-1-

Operational Amplifier

An operational amplifier is a high gain, differential,
voltage amplifier.
- It is a voltage amplifier. The input is a voltage and
the output is a voltage.
- The gain is high. Typically, the gain is over
100 000
- It is a differential amplifier. It actually amplifies the
difference between two voltages
- It has a very high input resistance
- It has a very low output resistance

power supply voltage











-2-


Op-amps can be used:
- To amplify signals
- To isolate and buffer signals (Some signal sources
e.g. many sensors - cannot provide enough current to
"drive" circuits (loading!). Opamps provide close to
an exact copy of the signal, but the opamp can
provide more current.)
- To integrate, add, subtract or filter signals (and other
mathematical operations)

Characteristics of Ideal OpAmp
- Rule #1: Have a gain so high that consider it to be
infinite.
the Infinite Gain Assumption
(V
+
- V
-
) 0 i.e. V
+
= V
-

- Rule #2: Have such a high input resistance
(impedance) that they draw no current at the input
terminals (inverting and non-inverting).
the Infinite Input Resistance Assumption
I
+
= I
-
= 0
- Rule #3: Have a very low output resistance, so in
most cases there are no loading effects the Zero
Output Resistance Assumption
-3-

- Amplifies signals of all frequencies equally Infinite
Bandwidth Assumption
Some Basic Amplifying Circuits
1) the inverting configuration 2) the noninverting
configuration 3) the differential configuration 4) the
summing Inverter configuration 5) the Integrator
configuration 6) the Differentiator configuration
7) the Voltage Follower configuration
-4-


Inverting Amplifier

An Inverting simply reverses the polarity of the input
signal.

-5-

Calculating the gain of an inverting amplifier
I
1
+ I
2
= I
-
= 0
V
in
/R
1
= -V
out
/R
2

V
out
= -(R
2
/R
1
)*V
in

Gain = V
out
/V
in

= -(R
2
/R
1)


The closed loop gain is dependent only on the two
resistances and not on the amplifier gain.

The Voltage Follower (or Unity Gain Buffer Amplifier)

V
-
= V
out

Since V
-
= V
+
= V
in

V
out
= V
in





-6-

This circuit is often used when a voltage source with
high output impedance is used, and want to draw more
current than the source can deliver. The V
out
appears at
the output of the op amp can deliver more current
without lowering the output voltage because the
internal resistance of the operational amplifier is lower
than the internal resistance of the original source i.e. no
voltage amplification but current amplification

Summing Amplifier











(

+ =
2
3
2
1
1
2
V
R
R
V
R
R
V
out
-7-

Non-Inverting Amplifier.
I
1
+I
2
= 0
V
+
= V
in
V
in
/R
1
+ (V
in
-V
out
)/R
2
=0

V
out
= [1+R
2
/R
1
] V
in


Gain = V
out
/V
in

= 1+R
2
/R
1



Differential Amplifier

-8-

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2
1 2 3 4
4
2
3 4
4 1 2
2
1 3 4
Apply KCL at a and b
0 0
Rule 1 0
0 and 0
by Ohms Law
0 (1) 0 (2)
Rule 2
from (2)
substitute in (1)
a a out b
b
a b
b a
out
I I I I I I
I I
I I I I
V V V V V V
V
R R R R
V V
R
V V V
R R
R R R
V V
R R R
+
+
= =
= =
= =

= =
=
= =
+
+
=
+
( )
2
1
1
3 1 4 2
2
2 1
1
stipulate and
out
R
V
R
R R R R
R
V V V
R

= =
=


The output voltage is proportional to the voltage
difference and the closed-loop gain is R
2
/R
1


-9-

Voltage-to-Current Converter
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 3 5 5 4
1 1 2 2 1 1
1
1 2 3 5 5 4
L L
4
1
4 5
Apply KCL b and Design Rule 1 0
0, 0 and 0
by Ohms Law
0 (1) 0 (2) 0 (3)
Substitute IR for V in (2) and (3)
then (4)
So
in L L L
L
I I
I I I I I I I
V V V V V V V V V V
V
I
R R R R R R
R R
V I
R R
+
= =
= = =

= = =
=
+
( )
( )
( )
2 1
2 4 1 2
2
1 1 4 5
2 4 1 3 5
2
1 3 4 5 1 3
2 4 1 3 5
2
1 3
lve (1) for V and substitute for V from (4)
(5)
substitute (4) and (5) in (1)
I 1
select
I
L
a
L in
in
R R R R R
V V I
R R R R
R R R R R
R
R V
R R R R R R
R R R R R
R
V
R R
+
= +
+
(
+
+ =
(
+
(

= +
=
-10-

Current-to-Voltage Converter









The Integrator

The integrator integrates - in the calculus sense - the
input signal to produce the output signal

sum currents at
summing point
}
=
= +
dt V
RC
V
dt
dV
C
R
V
in out
out in
1
0




-11-

Differentiator
dt
dV
RC V
R
V
dt
dV
C
in
out
out in
=
= + 0


By combining the elementary units discussed, we can
perform many mathematical operations, hence the term
operational amplifier. Only a rudimentary knowledge
of electronics is required to design operational amplifier
circuits.

-12-

The performance of the circuit depends only on the
circuit elements and is independent of the gain of the
operational amplifier, as long as it remains constant.

Linearisation

Place a non-linear element in the feedback loop

( )
out
out
0
where I(V ) nonlinear variation of current with voltage
where nonlinear function of the input voltage
the inverse function of I(V
in
out
in
out
in
V
I V
R
V
V G
R
V
G
R
+ =
=
| |
=
|
\ .
| |
=
|
\ .
)
-13-

Logarithmic Amplifier




( ) ( )
( ) ( )
exp
1 1
log log
out o out
out e in e o
I V I V
V V I R
= o
=
o o

-14-

Bias (zero drift) Removal

Sometimes a bias exists in the output signal
y = Kx + C
where x is the physical quantity
y is the measurement signal
C is the bias in the output signal that needs
to be removed







V
o
= (R
3
/R
1
) (V
p
V
i
)
where V
i
=y=Kx+C and V
ref
is set such that V
p
=C
substituting V
o
=-K(R
3
/R
1
)x
now for x=0 the output signal is zero (no bias)
-15-

Design Guidelines

Parameter: Nature of output. Usually voltage.
Range: Desired range of output parameter. 0 to 5 V,
4 to 20 mA
Input Impedance: Presented to input signal source.
Prevent loading.
Output Impedance: Offered to output load circuit.

If input is resistance change, consider nonlinearity
and current through sensor.
For opamp design develop equation for input vs.
output.
Always consider loading.