Social Learning Theories

http://www.etr.org/recapp/index.cfm? fuseaction=pages.TheoriesDetail&PageID=380

Welcome to Social Learning Theory! In this section, you will find the following:

Definition and Rationale for Social Learning Theory Social Learning Theory's Major Concepts How Social Learning Theory was Developed Social Learning Theory and Sexuality Education

Some Specific Social Learning Theories Case Study: Reducing the Risk How Can I Use Social Learning Theory in My Setting? Challenges and Special Considerations, and Resources

Definition and Rationale for Social Learning Theory

Learning theories attempt to explain how people think and what factors determine their behavior. Social Learning Theory (SLT) is a category of learning theories which is grounded in the belief that human behavior is determined by a three-way relationship between cognitive factors, environmental influences, and behavior. In the words of its main architect, Albert Bandura, "Social learning theory approaches the explanation of human behavior in terms of a continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental determinants" (Social Learning Theory, 1977).

This three-way reciprocal relationship is presented in the graphic below:

In the application of SLT, the learner is encouraged to:

observe and imitate the behaviors of others, see positive behaviors modeled and practiced, increase their own capability and confidence to implement new skills, gain positive attitudes about implementing new skills, and experience support from their environment in order to use their new skills.

SLT is a valuable and effective tool for health educators who want to assist their students in gaining new health supporting skills. SLT can help educators determine why certain learning activities work, and why other activities arent very effective. Many health educators feel that SLT is consistent with their own experience and "hunches" of what works in prevention programs. But SLT has more than "hunches" to back up its efficacy. Many prevention programs, based on SLT and other theories, have undergone rigorous research-based evaluations to determine if they have been effective in positively changing health behavior. In the arena of sexuality and prevention alone, only a handful of programs have been shown to significantly and positively change sexual risk taking behavior. The majority of those programs (six out of eight) are based totally or in part on SLT.

Social Learning Theory's Major Concepts

Social Learning Theory (SLT) is based on a series of many psychological concepts, some generally familiar to educators (like "reinforcement") and some not (like "reciprocal determinism"). Most of the published works on SLT are lengthy and research oriented. Therefore, SLT can seem complex and complicated to educators. In attempts to present it simply and clearly, only the key concepts will be explored in depth. Table 1, excerpted with minor modifications from "Theory at a Glance: A Guide for Health Promotion Practice" (1997), presents definitions and applications for each of the six key concepts. Examples of the six key concepts as they apply to sexuality education are presented in Table 2.

Table 1 Definition and Aplication of Social Learning Theorys Major Concepts

Concept 1. Expectations Definition Individual's beliefs about likely results of actions. Application Incorporate information about likely results of advised action.

2.

Observational Learning

Individual's beliefs based on Point out others' experience, observing others like self physical changes; identify and/or visible physical role models to emulate. results of desired behavior. Knowledge and skills needed to influence behavior. Confidence in ability to take action and persist in action. Provide information and training about action. Point out strengths; use persuasion and encouragement; approach behavior change in small steps. Involve the individual and relevant others; work to change the environment, if warranted. Provide incentives, rewards, praise; encourage selfreward; decrease possibility of negative responses that deter positive changes.

3.

Behavioral Capability Self-Efficacy

4.

5.

Reciprocal Determinism

Behavior changes resulting from interaction between person and environment; change is bi-directional. Responses to a person's behavior that increase or decrease the chances of recurrence.

6.

Reinforcement

For examples of what the six key concepts look like when applied to family life/sexuality education, review Table 2 below:

Table 2 Examples of Social Learning Theorys Major Concepts in Sexuality Education

Concept 1. Expectations Abstinence Education Example Youth believe that using the refusal method will work without upsetting their partners. Correct Condom Use Education Example Youth believe that using condoms will protect them from pregnancy and/or sexually transmitted infections.

2.

Observational Learning

Youth observe modeling of the refusal method (saying "no" to sexual activity) in class. Youth gain information about abstinence and the refusal method as well as practice using the refusal method. Youth feel confident they can use the refusal model correctly. Youth place an advertisement in the local paper promoting teen abstinence. Youth receive praise for proper practice of the refusal model. Youth have positive associations with abstaining from sex such as, "abstaining keeps me healthy," and "abstaining allows me to focus on school" that will self-reward their abstinence in the future.

Youth observe modeling of how to effectively put on a condom. Youth gain information about condom use and practice how to effectively put on a condom. Youth feel confident they can use condoms correctly. Youth survey condom availability in community stores and request identified stores to carry specific brands. Youth receive praise for proper condom demonstration. Youth have positive associations connected with condom use such as, "It will keep me healthy," and "I can relax and enjoy myself more" that will self-reward their condom use in the future.

