Notes by B.K.

Sridhar, NIE, Mysore

CHAPTER II
MATHEMATICAL MODELING
2.1 Introduction: In chapter I we have learnt the basic concepts of control systems such
as open loop and feed back control systems, different types of Control systems like
regulator systems, follow-up systems and servo mechanisms. We have also discussed a
few simple applications.
The requirements of an ideal control system are many and depend on the system under
consideration. Major requirements are 1) Stability 2) Accuracy and 3) Speed of
Response. An ideal control system would be stable, would provide absolute accuracy
(maintain zero error despite disturbances) and would respond instantaneously to a change
in the reference variable. Such a system cannot, of course, be produced. However, study
of automatic control system theory would provide the insight necessary to make the most
effective compromises so that the engineer can design the best possible system.
2.2 Modeling of Control Systems: The first step in the design and the analysis of control
system is to build physical and mathematical models. A control system being a collection
of several physical systems (sub systems) which may be of mechanical, electrical
electronic, thermal, hydraulic or pneumatic type. No physical system can be represented
in its full intricacies. Idealizing assumptions are always made for the purpose of analysis
and synthesis. An idealized representation of physical system is called a Physical Model.

1
Control systems being dynamic systems in nature require a quantitative mathematical
description of the system for analysis. This process of obtaining the desired mathematical
description of the system is called Mathematical Modeling. The basic models of dynamic
physical systems are differential equations obtained by the application of appropriate
laws of nature. Having obtained the differential equations and where possible the
numerical values of parameters, one can proceed with the analysis.
Usually control systems are complex. As a first approximation a simplified model is built
to get a general feeling for the solution. However, improved model which can give better
accuracy can then be obtained for a complete analysis. Compromise has to be made
between simplicity of the model and accuracy. It is difficult to consider all the details for
mathematical analysis. Only most important features are considered to predict behaviour
of the system under specified conditions.

2.3 Modeling of Mechanical Systems: Mechanical systems can be idealized as spring-
mass-damper systems and the governing differential equations can be obtained on the
basis of Newtons second law of motion, which states that
F = ma: for rectilinear motion
T = I : for rotary motion
2
Sign Convention: Forces and torques in the direction of motion are positive
Translational Systems:
(i) Spring mass system:
kx
(ii)
Friction less
(iii) Spring mass damper system:
3
m
F = ma
m x = - kx
mx + kx = 0


..
..
x
m
k
m
x
kx
mx + kx = 0
..
m
x
m
k
c
x
k x (Spring Force)
c x (damping Force)
.
mx = - c x kx
(iv) Spring Mass Damper System
In the system shown a provision is made for an input displacement x at the top of the
spring corresponding to which the mass is responding with a displacement of y.
Let y > x

4
.. .
mx + c x + kx = 0
.. .
m
X (Input)
Y (Response)
m
K(y)-x)
c y
.
m
kx
c y
.
ky
From NSL
my = - k (y-x) - c y
.. .
my + c y + ky = kx
.. .
c
k
CHAPTER VI
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
6.1 Introduction
We have discussed about the system response to step and ramp input in time domain
earlier in Chapter 3. When input signals are frequency dependent, frequency response
assume greater importance. In such systems the time domain analysis is difficult from the
design point of view.
Frequency response of a control system refers to the steady state response of a system
subject to sinusoidal input of fixed (constant) amplitude but frequency varying over a
specific range, usually from 0 to . For linear systems the frequency of input and output
signal remains the same, while the ratio of magnitude of output signal to the input signal
and phase between two signals may change. Frequency response analysis is a
complimentary method to time domain analysis (step and ramp input analysis). It deals
with only steady state and measurements are taken when transients have disappeared.
Hence frequency response tests are not generally carried out for systems with large time
constants.
The frequency response information can be obtained either by analytical methods or by
experimental methods, if the system exits. The concept and procedure is illustrated in
Figure 6.1 (a) in which a linear system is subjected to a sinusoidal input. I(t) = a Sin t
and the corresponding output is O(t) = b Sin ( t + ) as shown in Figure 6.1 (b).
5
Figure 6.1 (a) Figure 6.1 (b)
The following quantities are very important in frequency response analysis.
M ( ) = b/a = ratio of amplitudes = Magnitude ratio or Magnification factor or gain.
( ) = = phase shift or phase angle
These factors when plotted in polar co-ordinates give polar plot, or when plotted in
rectangular co-ordinates give rectangular plot which depict the frequency response
characteristics of a system over entire frequency range in a single plot.
6.2 Frequency Response Data
The following procedure can be adopted in obtaining data analytically for frequency
response analysis.
1. Obtain the transfer function of the system
) (
) (
) (
S I
S O
S F
, Where F (S) is transfer function, O(S) and I(S) are the Laplace
transforms of the output and input respectively.
2. Replace S by (j ) (As S is a complex number)
) (
) (
) (

j I
j O
j F
) ( ) (
) (
) (

j B A
j I
j O
+
(another complex number)
3. For various values of , ranging from 0 to determine M ( ) and .

