Water, Wood, and Wisdom: Ecological Perspectives from the Hindu Traditions Author(s): Vasudha Narayanan Source: Daedalus,

Vol. 130, No. 4, Religion and Ecology: Can the Climate Change? (Fall, 2001), pp. 179-206 Published by: The MIT Press on behalf of American Academy of Arts & Sciences Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20027723 . Accessed: 30/12/2010 13:18
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Vasudba

Narayanan

Water, Wood,

and Wisdom:

Ecological

Perspectives from theHindu Traditions

From Hindu From home

the

cradle

that wood

is a baby's is an

first bed

to the cremation

pyre that is the last resting place for the body

traditions, integral part to religious wood hearths sacraments, Hindu take place present. weddings is considered consigned the cremated to be an eternal to the fire. of Hindu and

in many
lives. fire are of a at death,

conspicuously sacred fire that the bodies The ashes are

in front

witness;

are immersed in holy wa? body same the rivers that feed and ters?the fields; irrigate paddy same water the dead before that cooks the rice and bathes of cremation. palpable, also face million From cradle of the to cremation, Hindus nature. But connection with environmental disaster. have today With long had a they must the popu?

organic the reality

lation hovering
placing can Hindu sis? Are traditions Hindus), India on there

around a billion

in India (with eight hundred

is of resources and misuse use, abuse, to if anything, the fast track disaster. What, cri? this looming tradition environmental say about

in the Hindu and cultural any resources religious can inspire and motivate to take action?1 Hindus one has to argue in the Western While world for the signifi? cance in everyday and relevance of religion the life, in India that interest bols dus, more and involvement are ubiquitous. The is more "Hinduism than a trite saying. and in religion traditional than There social is tangible; sym? religious mantra heard among Hin? a religion; it is a way of life," is is a deep structures between relationship and behavioral pat

religion

ingrained

Vasudha

Narayanan

is a professor

of

religion

at

the University

of Florida.

179

180
terns. cient masses. nacular in popular But do nature Although question excellent sacred scenarios.

Vasudha Narayanan
The texts characters about never seems featured seem in the of epic various these and the Hindu deities, to tire the are known Puranas, and loved stories. Puranic or an? by the ver? Only narratives

People cinema

to rival

influence. the many privilege the short Hindu and communities value philosophies existence of plants, trees, and water? answer is "yes," Hindus have answered this the ways and trees and that have been documented in Hindu in are valued is connected so highly with

and

in many texts.2 texts that The

different Plants their Puranas

destruction

the Mahabharata cyclic destruction

give of the world.

doomsday such as the Ramayana and epics narratives of the periodic detailed and There are four aeons in each

of the third aeon, things are percep? cycle, and by the beginning ana Pur awry. As the Kurma puts it, "then greed and tibly going arose due to the predes? again passion everywhere, inevitably,

tined purpose of the Treta

[Third] Age. And people

of trees

seized the

and herbs, rivers, fields, mountains, overcoming clumps 500-200 The Mahabharata them by strength."3 (c. b.c.e.) epic at events end of the fourth-?and the the depicts graphically such aeons: and what after a thousand worst?aeon, happens . . . and odor be? increases At the end of the Eon the population . . . comes stench, and flavors putrid. When the close of the thou? a has come and life has been spent, there befalls sand Aeons most of the dwin? that drives of of creatures, many years drought . . .The Fire of Annihi? dling reserves and starving to their death. . . . all that is found on lation then invades [and] burns down . rise clouds earth. . . Wondrous up in the sky. . . .At looking huge is no doubt?will be omnivorous the end of time all men?there concern All people will be naturally cruel.... Without barbarians.... they will destroy parks and trees and the lives of living will be All ruined in the world. Slaves of greed they will roam this earth.... . . . [It] will not rain in countries will equally suffer from drought. the end of the Eon is at season, and the crops will not grow, when
hand.4

What

we

note as

almost cyclical

portrayed

immediately and periodic.

is that The

these first

destructions quotation

are about

Ecological
the such epics third aeon One cosmic events.