3.

Behavioral Capability

4.

Self-Efficacy

5.

Reciprocal Determinism

6.

Reinforcement

How Social Learning Theory was Developed

Social Learning Theory (SLT) was originally introduced in the 1940s to explain the phenomenon of animals and humans imitating behavior. In the early 1960s, Albert Bandura began contributing to the development of theory by showing that children naturally imitate the behavior of other children without needing or receiving a direct reward for the new behavior. Bandura continued to study human behavior and make major contributions to the development of SLT. Over the decades many researchers made important contributions to the development of theory, but Albert Bandura is considered to be the chief architect of SLT.

Social Learning Theory and Sexuality Education

Social Learning Theory (SLT) has been applied to sexuality education as well as many other areas of health education, including tobacco use prevention, substance abuse prevention and violence prevention. Since SLT aims to change behavior in participants, it is a good fit for prevention-based sexuality programs for example, those that aim to prevent pregnancy by preventing sexual involvement or increasing condom use as opposed to more comprehensive family life programs. SLT is a particularly good fit for pregnancy, STI and HIV prevention programs because: Sexual behavior is influenced by personal knowledge, skills, attitudes, interpersonal relationships, and environmental influences. All of these factors are addressed in SLT. Teens receive few, if any, positive models for healthy sexual behavior. Modeling positive and healthy sexuality-related behavior to youth is extremely important. Because sexual behaviors often happen in private settings, much of what youth observe modeled about sex takes place on TV and in movies, popular music and magazines. The majority of this modeled behavior early sexual activity, violence combined with sex, no mention of protection, no discussions about risks is counter to what family life educators are trying to teach youth. It provides youth with behavioral skills practice. Youth actually practice the skills for example, saying "no" to pressure to have sex, or putting on a condom that they will use in their real lives. In the area of sexuality, teens often do not get a chance to "practice" these prevention skills before they are in the actual situations where they need them.

Teaching youth specific behavioral skills is crucial in an effective prevention program. Unfortunately, many sexuality programs over emphasize cognitive learning and fail to address the behavioral aspects of becoming and staying sexually healthy.

Some Specific Social Learning Theories

Social Learning Theory (SLT) is an umbrella for a host of more specific learning theories. These theories can be used alone or in combination with other learning theories. The four most common SLTs, and example curricula which are based on them, are explained below. Social Cognitive Theory, a term often used interchangeably with SLT, emphasizes the learner having knowledge, motivation, outcome expectancy and self-efficacy. The curricula Be Proud! Be Responsible! and Focus on Kids are based on social cognitive theory. Cognitive Behavioral Theory emphasizes the learner personalizing knowledge, gaining skills, and having self-efficacy. Cognitive behavioral theory is one of the foundation theories of Reducing the Risk. Social Inoculation Theory emphasizes behavioral rehearsal, where learners become "immunized" by practicing resisting future peer pressure to engage in risky behavior. The curriculum Postponing Sexual Involvement by Marion Howard and Marie Mitchell is based on social inoculation theory. Social Influence Theory emphasizes changing social norms as a way to change the individual. Safer Choices and Reducing the Risk were based in part on social influence theory.

For more information on these specific types of SLTs, refer to Teaching About Sexuality and HIV: Principles and Methods for Effective Education, Evonne Hedgepeth and Joan Helmich, New York University Press, 1996. Also refer to the Resources section.

Case Study: Reducing the Risk

Overview of the Curriculum
Reducing the Risk: Building Skills to Prevent Pregnancy, HIV and STD (RTR) includes 16 well-defined lessons for 9th and 10th graders which clearly emphasize teaching refusal statements, delay statements and alternative actions students can use to abstain from sexual intercourse or protect themselves from unwanted pregnancy, HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs).

Curriculum Objectives
At the completion of this curriculum, students will be able to: Evaluate the risks and consequences of becoming an adolescent parent or becoming infected with HIV or another STI. Recognize that abstaining from sexual activity or using contraception are the only ways to avoid pregnancy, HIV infection and other STI. Conclude that factual information about conception and protection is essential for avoiding teenage pregnancy, HIV infection and other STI.

Demonstrate effective communication skills for remaining abstinent and for avoiding unprotected sexual intercourse.

For more information about the Reducing the Risk curriculum, please see information about RTR in ReCAPP's Evidence-Based Programs section.