jB A j B A
j I
j O
M + + ) ( ) (
) (
) (
) (

6
2 2
B A M +
jB A
j I
j O
+
) (
) (

A
B
1
tan


4. Plot the results from step 3 in polar co-ordinates or rectangular co-ordinates.
These plots are not only convenient means for presenting frequency response data but
are also serve as a basis for analytical and design methods.
6.3 Comparison between Time Domain and Frequency Domain Analysis
An interesting and revealing comparison of frequency and time domain approaches is
based on the relative stability studies of feedback systems. The Rouths criterion is a time
domain approach which establishes with relative ease the stability of a system, but its
adoption to determine the relative stability is involved and requires repeated application
of the criterion. The Root Locus method is a very powerful time domain approach as it
reveals not only stability but also the actual time response of the system. On the other
hand, the Nyquist criterion (discussed later in this Chapter) is a powerful frequency
domain method of extracting the information regarding stability as well as relative
stability of a system without the need to evaluate roots of the characteristic equation.
6.4 Graphical Methods to Represent Frequency Response Data
Two graphical techniques are used to represent the frequency response data. They are: 1)
Polar plots 2) Rectangular plots.
6.5 Polar Plot
7
The frequency response data namely magnitude ratio M( ) and phase angle ( ) when
represented in polar co-ordinates polar plots are obtained. The plot is plotted in complex
plane shown in Figure 6.2. It is also called Nyquist plot. As is varied the magnitude
and phase angle change and if the magnitude ratio M is plotted for varying phase angles,
the locus obtained gives the polar plot. It is easier to construct a polar plot and ready
information of magnitude ratio and phase angle can be obtained.
Figure 6.2: Complex Plane Representation
A typical polar plot is shown in Figure 6.3 in which the magnitude ratio M and phase
angle at a given value of can be readily obtained.

8
M

Real
Img
0, + 360, -360
+90, -270
+180, -180
+270, -90
Positive angles
Negative angles
Figure 6.3: A Typical Polar Plot
6.6 Rectangular Plot
The frequency response data namely magnitude ratio M( ) and phase angle ( ) can
also be presented in rectangular co-ordinates and then the plots are referred as Bode plots
which will be discussed in Chapter 7.
6.7 Illustrations on Polar Plots: Following examples illustrate the procedure followed in
obtaining the polar plots.
Illustration 1: A first order mechanical system is subjected to a input x(t). Obtain the
polar plot, if the time constant of the system is 0.1 sec.

9
x (t) (input)
y (t) (output)
C

K
Transfer function F(S) =
1
1
) (
) (
+

S S X
S Y

Given = 0.1 sec

S S S X
S Y
1 . 0 1
1
1 1 . 0
1
) (
) (
+

To obtain the polar plot (i.e., frequency response data) replace S by j .

) 1 . 0 ( 1
1
1 1 . 0
1
) (
) (

j j j X
j Y
+

Magnification Factor M =
) 1 . 0 ( 1
) 0 ( 1
) 1 . 0 ( 1
1
) (
) (

j
j
j j X
j Y
+
+

2
) 1 . 0 ( 1
1
+
M
Phase angle =
) 1 . 0 1 ( ) 0 ( 1 ) (
) (
) (

+ + j Xj j Y
j X
j Y
) 1 . 0 ( tan
1
0
tan
1 1



,
_

) 1 . 0 ( tan
1



10
Governing Differential Equation:
Kx Ky
dt
dy
C + .
by K
x y
dt
dy
K
C
+ .
x y
dt
dy
+ .
Take Laplace transform
SY(S) + Y(S) = X(S)
(S+1) Y(S) = X(S)
Now obtain the values of M and for different values of ranging from 0 to as
given in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Frequency Response Data

2
) 1 . 0 ( 1
1
+
M
) 1 . 0 ( tan
1



0 1.00 0
2 0.98 -11.13
4 0.928 -21.8
5 0.89 -26.6
6 0.86 -30.9
10 0.707 -45
20 0.45 -63.4
40 0.24 -76
50 0.196 -78.69
100 0.099 -84.29
0 -90
The data from Table 6.1 when plotted on the complex plane with as a parameter polar
plot is obtained as given below.
Illustration 2: A second order system has a natural frequency of 10 rad/sec and a
damping ratio of 0.5. Sketch the polar plot for the system.
11

= 6
= 50
= 20
The transfer function of the system is given by
2 2
2
2
) (
) (
n n
n
S S
S X
S Y

+ +
Given
n
= 10 rad/sec and = 0.5
100 10
100
) (
) (
2
+ +

S S S X
S Y

Replace S by j
100 10
) 0 ( 100
100 10 ) (
100
) (
) (
2 2
+ +
+

+ +

j
j
j j j X
j Y
as 1 j
2 2 2
2
2
) 10 ( ) 100 (
100
) 10 ( ) 100 (
) 0 ( 100
) (
) (

+
+

j
j
j X
j Y
M
Magnification Factor =
2 2 2
) 10 ( ) 100 (
100
+
M
Phase angle =
) 10 ( ) 100 ( ) 0 ( 100
) 10 ( ) 100 (
) 0 ( 100
2
2


j j
j
j
+ +
+
+

,
_

,
_

2
1 1
100
10
tan
100
0
tan

Now obtain the values of M and for various value of ranging from 0 to as given
in the following Table 6.2.
12
m
x (Input)
y (Response)
C
K
Table 6.2 Frequency Response Data: Illustration 2
M( )
0 1.00 0.0
2 1.02 -11.8
5 1.11 -33.7
8 1.14 -65.8
10 1.00 -90.0
12 0.78 -110.1
15 0.51 -129.8
20 0.28 -146.3
40 0.06 -165.1
70 0.02 -171.7
0.00 -180.0
The data from Table 6.2 when plotted on the complex plane with as a parameter polar
plot is obtained as given below.
Note: The polar plot intersects the imaginary axis at a frequency equal to the natural
frequency of the system =
n
= 10 rad/sec.
Illustration 3: Obtain the polar plot for the transfer function
) 1 (
10
) (
+