Perspectives
evokes wonders the

from theHindu Traditions

of

181
such

nature inevitable, predestined are powerless if human beings But even if we were a while quite and almanacs not to wait.

configurations. we have seriously, Hindu fourth?is

against to take these to According

very conservative this aeon?the We dharma also notice

in the Hindu

the end of reckoning, c.e. before 428,898 expected texts a close correlation between dhr, or that which When dharma declines, no text Hindu is, however, from and accept enhance on free the the this of suffer

sustains) nature. There human beings despoil us to be passive on that advises dharma focusing

justice; duty, (righteousness, of Earth. and the ravaging

end of the world with

texts and earth: diseases! are homes firm in their focuses

a life-negating philosophy. Many Hindu

view that human beings must in this

quality of life. A popular blessing uttered inmany Hindu

on human be happiness everyone "May /May everyone happy, see what may everyone no one is noble /May life, be

temples

from misery!" this unequivocal ratification of the pursuit of happi? Despite in Hindus of have the ness, every stripe participated polluting In this essay, we will environment. look at the resources and to see how within the many Hindu traditions the we at of has been addressed. Before look these ecology problem a few caveats are in order. and qualifications resources, aware to issue The first important be of is that there are is no single Hindu and there book that all many traditions, limitations Hindus many note would texts is that agree on as authoritative. from a spectrum of sources. texts within the many Hindu the Mahabharata, known the masses. been has and The In this The essay, second Iwill point played cite to

traditions the many texts on

have Puranas

a limited role in the history of the religion. Although works

the Ramayana, are not well (dharma

like
have

been generally influential, philosophical works

shastras) texts, the carriers by have

like the Upanishads

right behavior

popular practice law. All these have been

or custom

and followed, only selectively as religious had as much weight

Puranic and epic narratives, along with and transmitters of dharma and devotion

(bhakti).

182
Dharma

Vasudha Narayanan
is all-important men. in Hindu communities, but the texts

that define and discuss dharma were known only by a handful

were notions of dharma communi? Instead, stories from the and and such Puranas, epics through or tales were retold moral elders. routinely by family village MTV narratives Like Aesop's fables?or today?these shaped of Brahman cated notions reliance intellectual Hindus media, alone?rather authoritative. of morality on texts and of law behavior. The acceptable is a later development the West and the exaggerated and can be

traced to the period of colonization

colonization

by the British.5 With

advent

the

by in the diaspora, think of texts today, especially or community customs?as than oral tradition now in India Hindu hold classes Many temples on circa the Bhagavadgita second century Ramakrishna and ("the b.c.e. the Lord;" is part of the missions and Chinmaya Song that of

of mass

and study circles a text composed epic Mahabharata). publish mentaries class

The books their

theological to explain I do those who not

translations and com? tapes with texts to an educated canonic middle these resources to one of for

public. belong us to the dangers of alerted resource texts as a generic of philosophical to be mindful of and one has philosophy, of sacred the Still, given increasing popularity Larson has sectors of Hindu in using see will society many in the Hindu late twentieth texts some from about with as re? Hindu sacred con? a dual that we draw diverse: Hindu speak and the in about speak in some manner anyone the Hindu

Finally, except traditions. for

Gerald use indiscriminate environmental

these warnings.6 texts among many century, sources I feel in this

comfortable

that essay. We shortly on are citing esoteric dharma passages to raise the consciousness texts in order of people of dharma issues. The social temporary regulation institutions on text and practice has given to our resources advantage today. from which the Hindu but problems also temples of

emphasis can use The

it a flexibility traditions are several and can and

approaching there are texts, of course, texts starting with sacred extensively about the

environmental

teachers. b.c.e.) rivers,

the Vedas

sanctity

(c. 1750-600 the the earth,

Ecological
mountains. practice joys of The

Perspectives
texts on toward centers for over

from theHindu Traditions

dharma

183

nonviolence a harmonious

to exhort people earnestly texts speak of the other all beings; are nature. with Temples relationship with endowments Many and devotees, pilgrims, to these donate liberally Sai Baba like Sathya the world and divert of millions.