Theoretical Framework for Reducing the Risk

Reducing the Risk is based on three health behavior theories including Social Learning Theory, Social Influence Theory and Cognitive-Behavioral Theory. These three theories hypothesize that in order to reduce risk-taking behavior people need to: learn and personalize relevant information, recognize social pressures and anticipate risky situations, establish norms for positive behaviors, and learn and practice skills to act on the information and cope with social pressures.

In order to address each of these critical components of the health behavior theories, Reducing the Risk provides the youth with the following: Information about teen pregnancy, HIV, abstinence, birth control and the risks and consequences of teen pregnancy and HIV/STI. Opportunities to personalize information by having youth identify their own vulnerability to pregnancy and HIV, examine the impact of pregnancy and HIV on their own lives, and identify their personal values regarding abstaining or using birth control. Opportunities to recognize social pressures and anticipate risky situations by having youth examine common lines used to pressure for sex and teaching youth how to anticipate and prepare for situations in which unwanted or unprotected sex may occur. Consistent reinforcement of norms for abstinence or protected sex. Opportunities to learn and practice skills including refusal skills, delaying skills and protection skills.

Social Learning Theory concepts are used throughout the RTR curriculum. While no single lesson exclusively illustrates one concept, and numerous lessons may reinforce a single concept, the following examples demonstrate Social Learning Theory in action: Observational Learning: Role plays in Lessons One and Three demonstrate both ineffective and effective refusals to delay or abstain from sex. Others in the class observe the role plays and learn from their fellow students' mistakes and successes.

Expectations: Lesson Two asks students to discuss myths and facts about abstinence and list their own reasons for abstaining. It also discusses the importance of communication between partners and the elements of a healthy romantic relationship. These activities aim to raise students' expectations that they, too, can successfully negotiate for abstinence or safer sex without losing their partner. Behavioral Capability: Lessons 10 and 11 provide students with numerous opportunities to practice the skills they have been learning in previous lessons. Through partially-scripted role plays and "situations," students practice anticipating and avoiding risky situations, avoiding unprotected sex, and even helping a younger sibling make a decision about whether to become sexually active. Students may initially be hesitant about the expectations for role play, but they soon begin to enjoy those opportunities and use them to great advantage. For impact, students need encouragement to practice their interpersonal skills in role plays. The more students effectively say no to sex or plan to use protection, the more likely it is that they will act that way outside the classroom. Self-Efficacy: Lesson 16 provides students with many opportunities to practice and fine tune their negotiation skills. Students engage in discussion and use critical thinking skills to examine reasons for sticking with their decisions to abstain or use protection. Reciprocal Determinism: Lessons Seven and Eight prepare students to shop for condoms and visit a health clinic, and Lesson 15 gives students an opportunity to discuss their experiences. These experiences raise students' awareness of the effect their environment has on them and vice-versa. While students do not directly act upon their environment to create change, they overcome barriers (i.e., embarrassment, lack of information, intimidation), experience both positive and negative reinforcement from their environment, and learn to put their skills into action. Reinforcement: Many of RTR's lessons provide reinforcement of skills and positive choices. Discussions following role plays allow for feedback from those observing. Exercises frequently ask students to think about their reasons for abstaining or using protection as well as the ways in which having a baby or contracting an STI would change their lives.

How Can I Use Social Learning Theory in my Setting?

Basically, you can use Social Learning Theory (SLT) in your work with youth by either: adopting curricula that are based on SLT, or adapting your current curriculum or program by adding key elements of SLT.

If you are interested in adopting a curriculum which is already based on SLT (among other learning theories), check out the following curricula: Reducing the Risk, Building Skills to Prevent Pregnancy, STD & HIV Focus on Kids

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Be Proud! Be Responsible!

If you are interested in incorporating SLT into the curriculum you currently use, the following checklist and corresponding tips have been designed to help you:

Checklist for Educators 1. Do you teach youth skills?

Tips for Incorporating SLT in your Curriculum (applicable SLT concepts appear in parentheses) Review your program goals and learning objectives to determine what behavioral skills you can teach youth that are consistent with your program. Possible behavioral skills fall into four categories:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Interpersonal: communication, negotiation, setting limits, etc. Intrapersonal: values clarification, analyzing situations, self-talk, etc. Resource-related: locating information from adults, agencies, internet Product-related: using condoms, contraceptives, and other protective products

(Behavioral Capability) 2. Do you model each of the skills you are teaching youth? Model all skills being taught. If it is not possible or permissible to model the skills yourself, show a current video or clip from a popular TV show that models the skills. If possible, work with a student who can model the skill correctly for other students. Modeling is most effective when the person being observed is influential, respected, and/or considered to be like the observer.