S
S F
Replace S by j
13
1
10
) (
+

j
j F
1
10
) ( ) (
2
+

j F M
( ) = F (j ) = 10 - (j +1)
1
tan
1

Table 6.3 Frequency Response Data: Illustration 3
M( )
0 1.00 0
0.2 9.8 -11
0.4 9.3 -21
0.6 8.6 -31
0.8 7.8 -39
2.0 4.5 -63
3.0 3.2 -72
4.0 2.5 -76
5.0 1.9 -79
10 0.99 -84
0.00 -90
Polar plot for Illustration 3
14
=
M( ) = 0
6.8 Guidelines to Sketch Polar Plots
Polar plots for some typical transfer function can be sketched on the following guidelines.
I
) (
) (
) )( (
S F jB A
jf e
jd c jb a
+
+
+ +
--- (Transfer function)
Magnitude Ratio =
2 2
2 2 2 2
*
f e
d c b a
jf e
jd c jb a
M
+
+ +

+
+ +

Phase angle:
( )( )
( )
) ( ) ( ) ( jf e jd c jb a
jf e
jd c jb a
+ + + +
1
]
1

+
+ +

e
f
c
d
a
b
1 1 1
tan tan tan

+
II Values of tan functions
IQ: tan
-1
(b/a) Positive:
IIQ: tan
-1
(b/-a) Negative: 180 -
IIIQ: tan
-1
(-b/-a) Positive: 180 +
IVQ: tan
-1
(-b/a) Negative: 360 -
tan
-1
(0) = 0
0
tan
-1
(-0) =180
0
tan
-1
(1) = 45
0
tan
-1
(-1) = 135
0
tan
-1
() = 90
0
tan
-1
(-) = 270
0
15
Real
Img
IQ
IIQ
IIIQ IVQ
(a+jb)
(-a-jb)
(a-jb)
(-a+jb)
III Let K = Constant
= K + j(0)
Therefore K K K +
2 2
0 Applicable for both K>0 and K<0
K = (K+ j0)
= tan
-1
(0/K)
= tan
-1
(0) = 0, if K>0
= tan
-1
(-0) = 180
0
, if K<0
IV: S
n
= (j )
n
= (0+j )
n
= (0+j ) (0+j ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . n times
a. Magnitude
) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) ( j j j S
n n
+ +
. . . . . . . . . . . . . n times
2 2
0 ( ) 0 ( + + . . . . . . . . . . . . . n times
Therefore S
n
=
n
b. Angle
+ + + + ) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) ( j j j S
n n
. . . . . . . . . . . . n times
16
Real
Img
K+j0 -K+j0
= tan
-1
( /0) + tan
-1
( /0)+ . . . . . . . . . . . . n times
= 90
0
+ 90
0
+ . . . . . . . . . . . . n times
S
n
= n * 90
0
Illustration 4: Sketch the polar plot for the system represented by the following open loop
transfer function.
) 2 )( 10 (
10
) ( ) (
+ +

S S S
S H S G
, obtain M and for different values of
i) As
0 , 0 S j S


0
5 . 0 5 . 0
2 * 10 *
10
) ( ) (
0
S S
S H S G
S
S 5 . 0
0
90 0
0
90
ii) As
S ,

0
10
) )( (
10
) ( ) (
3


S S S S
S H S G
S
3
10 S
0
270 90 * 3 0
17

Illustration 5: Sketch the polar plots for the system represented by the following open
loop transfer function.
M(
)
( )
0 -90
0

0 -270
0
18
Real
Img
0
-90
-180
-270
= , M = 0
= 0, M =
) 5 (
) ( ) (
2
+

S S
K
S H S G
i) As
0 , 0 S j S
, S is far lesser than 5 and can be neglected
2 2
5 /
5 S
K
S
K


n
K
S
K
M

2
5 /
) (
2
5 /
) (
S
K

2
) 5 / ( S K = 0 2*90 = 0 180 = - 180
0
ii) As
S ,
3 2
) 5 (
) ( ) (
S
K
S S
K
S H S G
S

+

0 ) (
3 3

K
S
K
M
3
) ( S K
= 0 - 3*90 = - 270
0
19
) 5 (
) ( ) (
2
0
0
+

S S
K
S H S G
S

M(
)
( )
0 -180
0

0 -270
0
20
Real
Img
0
-90
-180
-270
= , M = 0 = 0, M =
Illustration 6: Sketch the polar plots for the system represented by the following open
loop transfer function.
) 8 )( 5 (
10
) ( ) (
2
+ +

S S S
S H S G
i) As
0 , 0 S j S
2 2
0
0
4 / 1
8 . 5 .
1 0
) ( ) (
S S
S H S G
S

0
4 / 1 4 / 1 4 / 1
) (
2 2

S
M
2
4 / 1 ) ( S
= 0 - 2*90
= - 2*90
0
= 180
0
ii) As
S ,
4 2
1 0
. .
1 0
) ( ) (
S S S S
S H S G
S

4 4
10 10
) (

S
M
as

, M ( ) = 0
21
4
10 ) ( S
= 0 4*90 = - 360
0

Illustration 7: Sketch the polar plots for the system represented by the following open
loop transfer function.
) 5 )( 4 (
) 2 ( 10
) ( ) (
3
+ +
+

S S S
S
S H S G
i) As
0 , 0 S j S
M(
)
( )
0 -180
0

0 -360
0
22
Real
Img
0, -360
-90
-180
-270
= , M = 0
= 0, M =
) 5 ) ( 4 (
) 2 ( 1 0
) ( ) (
3
0
0
+ +
+