large economic have had clout

(especially politicians centers. there Finally, can influence millions enormous These used lems. Hindu resources vast In this

a millennium; after an election)

are gurus. Teachers around of devotees to various religious consciousness projects. resources

and varied people's

to raise

crisis, have sprung of the other the

I will essay, explore to be relevant that may traditions a few cases of environmental discuss from strands sensibilities, religious in the Hindu traditions into action. and

can undoubtedly be about environmental prob? some of the resources in the the environmental that some impede assess mobilization finally that often

translation

of philosophies

THE NARRATIVE, In most mother. Hindu Mother

RITUAL, AND PHILOSOPHICAL traditions, Earth known is to be one

TRADITIONS for she is our names

Earth, by is consid? Avni) Prithvi, Vasudha, Vasundhara, (Bhu, Bhumi, or a goddess. She is seen in many ered to be a devi, temples in South Lord Vishnu India and ("all-pervasive") together with is worshiped as his consort. She is to be honored on the ground respected; a con? during their esteem for have that of are inspiring directly stress the and

revered, of her

several

after pounding dancers, to express the earth cert, touch reverentially sacred the Vedas, the earth. The earliest texts, to Earth.7 addressed hymns The relevant importance forms of ethical of texts have many problems. toward injunctions to environmental nonviolence

classical

Many all creatures.

them

Nonviolence if in

in thought, word,

and deed is considered

to be the highest of all

or dharma.8 Normative nonviolence, righteousness, would followed, promote inevitably biodiversity. are other, more Nor ethical injunctions specific, lacking Hindu traditions. Manu, the law giver, said around the begin

184

Vasudha Narayanan
like urine, Era, "Impure feces, spit; objects or has these elements, should blood, poison into water."9 devotional abound resources in the Hindu privilege tradition. The that the natural

ning of the Common or anything which not be cast and Ritual environment groves places, dated

of protection as well as pilgrimage to sacred and gardens, and pure is recommended communities and man? by some Hindu The Puranas and the epics mention by others. specific

places
texts

in India as holy and charged with power. Many Hindu

of a sacred say that if one lives or dies in the holy precincts one is automatically liberation. There supreme place, granted are lists of such cities and villages. Many lists are regional, but some are pan-Indian net? and span the subcontinent, creating works of sacred time of spaces and consolidating shastras of of around the the various Hindu of land communities. In the was the dharma the the Common confined the beginning of the sacrality says:

Era, description to the northern part

India. Manu

That rivers tween

lies between the two divine land, created by the gods, which . . . . . . Drishadvati Sarasvati and Brahmavarta. [is]
tract between those two mountains which extends be?

. . . the

the wise call Aryavarta the eastern and western oceans, (the of noble the ones). country The land where the black antelope roams, one must naturally to be fit for the performance know of sacrifices; [this land] is different from the country of the barbarians.10 the sacred lands were extended Later, mountains the Himalaya and Vindhya continent. More recently, has been the land between beyond to cover the whole sub?

as the mother India personified (Bharata Mata) in Viswanatha important thinking. Mayuram political a in Sastri musician the struggle who (1893-1958), participated a song popular to free India from colonial rule, composed among tory all such should South Indian India" India classical to Mother songs, not (jayati is personified Vic? called singers, "Victory, In bharata this and mata). jayati and extolled as a compas?

many that

sionate mother-goddess

filled with

forests, filled with

sanctity

be violated.

Ecological
While most India Hindus

Perspectives
is personified the localize

from theHindu Traditions

as a mother sanctity that has place and and considered

185

gional temple or a sacred town surrounding The whole families for generations. any temple near stream is said to be sacred. Every the tree, every precincts in the sea, this sense of sacredness. of the temple exudes Bathing or pond of water river, stream, are beginning Hindus salvation. as one and rituals of pilgrimage
ups.11

holy, to the re? go regularly to their been important

near

is said to grant temple of sacrality these notions clean? for inspiration ecological the to use the and various nature Hindu traditions

The

in many exalted universe, portray some is sacred; Nature for this Prakriti ways. ("na? schools, as "cosmic im? is divine sometimes translated ture," matter") manence ex? links and has potential These have been power. the plored mental earth, in a quest for indigenous In a related way, crisis.12 water, to solving paths the five elements the environ? of nature?