(Observational Learning) 3. Do you provide youth with the information they need to implement each new skill? Provide information that youth need to support their use of the skill. For example, if you are teaching them how to use a condom, share information about effectiveness rates, where to get condoms, how to choose them, etc. Explain why the skill is beneficial, as well as each step needed to use the skill correctly.

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(Behavioral Capability)

4. Do you have each youth practice the skill during the teaching session?

Provide opportunities for youth to practice the skill and receive feedback on their techniques. For example, you can invite them to practice communication skills through role play with you or other students. Or if youth are learning to use condoms, they can practice the steps for putting a condom on an artificial model in the classroom.

(Behavioral Capability) 5. Do you check in with youth to see if they believe that the new skill/behavior will work? Youth must believe that a skill or behavior is useful and effective before they invest their attention. If they are not convinced the skill will work for them, they may lack interest or motivation to learn it.

(Expectations) 6. Do you assess whether your students feel confident they can correctly use the new skill? Educators should determine their students' level of confidence in using a skill by: o o Observing their skill practice; Promoting discussion with them about their practice experience, which may surface doubts or perceived barriers to confidently using the skill; Conducting a brief anonymous survey after the skill-building session to elicit questions or concerns that remain.

(Self-efficacy)

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7. Do you have your students apply what they are learning by having them interact with their school or community?

Encourage students to interact with their school or community to help them understand and recognize how environment affects behavior. Assist them in learning how they can make a positive change through their school or community environment. Examples of interaction may include activities such as planning an educational campaign for their school or community, conducting a survey, designing a poster display, writing multi-media public service announcements, etc.

(Reciprocal Determinism) 8. Do youth receive praise for correctly practicing the new skill? Educators should praise students to build their confidence and reinforce their interest in trying out new skills. Practice scenarios can include verbal or non-verbal praise, like applause, for the practice 'performers.' Incentives like stickers, sweets, or ribbons can also serve as rewards for practicing and learning new skills in the classroom. (Reinforcement)

Challenges and Considerations in Applying the Social Learning Theory Approach

Challenges include: Educators may resist changing their teaching style, particularly if they are more comfortable lecturing to youth. o o o o as: o maintaining a low student to educator ratio to accommodate effective student skills practice and classroom management; Training and maintaining skilled educators who: believe in the efficacy of what they are teaching; can model desired behaviors; are skilled at leading role plays and other forms of behavioral practice; can keep students on task and cover all required content in a session. The need, in some cases, to make environmental changes in the school, such

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obtaining school and parental permission for potentially controversial skill-building sessions (e.g., condom practice) and community activities; finding more classroom space to allow for student role play and participation in small group activities.

Other special considerations include the following: Scheduling is often a consideration for programs incorporating SLT. Educators may need to schedule multiple education sessions for SLT-based programs since learning and practicing new behavioral skills requires more time than less engaging, didactic approaches. Grant support for programs based on SLT may be easier to elicit from funding agencies. Funders prefer to support programs that are carefully crafted and grounded in well-researched learning theories, such as SLT.

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Resources for More Information on Social Learning Theories

Web Links
Albert Bandura: His Biography and Theory http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/bandura.html Bandura's Conception of Social Learning or Social Cognition http://cops.uwf.edu/faculty/ddunn/edf6218/bandura/sld004.htm Theory into Practice Database: Social Learning Theory http://tip.psychology.org/bandura.html

Articles
Eisen M., Zellman G.L., and McAlister A.L. (Summer 1992). A Health Belief Model Social Learning Theory Approach to Adolescents' Fertility Control: Finds from a Controlled Field Trial. Health Education Quarterly, Vol. 19(2): 249-262. Basen-Engquist K. and Parcel G.S. (Summer 1992). Attitudes, Norms, and SelfEfficacy: A Model of Adolescents HIV-Related Sexual Risk Behavior. Health Education Quarterly, Vol. 19(2): 263-277.

Books
Glanz K., Marcus Lewis F., and Rimer B.K. (1990). Health Behavior and Health Education: Theory Research and Practice. Jossey-Bass Publishers. Bandura A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Bandura A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Prentice-Hall Inc. Hedgepeth, E. and Helmich J. (1996). Teaching About Sexuality and HIV: Principles and Methods for Effective Education. New York University Press. Glanz K. and Rimer B.K. (1997). Theory at a Glance: A Guide for Health Promotion Practice. National Institute of Health. This publication can be found at www.cancernet.gov in the NCI Publications section.

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