S S S
S
S H S G
S

3 3
1
5 . 4 .
2 . 10
S S


3 3
1 1
) (

S
M
3
1 ) ( S = 0 3*90 = - 270
0
ii) As
S ,
4 3
1 0
) . .
. 1 0
) ( ) (
S S S S
S
S H S G
S

0
10 10
) (
4 4

S
M
4
10 ) ( S = 0 4*90 = -360
0
23
Img -270

M(
)
( )
0 -270
0

0 -360
0
24
Real
0, -360
-90
-180
= , M = 0
= 0, M =
Illustration 8: Sketch the polar plots for the system represented by the following open
loop transfer function.
) 4 )( 2 (
10
) ( ) (
+

S S S
S H S G
i) As
0 , 0 S j S
S S
S H S G
S
8 / 1 0
4 ) . 2 (
1 0
) ( ) (
0
0

8 / 10 8 / 10
) (
S
M
S 8 / 10 ) (
= 180
0
- 90
0
= 90
0
ii) As
S ,
3
1 0
) ( ) (
S
S H S G
S

0
10 10
) (
3 3

S
M
3
10 ) ( S = 0 3*90
0
= - 270
0
25
-270
+90

Illustration 9: Sketch the polar plot for the system represented by the following transfer
function.
100 10
100
) (
) (
2
+

S S S X
S Y
M(
)
( )
0 90
0

0 -270
0
26
Real
Img
0, -360
+270
-90
+180
-180
= , M = 0
= 0, M =
i) As
0 , 0 S j S
1 1 ) ( M
, for both K positive and negative
0
180 1 ) (
ii) As
S ,
2
100
S
0
100
) (
2

S
S
M ,
2
100
) (
S

= 0 2* =- 90
0
*2
= -180
0

6.9 Experimental determination of Frequency Response
Many a times the transfer function of a physical system may not be available in such
circumstances it is necessary to obtain frequency response information experimentally.
Such data may then be used to establish the transfer function. This method requires the
actual system.
6.10 System Analysis using Polar Plots: Nyquist Criterion: Continued in Session 21
on 17.10.2006
CONTINUED IN SESSION 21: 17.10.2006
******************END****************
M(
)
( )
0 1 180
0

0 -180
0
27
Real
Img
0, -360
+270
-90
+180
-180
-270
+90
= 0, M = 1
= , M = 0
CHAPTER VI
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
(Continued from Session 20)
SYSTEM ANALYSIS USING POLAR PLOTS: NYQUIST
CRITERION
6.10 System Analysis using Polar Plots: Nyquist Criterion
Polar plots can be used to predict feed back control system stability by the application of
Nyquist Criterion, and therefore are also referred as Nyquist Plots. It is a labor saving
technique in the analysis of dynamic behaviour of control systems in which the need for
finding roots of characteristic equation of the system is eliminated.
Consider a typical closed loop control system which may be represented by the simplified
block diagram as shown in Figure 6.4
Figure 6.4 Simplified System Block Diagram
The closed-loop transfer function or the relationship between the output and input of the
system is given by
28
H(S)
G(S)
C(S)
R(S) +
-
) ( ) ( 1
) (
) (
) (
S H S G
S G
S R
S C
+

The open-loop transfer function is G(S) H(S) (the transfer function with the feedback
loop broken at the summing point).
1+ G(S) H(S) is called Characteristic Function which when equated to zero gives the
Characteristic Equation of the system.
1 + G(S) H(S) = 0 Characteristic Equation
The characteristic function F(S) = 1 + G(S) H(S) can be expressed as the ratio of two
factored polynomials.
Let
) .( )......... )( )( (
) ....( )......... )( (
) ( ) ( 1 ) (
3 2 1
2 1
n
k
n
Z S P S P S P S S
Z S Z S Z S K
S H S G S F
+ + + +
+ + +
+
The Characteristic equation in general can be represented as
F(S) = K (S+Z
1
) (S+Z
2
) (S+Z
3
) . (S+Z
n
) = 0
Then:
Z
1
, -Z
2
, -Z
3
. Z
n
are the roots of the characteristic equation
at S= -Z
1
, S= -Z
2
, S= -Z
3
, 1+ G(S) H(S) becomes zero.
These values of S are termed as Zeros of F(S)
Similarly:
at S= -P
1
, S= -P
2
, S= -P
3
. Etc. 1+ G (S) H (S) becomes infinity.
These values are called Poles of F (S).
6.10.1 Condition for Stability
For stable operation of control system all the roots of characteristic equation must
be negative real numbers or complex numbers with negative real parts. Therefore,
29
for a system to be stable all the Zeros of characteristic equation (function) should be
either negative real numbers or complex numbers with negative real parts. These roots
can be plotted on a complex-plane or S-plane in which the imaginary axis divides the
complex plane in to two parts: right half plane and left half plane. Negative real numbers
or complex numbers with negative real parts lie on the left of S-plane as shown Figure
6.5.
Figure 6.5 Two halves of Complex Plane
Therefore the roots which are positive real numbers or complex numbers with positive
real parts lie on the right-half of S-plane.
In view of this, the condition for stability can be stated as For a system to be stable all
the zeros of characteristic equation should lie on the left half of S-plane.
Therefore, the procedure for investigating system stability is to search for Zeros on the
right half of S-plane, which would lead the system to instability, if present. However, it is
impracticable to investigate every point on S-plane as to which half of S-plane it belongs
to and so it is necessary to have a short-cut method. Such a procedure for searching the
30

