 555003497 61k
3010349 62k
35239681 63k
1087, 4481 64k
14736206161 65k
9901 66k
269, 116849, 1429913 67k
67, 63443 68k
137, 829, 18077 69k
71, 911 70k
6673, 46165371073 71k
103681 72k
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9375829, 86020717 73k
54018521 74k



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1.3.2 TABLE OF THE FREQUENCIES FOR P INCREASING


2 3k
3 4k
5 5k
7 8k
11 10k
13 7k
17 9k
19 18k
23 24k
29 14k
31 30k
37, 113 19k
41 20k
43, 307 44k
47 16k
53, 109 27k
59, 19489 58k
61 15k
67, 63443 68k
71, 911 70k
73, 149, 2221 37k
79 78k
83 84k
89 11k
97, 6168709 49k


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1.4 DISTRIBUTION OF THE FIBONACCIS PRIME NUMBERS


Distribution of the Fibonaccis numbers and of the Fibonaccis primes up to 10^n

Table with the initial values:


n 10^n a
Number of F(n)
5n
b
Number of F(n)
primes (indexes)
7n
b/a
Ratio between
the two numbers
1 10 6 4 0,66
2 100 11 12 1,09
3 1000 16 21 1,31
4 10 000 20 26 1,3
5 100 000 25 33 1,32
6 1 000 000 30 43 1,43
.


Indexes = 3, 4, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 23, 29, 43, 47, 83, 131, 137, 359, 431, 433, 449, 509, 569, 571, 2971,
4723, 5387, 9311, 9677, 14431, 25561, 30757, 35999, 37511, 50833 e 81839.


Fibonaccis prime numbers

2, 3, 5, 13, 89, 233, 1597, 28657, 514229, 433494437, 2971215073, 99194853094755497,
1066340417491710595814572169, 19134702400093278081449423917,
475420437734698220747368027166749382927701417016557193662268716376935476241

n 10^n a
Number of F(n)
5n
b
Number of F(n)
primes 1,5 n
a/b
Ratio between
the two numbers
1 10 6 3 2
2 100 11 5 2,2
3 1000 16 6 2,6
4 10 000 20 7 2,8
5 100 000 25 8 3.1
6 1 000 000 30 9 3,3
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.


Here the graph with the two curves F(n) and F(n) primes



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As we can see, the ratio between the two types of numbers grows more and more up to 3,3 which is
obviously also the mean ratio of the respective frequencies: 5/1,5 = 3.33 ... until
10^6 = 1000000; then the Fibonacci primes are becoming increasingly rare, up to 4*10^78 there are in
fact just 15 and the initial mean distribution n*1,5 no longer applies, since up to 10^76 there should be
76*1,5 = 114 Fibonacci primes, and instead there are only 15, about one-eighth of the mean estimate,
in fact 114/15 = 7,6 about 8.
One could introduce a correction constant equal to about n/8, for n numbers higher than 76 in such a
way that (n) primes 1,5 n*n/8 that for n = 79 we will have (1,5*76 )/8 = 114*1,5/8 = 21,375 about 15
real value. The exact ratio is instead 175/15 = 11,4, slightly greater than 8 (not to be confused n of F
(n) with n of 10^n)
For example, for n = 100, we will have 100*1,5 = 150; 150/8 = 18,75, and we would have a real
value of number of Fibonacci primes next to 19, probably very near to the real value, still unknown.
About the curves, the curve of prime numbers of Fibonacci (of course under the curve of Fibonaccis
numbers up to 10^n) will flatten immediately after the first values, since up to 10^76 there are only 15
primes of Fibonacci, an average of one every five powers of 10, because 76/15 = 5,06, while up to
10^6 there are 9, about one in every 9/6 = 1,5 powers of 10
A mean statistical estimate in this sense could be given by the formula
n*1,5/2n, in fact, for n = 6, we have 6*1,5/2*2,44 = 9/4,89 = 1,8, very near to 1,5 powers of 10.
We see now with n = 76
76*1,5/2*8,7 = 114/17,43 = 6,55 very near, for excess, to the mean 5,06 of powers of 10
which contain average a Fibonaccis prime number

Since up to n = 76 there are 11,6 groups of 6,55 powers of 10, 11,6 is a rough estimate, by defect, of
the number of the primes up to 10^76, with the real value 15.