philosophical the earth,

visions

of

are and air?are sacred. Rivers fire, ether/space, are revered.13 The of Prakriti images philosophical particularly one often Consider of these central just awe-inspiring. images: as the body of to the Bhagavadgita is the vision of the universe an incarnation of Vishnu. While the first consequence Krishna, context in its narrative of this vision is to convince the warrior Ar juna of Ramanuja passages, correct Ramanuja and the of God, many supremacy theologians, including dates have understood these 1017-1137), (traditional as well as several as depicting in the Upanishads, the the between followers of the the Supreme Being and the creation. equally immanence

emphasize The elaboration Supreme Being. texts of Ramanuja's in the many of this philosophy is found the members of the Sri-Vaishnava disciples, community.14 to the of sentient universe, Ramanuja, According composed transcendence

relationship and his

matter

(chit) and nonsentient matter (achit), forms the body of the Vishnu. Just as a human soul (chit) pervades a (sarira)
body (achit), universe, Vishnu, is inseparable pervasive." Vishnu-Narayana to the Sri Vaishnava the Goddess. According so, too, does Vishnu name and time. The pervade all souls, in fact, from theo?

nonsentient the material means "all

Sri-Lakshmi,

logian Vedanta Desika

(1268-1368),

both Vishnu

and Sri per

186
vade the

Vasudha Narayanan
universe to note the universe together; that in this philosophy, universe is female and the is their it is not create body. the case It is is that

important the material

transcendent

god

the male and female deities and pervade male; together, it. We?as transcend of the uni? the universe, and yet part verse?are the body of Vishnu and Sri; we are owned by them name is them. Vishnu the and are supported by personal given or Brahman; to the Supreme In his the two are identical. Being,

famous work Summary of the Teachings

Sangraba), knowledge. of Brahman. becomes ing and universe
ation.15

of the Veda

(Vedartha

says Ramanuja sentient and The Before creation, as the

that

is purity, and bliss, nonsentient form the body beings are in name undifferentiated they Brahman

and form from Brahman. By the will

manifest limitless and nonmoving is one with creation and has support. as their clear

of the Supreme Being it

diversified world of mov? the cre? therefore, and after

At any given time, beings. this Brahman, both before the All Supreme Being forms as have

All

of

controller

Being Supreme this identification pointing:

physical Self or soul. Ramanuja makes ultimate a or of process through "signification,"

its soul, its inner or the Brahman

like gods, men, [a celestial yaksa being], stone, grass, jar and cloth, demon, beast, bird, tree, creeper, wood, which have denotative power, formed of roots and suffixes, signify in ordinary and through the objects which parlance they name in them and selves embodied them they signify the individual Therefore all through this second signification, in Brahman, ther till it culminates inner controller of all individual tative While mar of this totality.16 argument he argues is based for the and gram? language creation all of of reality organic created on fur? develops significance as the the highest Self dwelling selves. Thus all terms are deno? their

terms

Ramanuja's in this passage, creation

and its divinity based on scriptural passages. The reality of all

of connection beings If the vision of with This is pulsating divinity. other and all the Supreme between Being and with wonder invites us to look at the world universe is divine, how can we bring

entire

respect. to ourselves

Ecological
pollute visions prise. of

Perspectives

from theHindu Traditions

one of

187

it? Ramanuja's the universe

is only that has

bearing

the many philosophical on the ecological enter?

ONE TREE IS EQUAL TO TEN SONS: DHARMA TEXTS AND The many PRACTICES AS RESOURCES texts were that focus to

AND ARTHA

FOR ECOLOGY on few dharma, centuries or of

behavior, mon Era. Ramayana on dharma.

composed In addition Other

explicitly in the first

righteous the Com?

and Mahabharata

sections of the epics these, many are also focused and the Puranas the planting and forests, Puranam it grew of said is in? well.

have scriptures encouraged the destruction of plants and trees, condemned that trees are like children. In this tree and context, took a passage care of from the Matsya

structive. The goddess Parvati planted a sapling of the Asoka

good it. She watered it, and

The

divine

beings
. . . almost

and

sages

came

and

told
When

her:

"O

[Goddess] successful. like there sons

everyone

wants

children.

people

see their children and grandchildren,

What do you achieve ... ? Parvati replied: lives is like of water son One in it. One

they feel they have been

is little water

trees and rearing by creating a "One who well where digs as there in heaven for as many years

of water is worth large reservoir ten reservoirs and one tree is equal to samo druma). ten sons is my This and I standard (dasa putra . . to will the universe it. ."17 protect safeguard are relevant The words of Parvati Trees offer more today. than maintain extols main aesthetic our them pleasure, ecosystem, by are vital to and fruit. They shade, our planet, our well-being, and Parvati to ten sons. The they are comparable and lore, century Purana composed have ce., says that approximately wonderful pas? one

are drops ten wells.