2+j1
2-j1
-3-j2
-3+j2
Real
Img Right half of
S Plane
Left half of S
Plane
right half of S-plane for the presence of Zeros and interpretation of this procedure on the
Polar plot is given by the Nyquist Criterion.
6.10.2 Nyquist Criterion: Cauchys Principle of Argument:
In order to investigate stability on the Polar plot, it is first necessary to correlate the
region of instability on the S-plane with identification of instability on the polar plot, or
1+GH plane. The 1+GH plane is frequently the name given to the plane where 1+G(S)
H(S) is plotted in complex coordinates with S replaced by j . Likewise, the plot of G(S)
H(S) with S replaced by j is often termed as GH plane. This terminology is adopted in
the remainder of this discussion.
The Nyquist Criterion is based on the Cauchys principle of argument of complex
variable theory. Consider [F(S) = 1+G(S) H(S)] be a single valued rational function
which is analytic everywhere in a specified region except at a finite number of points in
S-plane. (A function F(S) is said to be analytic if the function and all its derivatives
exist). The points where the function and its derivatives does not exist are called singular
points. The poles of a point are singular points.
Let C
S
be a closed path chosen in S-plane as shown Figure 6.6 (a) such that the function
F(S) is analytic at all points on it. For each point on C
S
represented on S-plane there is a
corresponding mapping point in F(S) plane. Thus when mapping is made on F(S) plane,
the curve C
G
mapped by the function F(S) plane is also a closed path as shown in Figure
6.6 (b). The direction of traverse of C
G
in F(S) plane may be clockwise or counter
clockwise, depending upon the particular function F(S).
31
Then the Cauchy principle of argument states that: The mapping made on F(S) plane
will encircle its origin as many number of times as the difference between the
number of Zeros and Poles of F(S) enclosed by the S-plane locus C
S
in the S-plane.
Figure 6.6 (a) Figure 6.6 (b)
32
S-plane
+j
-j

S
5
S
1
S
2
S
3
S
4
C
S
-
+j
-j

-
G
S1
G
S2
G
S3
G
S4
G
S5
(0+j )
C
G
F(S) = 1+G(S) H(S) plane
Figure 6.6 Mapping on S-plane and F(S) plane
Thus N = Z P
N
0+j0
= Z P
Where N
0+j0
: Number of encirclements made by F(S) plane plot (C
G
) about its
origin. Z and P: Number of Zeros and Poles of F(S) respectively enclosed by the locus
C
S
in the S-plane.
Illustration: Consider a function F(S)
) 2 5 )( 2 5 )( 5 )( 3 (
) 2 2 )( 2 2 )( 1 (
) (
j S j S S S S
j S j S S K
S F
+ + + + +
+ + + +

Zeros: -1, (-2-j2), (-2+j2) indicated by O (dots) in the S-plane
Poles: 0, -3, -5, (-5 j2), (-5 +j2) indicated by X (Cross) in S-plane: As shown in Figure
6.6 (c)
33

Figure 6.6 (c) Figure 6.6 (d)
Now consider path C
S1
(CCW) on S-plane for which:
Z: 2, P =1
34
S-plane
+j
-j

C
S2
-
C
S1
O: ZEROS
X: POLES
+j
-j

C
G2
-
C
G1
C
G2
C
G2
(0+j0)
F(S) = 1+G(S) H(S) plane
C
S1
C
S2
Consider another path C
S2
(CCW) in the same S plane for which:
Z = 1, P = 4
C
G1
and C
G2
are the corresponding paths on F(S) plane [Figure 6.6 (d)].
Considering C
G1
[plot corresponding to C
S1
on F (S) plane]
N
0+j0
= Z P = 2-1 = +1
C
G1
will encircle the origin once in the same direction of C
S1
(CCW)
Similarly for the path C
G2

N
0+j0
= Z P = 1 4 = - 3
C
G2
will encircle the origin 3 times in the opposite direction of C
S2
(CCW)
Note: The mapping on F(S) plane will encircle its origin as many number of times as the
difference between the number of Zeros and Poles of F(S) enclosed by the S-plane locus.
From the above it can be observed that
In the expression
N= Z - P,
N can be positive when: Z>P
N = 0 when: Z = P
N can be negative when: Z<P
When N is positive the map C
G
encircles the origin N times in the same direction
as that of C
S
When N = 0, No encirclements
35
N is negative the map C
G
encircles the origin N times in the opposite direction as
that of C
S

6.10.3 Nyquist Path and Nyquist Plot
The above Cauchys principle of argument can be used to investigate the stability of
control systems. We have seen that if the Zeros of characteristic function lie on the right
half of S-plane it will lead to system instability. Now, to encircle the entire right half of
S-plane, select a closed path as shown in Figure 6.6 (e) such that all the Zeros lying on
the right-half of S-plane will lie inside this path. This path in S-plane is known as
Nyquist path. Nyquist path is generally taken in CCW direction. This path consists of
the imaginary axis of the S-plane (S = 0+j , - < < ) and a closing semicircle of
infinite radius. If the system being tested has poles of F(S) on the imaginary axis, it is
customary to modify the contour as shown Figure 6.6 (f) excluding these poles from the
path.
36

Figure 6.6 (e): Nyquist Path Figure 6.6 (f)
37
S-plane
+j
-j

-
-j
+j
0+j0
0-j0
r =
+j
-j

-
S=+j0
S= -j0
r =
S= -j
r 0
Corresponding to the Nyquist path a plot can be mapped on F(S) = 1+G(S) H(S) plane as
shown in Figure 6.6 (g) and the number of encirclements made by this F(S) plot about its
origin can be counted.
Figure 6.6 (g)
Now from the principle of argument
N
0+j0
= Z-P
N
0+j0
= number of encirclements made by F(S) plane plot
Z, P: Zeros and Poles lying on right half of S-plane
For the system to be stable: Z = 0
N
0+j0
= - P Condition for Stability
Apart from this, the Nyquist path can also be mapped on G(S) H(S) plane (Open-loop
transfer function plane) as shown in Figure 6.6 (h).
Now consider
F(S) = 1+ G(S) H(S) for which the origin is (0+j0) as shown in Figure 6.6 (g).
Therefore G(S) H(S) = F(S) 1
= (0+j0) 1 = (-1+j0) Coordinates for origin on G(S) H(S) plane as shown
in Figure 6.6(h)
38
Img
G(S) H(S) plane
Real
Img
Real
Img
0+j0
1+ G(S) H(S) plane