For n = 100, we would have 100*1,5/2*10 = 300/20 = 15, then on average a Fibonaccis prime number
every 15 powers of 10. Since in 100 there are 100/15 = 6,6 groups of 15 powers of 10 we would have
100/6,66 = 15,01 Fibonacci primes, always estimated by defect, but neat to 19 provided with the
previous estimate, i.e. 18,75 about 19 Fibonacci primes up to 10^100.

A better estimate might be the value obtained by this estimate, plus its square root:
n/mean+2n (1)

Examples
For n = 76, 11,6 + 11.6 = 11,6 + 3,40 = 15, fully centered on the real value, 15
For n = 100, 15,01 + 15,01 = 15,01 + 3,87 = 18,88, very near to the previous estimate 18,75

For n = 6, we have instead 6/1,5 +26 = 4 +2*2,44 = 4+4,89 = 8,89 9 real value of Fibonaccis
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prime numbers up to 10^6

As n increases also increases the mean of powers of 10 which contain a prime number of Fibonacci,
and also increases the square root of n and its double, the estimated values with the (1) grow too, and
then the their curve, and this is a great indication of the infinitude of the Fibonaccis prime numbers,
indirect support to the demonstration according to their cyclic factorization.


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1.5 FIBONACCI NUMBERS AND ABC CONJECTURE


If we consider the set of Fibonacci numbers and lets try adding two Fibonacci numbers we see how it
applies in the abc conjecture

8 + 144 = 152

rad (8*144*152) = rad (175.104) = rad (2
10
* 3
2
* 19) = 114 (2 * 3 * 9)

114 < 152



55 + 89 = 144

rad (55*89*144) = rad (704.880) = rad (2
4
* 3
2
* 5 * 11 * 89) = 29.370

29.370 > 144

We have that then the inequality can be > or <


This statement was easily predictable because chosen any two Fibonacci numbers their sum can never
take any integer or also more limited if we choose an even as a sum of two odd Fibonacci numbers.

In fact, for example the first even integer that cannot derive by the sum of two odd numbers of
Fibonacci, but only by three Fibonacci numbers:

12 = 8 + 2 + 2

We note that 152 is divisible for 8 and 144 is divisible for 24 and 8 and 24 are connected with the
modes that correspond to the physical vibrations of a superstring and of a bosonic string by the
following Ramanujan functions:

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( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
3
1
8
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

,



( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
24
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

.



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2. PYTHAGOREAN TRIPLE AND ABC CONJECTURE


A Pythagorean triple consists of three positive integers a, b, and c, such that a
2
+ b
2
= c
2
.

Lets apply also in this case with the abc conjecture


rad (
2
a
2
b
2
c ) < or >
2
c


In Pythagorean triples we can also find that none of the three numbers a, b and c are prime (example:
16, 63, 65) and that and that a cathetus (a or b) is always a multiple of 4.
Then the inequality may be > or <, we do not know before we calculate it.

For example:

2
5 +
2
12 =
2
13

rad (25*144*169) = 2*3*5*13 = 390 > 169

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2
7 +
2
24 =
2
25

rad (49*576*625) = 2*3*5*7 = 210 < 625

But in this case we have

rad (abc) < c


This derives from the fact that we cannot randomly choose three positive integers a, b and c so always
worth the Pythagorean theorem!


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In fact for generating a Pythagorean triple we must use Euclid's formula.
Given an arbitrary pair of positive integers m and n with m > n. The formula states that the integers

2 2
n m a = , mn b 2 = ,
2 2
n m c + =
form a Pythagorean triple.