Puranas, between the sages on five mango (3.297.13)

saying texts of myth fifth and tenth The Varaba

trees. claims

trees does

who plants not go to hell, and the Vishnu Dharmottara a tree will never that one who fall into plants one may perhaps take the liberty of inter

hell.18 The Puranas differ in the number and description of hells

in the universe, and

188

Vasudha Narayanan
of includ? suffering, in the ozone holes a celebration for

of various levels "hell" as symbolic preting we keep poking ing a steamy planet where Purana also describes The Matsya layer. planting Just ebrated, shastras. scribes groves, as trees the and calls it the "festival of

trees."19

of trees was recommended and cel? planting was almost all the dharma them condemned by cutting fourth Arthashastra b.c.e.) pre? (c. century Kautilya's for those who levels of fines trees, destroy varying and forests. Kautilya says: of fruit trees, flower trees or shady fine of 6 panas shall be imposed; of the same trees, 12 panas, and 24 panas shall be levied. Cutting be punished [with a fine between

For cutting off the tender sprouts trees in the parks near a city, a for cutting off the minor branches for cutting off the big branches, off the trunks of the same shall 48-96 between

[a fine panas]; and felling of the same shall be punished with . . . For similar offenses in 200-500 committed panas]. or which are with connection the trees which mark boundaries, . . . double the above fines shall be levied.20 worshipped Despite massive curred been exhortations, of trees. destruction and these has seen a century In the deforestation that has oc? the twentieth in the Narmada Temples urging there has basin, are now in the devotees to plant philosophi? that could

in the Himalayas a tragic transgression of reforestation forefront saplings. We have looked ethical

of dharma. movements,

at some resources

cal,

and

of the narrative, ritual, in the Hindu traditions

a respectful the with and reciprocal relationship help us fashion fac? We know that the environmental natural world. problems no are reli? is doubt there also that but India tremendous, ing resource consciousness for raising is a potential people's gion about these have out problems. used Of course, Hindus, like people of other

faiths, have been delightfully

they scripture, Pointing the scriptural into an effective examine used more

selective
does how Hindu

in the ways
not mean In what specific beliefs Hindu and

in which
technology. they will be follows, I groups to texts

practices, resources

and modern

incorporated will therefore have

worldview. closely

successfully

encourage

eco-friendly

particular actions.

Ecological
"Trees, Many value of the When of of the trees

Perspectives
Protected, stories and and

from theHindu Traditions

Us" in Hindu the most been has texts focus the on

189

Protect narratives One years

the

through state? at Tirumala-Tirupati. with Billboards large temple ments Let us protect it" or "Trees, when like "A tree protects: to the sacred us" greet visitors protect pilgrimage protected, in Andhra India. South town of Tirumala-Tirupati, Pradesh, The which
tects us.

at reforestation

plants. in recent

of

successful

attempts initiative

statement say

of Manu, from the Laws is obviously adapted or when that dharma, pro? protected, righteousness, to the ecological crisis in India, the Venkateswara

In response

("Lord of Venkata

Hills,"

a manifestation

of Lord Vishnu)

at Tirumala-Tirupati is called the Vriksha began what temple a visits a Whenever scheme. Prasada ("favor") ("tree") pilgrim a or or is food blessed fruit he she in of India, piece given temple a or to take home. is called "favor" of the deity. This prasada of sweets; in India are known for their preparation temples is and well known for for the Tirupati instance, making temple, a a tennis ball. the shape and size of confection laddus, selling are free, most in of small prasada temples quantities Although Some laddus are also sold for a small fee. Approximately 80,000 to

125,000 are sold daily by the temple kitchens.21 Ingesting prasada

is favored and mandatory ritual; by eating what course to is divine the said grace through deity, by at is located one's temple, which body. The Tirumala-Tirupati was once an elevation surrounded of 3,000 feet, by heavy to honor In an effort of its original the beauty forests. setting, a large nursery has and the temple established encourages as prasada. tree saplings to take home is This temple pilgrims and blessed the richest shrine in India and carries with it a great in the deal of is a devotional

dharmic and financial clout, both in India and with

("non-Resident-Indian") temples upward of U.S. and silver of Hindus

the "NRI"
diaspora. This 300 its

The wealth
annual does not

of the temple is legendary; in 1996,

was the gold $35.6 million contributions

the reported
a year. (around under

income include

kgs of gold and 1,880 kgs of silver in 1996) or the income from
investments. care, and its This 12 major temples temple has about are emulated initiatives elsewhere.