Figure 6.6 (h)
Thus a path on 1+ G(S) H(S) plane can be easily converted to a path on G(S) H(S) plane
or open loop transfer function plane. This path will be identical to that of 1+G(S) H(S)
path except that the origin is now shifted to the left by one as shown in Figure 6.6 (h).
This concept can be made use of by making the plot in G(S) H(S) plane instead of 1+
G(S) H(S) plane. The plot made on G(S) H(S) plane is termed as the Niquist Plot and its
net encirclements about (-1+j0) (known as critical point) will be the same as the number
of net encirclements made by F(S) plot in the F(S) = 1+G(S) H(S) plane about the origin.
Now, the principle of argument now can be re-written as
N
-1+j0
= Z-P
Where N
-1+j0
= Number of net encirclements made by the G(S) H(S) plot (Nyquist Plot)
in the G(S) H(S) plane about -1+j0
For a system to be stable Z = 0
N
-1+j0
= -P
Thus the Nyquist Criterion for a stable system can be stated as The number of net
encirclements made by the Nyquist plot in the G(S) H(S) plane about the critical
point (-1+j0) is equal to the number of poles of F(S) lying in right half of S-plane.
39
0+j0
(-1+j0)
Origin of the plot
for G(S) H(S)
[Encirclements if any will be in the opposite direction. Poles of F(S) are the same as
the poles of G(S) H(S)].
Thus the stability of closed-loop control system is determined from its open-loop transfer
function.
CONTINUED IN SESSION 22: 18.10.2006
******************END****************
CHAPTER VI
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
(Continued from Session 21)
6.10.4 System Analysis using Nyquist Criterion: Illustrations
Illustration 1: Sketch the Nyquist plot for the system represented by the open loop
transfer function and comment on its stability.
0 , 0
) (
) ( ) ( > >
+
a K
a S S
K
S H S G
Poles: S = 0 (on imaginary axis) and S = -a
Step 1: Define Nyquist path. Let the Nyquist path be defined as given below.
40
+j
-j
S=+j0
S= -j0
r =
S= -j
r 0

-
S= -j
Nyquist Path
S= +j
Section I: S = +j to S = +j0; Section II: S = +j0 to S = -j0
Section III: S = -j0 to S = -j; Section IV: S = -j to S = +j
2. Corresponding to different sections namely I, II, III, and IV Obtain polar plots on G(S)
H(S) plane, which are nothing but Nyquist Plots.
Nyquist Plot for Section I: In S-plane section I runs from S= + j to S = +j0
To obtain polar plot in G(S) H(S) plane:
0 , 0
) (
) ( ) ( > >
+
a K
a S S
K
S H S G
(i)
2
) ( ) (
S
K
S H S G
j S


,

0 ) ( ) (
2

S
K
S H S G

2
2
) ( ) ( S K
S
K
S H S G
= 0 2*90
0
= - 180
0
(ii)

S
K
S
a
K
a S
K
S H S G
j S
1
0
.
) ( ) ( ,
G(S) H(S) = K/a S = 0 - 90
0
= - 90
0
41
Img G(S) H(S) Plane

Nyquist Plot for Section II: In S-plane section II runs from S= + j0 to S = -j0
In this region 0 S
In S-plane section II is a semicircle from S = + j0 to S = -j0 of radius r 0
0
, covering an
angle of 180
0
in clockwise direction
S
K
a S
K
S H S G
1
) (
) ( ) (
where K
1
= K/a
But S = re
+j

equation of a circle in exponential form

where
re
K
S H S G
j
j
, Re ) ( ) (
1

+

r
K
R
1

G(S) H(S) = R.e

-j

r
K
R
1
(as r is very small)
S
M(
)
( )
S 0 -180
0
0 S -90
0
42
S=j0
Real
-90
0
S=j
-180
0
Section I
This shows that G(S) H(S) plot of section II of Nyquist path is a circle of radius =
starting from S = +j0 and ending at a point S = -j0 covering an angle of 180
0
in opposite
direction of section II of Nyquist path (CCW direction i.e., negative sign)
In general if G (S) H (S) =
n
S
K
1

jn
jn n
e R
e r
K
S H S G

+
. ) ( ) (
1
Where R =
n
r
K
1
The G (S) H (S) plot will be a portion circle (part) of radius R , starting at a point S
= +j and ending at a point S = -j covering an angle of (n*180
0
) in the opposite direction
(CCW) (since sign is negative)
Nyquist Plot for Section III: In S-plane section III runs from S= -j0 to S = j
) (
) ( ) (
0
a S S
K
S H S G
j S
+

S K
a S
K
/
.
1

where K
l
= (K/a)

S K S H S G / ) ( ) (
1
G(S) H(S) = K
l
S, K
l
is negative
= -K
l
S
G(S) H(S) = 180
0
90
0
= 90
0

+

j S j S
a S S
K
S H S G
) (
) ( ) (
= K/S
2
43
S=j0
S= -j0
Real
Img
R=
G(S) H(S) Plane
Section II
0 ) ( ) (
2