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3. PYTHAGOREAN QUADRUPLES AND ABC
CONJECTURE EXTENDED

A set of four positive integers a, b, c and d such that a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
+ d
2
= z
2
is called a Pythagorean
quadruple. The simplest example is (1, 2, 2, 3), since 1
2
+ 2
2
+ 2
2
= 3
2
. The next simplest (primitive)
example is (2, 3, 6, 7), since 2
2
+ 3
2
+ 6
2
= 7
2
.

Lets apply also in this case with the abc conjecture extended

a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
= z
2


rad (
2
a
2
b
2
c
2
z ) < or >
2
z

Then the inequality may be > or <, we do not know before we calculate it.

The first three examples give the sign of the inequality of <, that are exceptions and the fourth
example gives as a sign of inequality of >


1
2
+ 2
2
+ 2
2
= 3
2


rad (1*4*4*9) = 2*3 = 6 < 9

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2
2
+ 3
2
+ 6
2
= 7
2


rad (4*9*36*49) = 2*3*7 =42 < 49

But in this case we have

rad (abc) < c

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

7
2
+ 14
2
+ 22
2
= 27
2


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rad (49*196*484*729) = 2*3*7*11 = 462 < 729

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

fourth example:


4
2
+ 8
2
+ 19
2
= 21

rad (16*64*361*441) = 2*3*7*19 = 798 > 441



This derives from the fact that we cannot randomly choose four positive integers a, b, c and z so
always worth the Pythagorean quadruple!



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3.1 PROOF OF PYTHAGOREAN QUADRUPLES


In fact for generating a Pythagorean quadruple we can use this formula.
Thus, all primitive Pythagorean quadruples are characterized by the Lebesgue Identity
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 q p n m mp nq np mq q p n m + + + + = + + + .

From this formula we see that two sides are always even

( ) np mq b + = 2 ,
( ) mp nq c = 2 ,

while the other side and the longer side of all (for that Pythagoras would be the hypotenuse) may be
prime numbers or the one or the other or both.

a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
= z
2


It follows that the radical

rad (
2
a
2
b
2
c
2
z ) = rad (abcz)

cannot be simplified because a, b and c can never be all prime numbers.

Consequently the sign of the inequality may be > or <, we do not know before we calculate it.


This shows that in the set of Pythagorean quadruple, we cannot cover the entire set entire set of natural
numbers N + because the sign of the radical inequality can be < or >.



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4. TRIBONACCI NUMBERS AND ABC CONJECTURE
EXTENDED


The tribonacci numbers are like the Fibonacci numbers, but instead of starting with two
predetermined terms, the sequence starts with three predetermined terms and each term afterwards is
the sum of the preceding three terms. The first few tribonacci numbers are:
0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 4, 7, 13, 24, 44, 81, 149, 274, 504, 927, 1705, 3136, 5768, 10609, 19513, 35890,
66012, .


The tribonacci constant

3
33 3 19 33 3 19 1
3 3
+ + +
= 1,8939286
is the ratio toward which adjacent tribonacci numbers tend. It is a root of the polynomial
x
3
x
2
x 1, approximately 1.83929 and also satisfies the equation x + x
3
= 2. It is important in the
study of the snub cube, thats an Archimedean solid with 38 faces: 6 squares and 32 equilateral
triangles. It has 60 edges and 24 vertices.
When calculating its volume appears the tribonacci constant


Lets apply also in this case with the abc conjecture extended

4 + 24 + 44 = 72

rad (4*24*44*72) = 2*3*11 = 66 < 72

Also here, we note that have the two numbers 24 and 72 = 24 * 3, thence the number related to the
modes corresponding to the physical vibrations of the bosonic strings by the following Ramanujan
function:

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( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
24
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2 + 7 + 13 = 22

rad (2*7*13*22) = 2*7*11*13 = 2002 > 22
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4.1 PROOF OF TRIBONACCI NUMBERS


We can also choose as the sum of three prime numbers that give an odd number or a prime number

a + b + c = z

Here's an example with 4 primes
7 + 13 + 149 = 163
rad (7*13*149*163) = 2210117 > 163

In this case we have with a, b and c primes

rad (abcz) = abc rad(z) > abc

and always

abc > z

But we have seen that the sign of the inequality may be > or <, we do not know before we calculate it.