S
K
S H S G

G(S) H(S) = K - S
2
= 0 2 (-90
0
) = 180
0
; (S is negative)
This Section III is the mirror image of section of the Section I.
Nyquist Plot for Section IV: In S-plane section IV runs from S= -j to S = j
In this region S
In the S-plane it is a semicircle of radius R from S = - j to S = + j covering an
angle of 180
0
in the counter clockwise direction.
In the G(S) H(S) plane
2
) ( ) (
S
K
S H S G
S


But S = R e
+j

Equation in circle in exponential form

2
2 2
.
.
) ( ) (
j
j
e r
e R
K
S H S G

where 0
2

R
K
r
Thus G(S) H(S) plot for section IV is also a circle of radius 0 r starting at S = - j and
ending at S = + j covering an angle of 2* 180
0
(2 ) in the opposite direction (CW).
44
S= -j
S= -j0
+90
0
+180
0
Section III
G(S) H(S) Plane
Real
Img
Img
G(S) H(S) Plane
Now assemble the Nyquist plots of all the sections as given below to get the overall
Nyquist plot
From Nyquist Criterion:
No. of encirclements made by Nyquist plot about ( 1 +j0) = N
-1+j0
= Z P
P = No. of poles lying in the right half of S plane
45
S= +j
S= -j
Real
Section IV
r 0
Real
Img
G(S) H(S) Plane
(-1+j0)
j0
j
-j0
-j
For the function
) (
) ( ) (
a S S
K
S H S G
+

, the Poles are: S = 0, S = - a = 0, which lie on

the left half of S-plane
Therefore P = 0: Number of poles on the right half of S-plane
N
-1+j=0

= 0 as counted from the Nyquist plot
N
-1+j0
= Z P
0 = Z 0
Therefore Z = 0
Number of zeros lying on the right half of S-plane is 0 and hence the system is stable
Illustration 2: Obtain the Nyquist diagram for the system represented by the block
diagram given below and comment on its stability
) 1 (
) (
2
+

S S
K
S G

S S H ) (
,
) 1 (
*
) 1 (
) ( ) (
2
+

+

S S
K
S
S S
K
S H S G

Poles are S = 0, -1/ P =
0
Solution is same as that of Illustration 1
CONTINUED IN THE NEXT PART OF THE NOTES
******************END****************
46
R (S) +
C (S)
) 1 (
2
+ S S
K

S
-
CHAPTER II
MATHEMATICAL MODELING (Continued)
(Continued from session III: 30.08.2006)
2.3.2 Models for Translational Systems:
Illustration 1: Figure 2.7 shows a spring mass system that represents the simplest
possible mechanical system. It is a single DOF system since one coordinate (x) is
sufficient to specify the position of mass at any time.
Figure 2.7: Spring Mass System Figure 2.7 a: Free Body Diagram
Using Newtons second law of motion, we will consider the derivation of the equation of
motion in this section. The procedure we will use can be summarized as follows:
1) Select a suitable coordinate (x) to describe the position of the mass or rigid body
in the system. Use a linear coordinate to describe the linear motion of a point mass or
the centroid of a rigid body, and an angular coordinate ( ) to describe the angular
motion of a rigid body.
2) Determine the static equilibrium configuration of the system and measure the
displacement of the mass or rigid body from its static equilibrium position.
47
m m
x
K
Kx (Spring force)
Static equilibrium position
3) Draw the free-body diagram of the mass or rigid body when a positive
displacement and velocity are given to it. Indicate all the active and reactive forces
acting on the mass or rigid body.
4) Apply Newtons second law of motion to the mass or rigid body shown by the
free-body diagram. Newtons second law of motion can be stated as follows:
Note:
1. Spring Force: Stiffness*displacement = K*x
2. Sign Convention: Forces and torques in the direction of motion are positive.
Therefore in the above example spring force (Kx) is to be taken negative as it is in the
direction opposite to that of displacement (motion).
Illustration 2: Here the mass m slides on a frictionless surface. Therefore there is no
damping
Figure 2.8:
From NSL
Kx
m
x
Friction less surface
m
K
48
F = ma ---- Newtons Second Law of Motion
m x = - Kx
mx + Kx = 0

..
..
F = ma
m x = - Kx
mx + Kx = 0
Points to Note:
The displacement of the mass is to be considered zero with the system at equilibrium i.e.,
the spring is neither stretched nor compressed
Sign Convention: Adopted sign convention must not be changed during the course of the
problem
All the forces / torque in the direction of the displacement are considered positive,
otherwise, negative
Behaviour of the system is independent of the sign convention
Illustration 3: The weight of the mass was not factor in the system just analyzed.
However, weight is a factor in the spring mass system shown in figure 2.9
Figure 2.9:
From NSL
F = ma
m x = k ( x) - mg
k ( x)
x
k
m
mg
x

49
..
..
Position with spring
relaxed
Reference position
(x = 0)
..
= k kx mg
= (mg / k) = Static deflection
mx = - kx mx + kx = 0
The weight of the mass has no effect on the differential equation when the reference is at
the equilibrium position. Hence, the differential equation is same as that of the previous
system in which weight was not a factor.
Illustration 4: Figure 2.10 (a) shows a spring mass damper system and a corresponding
free body diagram is shown in figure 2.10 (b) which assumes positive (downward)
displacement and velocity. If the reference x = 0 is chosen at the equilibrium position, the
mass can be considered weight less. Both the spring force and the damping force act
vertically upwards.
Figure 2.10 (b)
Figure 2.10 (a)
From NSL
F = ma
mx = - c x kx
50
x
m
k
c
x
k x (Spring Force)
c x (damping Force)
.
.
mx + c x + kx = 0
.. .
..
..
..
Illustration 5: A variation of the previous system is shown in figure 2.11 (a) where a
provision is made for input displacement x at the top of spring. Figure 2.11 (b) shows the
free body diagram of the mass responding to a positive input at x. It is assumed that x is
displaced upward and that the mass is responding with a positive displacement y (less
than x) and with a positive velocity. With this assumption the spring force acts upward
with a magnitude k (x-y) and the damping force is acts downwards as shown in the free
body diagram.
Figure 2.11 (b)
Figure 2.11 (a)