This shows that in the set of Tribonacci numbers, we cannot cover the entire set entire set of natural
numbers N + because the sign of the radical inequality can be < or >.


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5. TRIANGULAR NUMBERS AND ABC CONJECTURE
EXTENDED


A triangular number or triangle number counts the objects that can form an equilateral triangle. The
nth triangle number is the number of dots composing a triangle with n dots on a side, and is equal to
the sum of the n natural numbers from 1 to n. The sequence of triangular starting at the 0
th
triangular
triangle, is:
0, 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, 55, 66, 78, 91, 105, 120 ....
The triangle numbers are given by the following explicit formulas:

( )

=
|
|

\
| +
=
+
= + + + + = =
n
k
n
n
n n
n k T
1
2
1
2
1
... 3 2 1
Even if we choose the set of triangular numbers and apply the abc conjecture we obtain the same
results as the Pythagorean triples and Fibonacci numbers.
Moreover, for the triangular numbers we already know from German mathematician Carl Friedrich
Gauss discovered that every positive integer is representable as a sum of at most three triangular
numbers, writing in his diary his famous words, " num = + + ".
Note that this theorem does not imply that the triangular numbers are different (as in the case of
20=10+10), nor that a solution with three nonzero triangular numbers must exist.


Lets apply the abc conjecture extended.

We have, for example, choosing the triangular numbers 36 and 300

36 + 300 = 336

rad (36*300*336) = rad (3.628.800) rad ((2
8
* 3
4
* 5
2
* 7) = 210

210 < 336

In almost all other cases, we have instead


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rad (abc) > c

We have that then the inequality can be > or <

This statement was also easily predictable because chosen any two triangular numbers their sum can
never take any integer or also more limited if we choose an even number as a sum of two odd
triangular numbers.

In fact, for example the first even integer that cannot derive by the sum of two odd triangular numbers,
but only by three triangular numbers:

8 = 6 + 1 + 1

This shows that in the set of triangular numbers, we cannot cover the entire set entire set of natural
numbers N + because the sign of the radical inequality can be < or >.



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6. N 1 OR N NTH POWERS SUMMING TO AN NTH
POWER AND ABC CONJECTURE EXTENDED


Another generalization is searching for sequences of n + 1 positive integers for which the n
th
power of
the last is the sum of the n
th
powers of the previous terms. The smallest sequences for known values of
n are:
n = 3: {3, 4, 5; 6}.
n = 4: {30, 120, 272, 315; 353}
n = 5: {19, 43, 46, 47, 67; 72}
n = 7: {127, 258, 266, 413, 430, 439, 525; 568}
n = 8: {90, 223, 478, 524, 748

There can also exist n 1 positive integers whose n
th
powers sum to an n
th
power (though, by
Fermats last theorem, not for n = 3); these are counterexamples to Eulers sum of powers conjecture.
The smallest known counterexamples are
n = 4: (95800, 217519, 414560; 422481)
n = 5: (27, 84, 110, 133; 144)

Lets apply the abc conjecture extended.

We have, for example, by n =3 and 2 primes
n = 3: {3, 4, 5; 6}.
27 + 64 +125 = 216

rad (27*64*125*216) = 2*3*5 = 30 < 216

This is an exception

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Example with 4 primes:

(3,1,3): 709=631+461+193
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7189057 + 97972181 + 251239591= 356400829

rad (7189057*97972181*251239591*356400829) = 193*461*631*709 = 39.804.651.767 >
356.400.829


So the sign of the inequality may be > or <, we do not know before we calculate it.

This shows that in the set of sequences of 4 positive integers for which the 3
th
power of the last is the
sum of the 3
th
powers of the previous terms, we cannot cover the entire set entire set of natural
numbers N + because the sign of the radical inequality can be < or >.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Another sequence with no primes:
n = 5: (27, 84, 110, 133; 144)

14348907 + 4182119424 +16105100000 + 41615795893 = 61917364224

rad (1434890*4182119424*16105100000*41615795893*61917364224) = 2*3*5*7*11*19 = 43890 <
61.917.364.224

This is an exception

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Another sequence with no primes:

(5,1,4): 85359=85282+28969+3183+55

503284375 + 326725621763716143 + 20401754572881571915849 + 4511146005966249681574432
= 4531548087264753520490799

rad(503284375*326725621763716143*20401754572881571915849*4511146005966249681574432*
4531548087264753520490799) = 2*3*5*11*37*59*491*769*1061*42641 =
12.306.038.584.733.736.810 < 4.531.548.087.264.753.520.490.799

This is an exception
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-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


n = 4: (95800, 217519, 414560; 422481) with one prime 217519

84229075969600000000 + 2238663363846304960321 + 29535857400192040960000 =
31858749840007945920321

rad(84229075969600000000*2238663363846304960321*29535857400192040960000*31858749840
007945920321) = 2*3*5*479*2591*140827*217519 = 1.140.531.558.873.718.710 <
31.858.749.840.007.945.920.321

This is an exception

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(4,1,3) 145087793=122055375+121952168+1841160

11491219604030165199360000 + 2,2118623769909863494842339525018e+32 +
2,2193594025582085161084008789063e+32 = 25488497887618394389866690

Rad
(11491219604030165199360000*2,2118623769909863494842339525018e+32*2,219359402558208
5161084008789063e+32*4,431221894461390905894286825008e+32 =
2*3*5*13*67*229*271*4327*25037*145087793 = 25488497887618394389866690 <
25488497887618394389866690

This is an exception



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By induction we can NEVER know a priori the sign of the radical inequality for any sequences of k
positive integers for which the n
th
power of the last is the sum of the n
th
powers of the previous terms.




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7. PROOF OF GOLDBACH'S CONJECTURE


Goldbach's conjecture is a conjecture that states:
Every even integer greater than 2 can be expressed as the sum of two primes (that may be also
equal)
Goldbach was a German mathematician and his problem resists well as 271 years and is also part of
the eighth Hilbert problem still unresolved!
For example,
4 = 2 + 2
6 = 3 + 3
8 = 3 + 5
10 = 3 + 7 = 5 + 5
12 = 5 + 7
14 = 3 + 11 = 7 + 7
and so on

Lets now consider the conjecture abc and apply to the sum of 2 primes that give an even number.

The abc conjecture states in terms of three positive integers, a, b and c (hence the name), which have
no common factor and satisfy a + b = c. If d denotes the product of the distinct prime factors of abc,
the conjecture essentially states that d is usually not much smaller than c. In other words: if a and b are
divisible by large powers of primes, then c is usually not divisible by large powers of primes.

So we need to introduce the concept of radical for d
For a positive integer n, the radical of n, denoted rad(n), is the product of the distinct prime factors of
n. For example:
rad(16) = rad(2
4
) = 2
rad(17) = 1
rad(18) = rad(23
2
) = 23 = 6
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Lets apply it to the case of Goldbach:


If we take two different primes a and b we have:

rad (abc) > c

if we write

a + b = 2n

we can write

rad (abc) = ab rad(c) > c

for n > 3


PROOF:

In our case the inequality is even stronger.
In fact we have

rad (abc) = ab rad (c) > ab

ab > c

we can even neglect rad (c) for n > 3 and so we have

ab > 2n

ab >
h
2
j
p
1
k
p
2
.
z
n
p

This inequality is always true because the product of two different prime numbers a * b is
always greater than the sum of two prime numbers a + b

a*b > a + b = c

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Only for n = 2 and n = 3 we have that the sign of the inequality is < for n = 2 and = for n = 3 and we
must consider the full radical rad (abc), see the examples that follows.
This happens simply because when we add 2 prime numbers that are equal to each other the sign of
inequality is =, except the case 2 +2 = 4 where the sign of inequality is <

If a=b

a + a = c = 2a

rad (a*a*2a) = rad (2a
3
) =2a

We must consider the full radical rad (abc) and not the simplified rad (abc) = ab rad(c) > c, where a
and b are different primes.