--- GDE
51
m
X (Input)
y (Response)
m
k (x-y)
c y
.
m
kx
c y
.
ky
From NSL
my = + k (x-y) - c y
.. .
my + c y + ky = kx
.. .
c
k
x > y
2.3.3 Models for Rotational or Torsional Systems: The principles presented previously
can be extended to obtain the mathematical model for torsional or rotational systems.
Illustration 6: Consider a system with rotating inertia J with torsional spring of stiffness
k
t
and a rotary damper with damping coefficient b as shown in figure 2.12 (a). If J is
displaced by the corresponding free body diagram is as shown in figure 2.12 (b).

Figure 2.12 (a) Figure 2.12 (b)
From NSL for rotating system

T J
b k J
t

0 + +
t
k b J
Illustration 7: A variation of the previous system is shown in figure 2.13 (a) where a
provision is made for input displacement
i
at the end of torsional spring. Figure 2.13
(b) shows the free body diagram of the inertia responding to a positive input
i
. It is
assumed that
i
is displaced clockwise (looking from left) and that the inertia is
responding with a clockwise displacement
0
(less than
i
) and a positive velocity.
k
t
b
J

J
k
t.
b
.
52
.. .
.. .
With this assumption the spring torque is acting clockwise with a magnitude k
t
(
i
-
0
)
and the damping torque is acting counter clockwise as shown in the free body diagram.
Figure 2.13 (a)
Figure 2.13 (b)
Let
i
: Input
And
0
: Response
Let (
i
>
0
)
From NSL for rotating system

T J
Illustration 8: A torsional system with torque T as input and angular displacement as
output.
k
t
b
J

i
J
b
K
t

i
K
t
(
i
-
0
)
J
b
k
t

0
.
.
53
J
0
= k
t
(
i
-
0
) - b
J
0
+ b
0
+ k
t

0
= k
t

i
--- Model
..
.
..
. .
Figure 2.14 (a)
Figure 2.14 (b)
From NSL for rotating system

T J
J = T - b
J + b = T --- Model
2.3.4 System with more than one mass: System involving more than one mass is
discussed below.
Illustration 9: For a two DOF spring mass damper system obtain the mathematical
model where F is the input x
1
and x
2
are responses.
b

T
J
b
T
. J
54
.. .
.. .

Figure 2.15 (a)
Figure 2.15 (b)
From NSL F= ma
For mass m
1
m
1
x
1
= F - b
1
(x
1
-x
2
) - k
1
(x
1
-x
2
) --- (a)
For mass m
2
m
2
x
2
= b
1
(x
2
-x
1
) + k
1
(x
2
-x
1
) - b
2
x
2
- k
2
x
2
--- (b)
m
2
m
1
k
2
b
2
(Damper)
x
2
(Response)
x
1
(Response)
k
1
F
b
1
m
2
m
1
F
k
2
x
2
b
2
x
2
k
1
x
2
k
1
x
1
b
1
x
1
b
1
x
2
x
2
k
1
x
2
k
1
x
1
b
1
x
1
b
1
x
2
.
. .
.
m
2
m
1
F
k
2
x
2
b
2
x
2
k
1
(x
1
-x
2
)
.
.
b
1
(x
1
-x
2
)
.
x
1
.
55
.. . .
.. . . .
Draw the free body diagram for mass m
1
and m
2
separately as shown in figure 2.15
(b)
Apply NSL for both the masses separately
and get equations as given in (a) and (b)
Illustration 10: For the system shown in figure 2.16 (a) obtain the mathematical model if
x
1
and x
2
are initial displacements.
Let an initial displacement x
1
be given to mass m
1
and x
2
to mass m
2
.

Figure 2.16 (a)
K
1
K
2
K
3
m
2
m
1
X
1
X
2
56
Figure 2.16 (b)
Based on Newtons second law of motion: F = ma
For mass m
1

m
1
x
1
= - K
1
x
1
+ K
2
(x
2
-x
1
)

m
1
x
1
+ K
1
x
1
K
2
x
2
+ K
2
x
1
= 0

m
1
x
1
+ x
1
(K
1
+ K
2
) = K
2
x
2
----- (1)
For mass m
2

m
2
x
2
= - K
3
x
2
K
2
(x
2
x
1
)

m
2
x
2
+ K
3
x
2
+ K
2
x
2
K
2
x
1

m
2
x
2
+ x
2
(K
2
+ K
3
) = K
2
x
1
----- (2)
Mathematical models are:
m
1
x
1
+ x
1
(K
1
+ K
2
) = K
2
x
2
----- (1)
K
1
X
1
K
2
X
2
K
2
X
2
K
2
X
1
K
2
X
1
K
3
X
2
K
3
X
2
K
1
X
1
X
1
X
1
m
1
m
1
m
2
m
2
X
2
X
2
K
2
(X
2
X
1
)
K
2
(X
2
X
1
)
57
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
m
2
x
2
+ x
2
(K
2
+ K
3
) = K
2
x
1
----- (2)
CONTINUED IN SESSION V: 05.09.2006
******************END****************
58