In other words the inequality is always true and is > if the two primes a and b are different and
is = if the two primes are equal a = b, except the case 2 + 2.

rad (abc) c




CVD



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8. PROOF OF THE WEAK GOLDACH CONJECTURE


The conjecture seen before is called strong -to distinguish it from a weaker corollary. The strong
Goldbach conjecture that implies the weak conjecture that all odd numbers greater than 7 are the
sum of three odd primes.
Since we have shown that the strong conjecture is true, it follows that the weak Goldbach conjecture
will be true by implication.

In fact any odd number can be written as a sum.

u = (u 3) +3

The term (u 3) , which is even, can be written as a sum of two primes (a and b) after the strong
Goldbach's conjecture.
Accordingly then just add 3 and we get all the odd numbers as the sum of 3 odd primes for u > 7


In fact if we apply the abc extended conjecture as

a + b +c = d

with a, b and c primes

rad (abcd) > d

PROOF:

rad (abcd) = abc rad (d) > abc

if a, b and c are different primes

we can even neglect rad (d) and so we have

abc > d

This inequality is always true because the product of three prime numbers a * b * c is always
greater than the sum of three prime numbers a + b + c

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abc > a + b +c = d

If we choose 3 primes all equal to each other a = b =c the sign of the inequality is =

a + a + a = 3a

rad (a*a*a*3*a) = 3a


and only for a =3 we have the sign of inequality <

In other words the inequality of abc extended conjecture is always true and is > if the three
primes a b and c are different and is = if the three primes are equal a = b = c, except the case 3 +
3 + 3.

rad (abcd) d



CVD


Example:

The first odd number is 9 (u > 7)

3 + 3 + 3 = 9

rad (3*3*3*9) = rad (3
5
) = 3 < 9

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The second odd number is 11

3 +3 +5 = 11

rad (3*3*5*11) = rad (3
2
*5*11) = 165 > 11

In all other cases, with a, b and c different primes the inequality of abc extended with the sign
> is always valid and true.

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9. CONCLUSIONS


Randomly selected three positive integers a, b and c for Pythagorean triple or we choose any two
Fibonacci numbers or we choose any two triangular numbers we dont cover the full set of the natural
numbers N
+
and so the abc conjecture does not guarantee if the inequality.

rad (abc) > c
or
rad (abc) = c

and we dont know which is the sign of inequality before calculating.


Only in the case of the sum of 2 primes we are guaranteed that

rad (abc) = ab rad(c) > c

or better, as we have seen

ab > 2n

for n > 2

This shows that any chosen two prime numbers their sum covering the entire set of numbers of
even natural numbers 2n
Similarly, in other words, we can say that any chosen set of numbers with certain rules, the abc
conjecture gives a sign for inequality rad (abc) <, > or = c
Instead, if we choose the set of prime numbers that has no rule prediction of the next prime and
are therefore completely random and not subject to any rule, we have that the sum of two primes
in the abc conjecture is always

rad (abc) > c

always for any a and b primes

CVD


With regard the Fibonaccis numbers (the Fibonacci sequence is:
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0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, ....)
we remember that if a Fibonacci number is divided by its immediate predecessor in the sequence, the
quotient approximates (the golden ratio); for example., 987/610 1.6180327868852. These
approximations are alternately lower and higher than , and converge on as the Fibonacci numbers
increase. With regard the mathematical connection with the string theory, we recall the following
Ramanujan functions:



( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
3
1
8
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

, (1)



( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
24
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

. (2)

Palumbo and Nardelli (2005) have compared a simple model of the birth and of the evolution of the
Universe with the theory of the strings, and translated it in terms of the latter obtaining:

( ) ( )

=
(

g f G G Tr g g
G
R
g x d
2
1
8
1
16
26

( ) ( )

+ =
0
2
2 2
10
2
10
2
3
2 2 / 1 10
2
10
~
2
1
4
2
1
F Tr
g
H R e G x d

, (3)

A general relationship that links bosonic and fermionic strings acting in all natural systems.
It is well-known that the series of Fibonaccis numbers exhibits a fractal character, where the forms
repeat their similarity starting from the reduction factor / 1 = 0,618033 =
2
1 5
(Peitgen et al.
1986). Such a factor appears also in the famous fractal Ramanujan identity (Hardy 1927):

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|
|

\
|

+
+
+ =

= =

q
t
dt
t f
t f
q R
0
5 / 4 5 / 1
5
) (
) (
5
1
exp
2
5 3
1
5
) (
2
1 5
/ 1 618033 , 0 , (4)

and
(
(
(
(
(

|
|

\
|

+
+
+ =

q
t
dt
t f
t f
q R
0
5 / 4 5 / 1
5
) (
) (
5
1
exp
2
5 3
1
5
) (
20
3
2 , (5)

where
2
1 5 +
= .

Furthermore, we remember that arises also from the following identities (Ramanujans paper:
Modular equations and approximations to Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, 45 (1914), 350-372.):

( )( )
(

+ +
=
2
13 3 5 2
log
130
12
, (5a) and
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+
=
4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
142
24
. (5b)

From (5b), we have that


(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+
=
4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
142
24

. (5c)

The introduction of (4) and (5) in (3) provides:

( )
( ) ( )

|
|
|
|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|

+
+
+



f G G Tr g g
t
dt
t f
t f
q R
G
R
g x d
q
8
1
) (
5
1
exp
2
5 3
1
5
) (
20
3
2
1
16
0
5 / 4 5 / 1
5
26

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]

g
2
1
=
(
(
(
(
(

|
|

\
|

+
+
+

q
t
dt
t f
t f
q R
R
0
5 / 4 5 / 1
5
0
2
11
) (
) (
5
1
exp
2
5 3
1
5
) (
20
3
2

( ) [

Tr
Rg
t
dt
t f
t f
q R
H R e G x d
q
2
10
0
5 / 4 5 / 1
5
2
11
2
3
2 2 / 1 10
2
) (
) (
5
1
exp
2
5 3
1
5
) (
20
3
2
~
2
1
4
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|

+
+
+
+

( ) ]
2
2
F , (6)

which is the translation of (3) in the terms of the Theory of the Numbers, specifically the possible
connection between the Ramanujan identity and the relationship concerning the Palumbo-Nardelli
model.
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References all on this web site http://nardelli.xoom.it/virgiliowizard/

1) IL CONCETTO MATEMATICO DI ABBONDANZA E IL RELATIVO
GRAFICO PER LA RH1
Francesco Di Noto, Michele Nardelli (Gruppo B. Riemann)


2) NOVITA SULLA CONGETTURA DEBOLE DI GOLDBACH
Gruppo B.Riemann
Francesco Di Noto,Michele Nardelli
3)Appunti sulla congettura abc
Gruppo B. Riemann*
*Gruppo amatoriale per la ricerca matematica sui numeri primi, sulle loro congetture e sulle loro
connessioni con le teorie di stringa
Francesco Di Noto, Michele Nardelli

4) I numeri primoriali p# alla base della dimostrazione definitiva della congettura di Goldbach
(nuove evidenze numeriche)
Francesco Di Noto, Michele Nardelli
5) ESTENSIONI DELLE CONGETTURE,FORTE E DEBOLE, DI GOLDBACH
(a k = primi , con N e k entrambi pari o dispari)
Gruppo B. Riemann*
Francesco Di Noto, Michele Nardelli
*Gruppo amatoriale per la ricerca matematica sui numeri primi, sulle loro congetture e sulle loro
connessioni con le teorie di stringa.


6) IPOTESI SULLA VERITA DELLE CONGETTURE SUI NUMERI PRIMI CON
GRAFICI COMET E CONTRO ESEMPI NULLI
(Legendre, Goldbach, Riemann)
Michele Nardelli ,Francesco Di Noto,