190
The the

Vasudha Narayanan
plants sold of one five as prasada cents in various can one 1981 are each. inexpensive; they cost about are The cultivated saplings

equivalent suitable for the them at home

soil

Tirumala temple name of devotee darshan tions names initiative enous plains.22

wherever have since

parts of India, and by planting a have of the sacred of piece place at the lives. At the same time, officials Vanabhivriddhi. for the purchase in the very amount inner hard of under the program a In this program, and planting of trees

run a "bioaesthetic"

Sri Venkateswara donates money

and plants. The donor

of (viewing on Tirumala of trees donors has

is honored

by being granted

special

the deity (normally the

accommoda? shrine), to get), and public their donations). This

acknowledgment

of the gift (strategically placed boards list the

and

over 2,500,000 been successful: apparently indig? are said to have been planted on India's hills and

Sacred Trees in Temples Almost every temple in South India dedicated

or Vishnu, vriksha, "official" a or to a manifestation of as old the tree regarded special a grand tree is usually used for circumambulation vriksha trees

to the gods Shiva

has a sthala goddess, to that area. This sacred specimen, surrounded devotees. pilgrims by and by pilgrims trees and reminds

a path The sthala that The all

all symbolizes are worthy of respect.

a major cen? Trees Badrinath, of Badrinath. pilgrimage was a victim A handful in the Himalayas, of overuse. of to in mountains. the temple, the forested would go high pilgrims to be surrounded at 3,130 it used Located meters, by heavy ter forests. temple the G. over 400,000 roads, the every year. Through joint efforts B. Pant Institute of India's Himalayan Now, with the chief new visit pilgrims of the director Environment the of and

Development, thousands the town, the plants; supplied grims priest would fall. to plant the told not Shiva's come matted

and the residents of priest of the temple, in 1993. The Institute of trees were planted the priest blessed them and urged the pil? as a devotion. sign of religious the Goddess (the Ganga Lord Shiva her and promised she did not to break flood The river) her the

the

trees

story of how to Earth until hair

contained

Ecological
The trees

Perspectives
cut;

from theHindu Traditions

the Ganga floods the

191

plains. The priest likened the forests to the matted hair of Shiva.
are now in summer land and

landslides destroy

the local villages. The priest urged the pil?

restore his for Lord Shiva; you will "Plant these seedlings grims: leader who the land." The religious hair and protect supervised trees: said that "We all have a duty to plant efforts the planting and And the head? inspire meditation." village they give shade man remarked, to protect." "These are sacred trees that we will do our best

Many

of the plants died during the winter

G. B. Pant Institute established to acclimatize

that followed.
a nursery

In
at

the response, Hanumanchatti cial metal the trees oak,

covers

plants. for planting maple,

snow to prevent Scientists determined

spe? seedlings. designed from breaking the soft tips of native the most promising species. and birch, As a some

It also

and preserving biodiversity?Himalayan as other as well and juniper, spruce, survival rates a height dramatically, improved of two meters.23

consequence, have plants The of Lord

reached

Paradise Krishna

tal initiatives.24

of Vrindavana. in the Pur anas, The International

the pastoral home Vrindavan, is the site of major environmen? Conscious? of Krishna Society

ness
Nature to

(ISKCON)
(WWF),

is working

with
and

the World

Wide

Fund

for

plant

dumping ciation as the Eco

agency, Environ, Eco-corps, the clean the holy Yamuna and trees, River, stop in the area. The World Asso? of toxic waste Vaisnava The saint," "patron of of Krishna. Many BAL with (Balaram

a U.K.-based

it were,

in this project. is actively involved is Balarama, the elder brother now work young unemployed people

of Balaram). have Sena, or the Ecological Army Organizers to the local the them movement, join urged population telling "is calling Seva that Lord Balaram every one of us for Dham we see to in As the the of (service story Vrindavana, holy land)."25 it is not that are but also just trees and groves to be sacred. considered the mighty rivers of India

Rivers: Physically Polluted Moral Purifiers

in the great rivers of India, one is said to be morally By bathing or auspiciousness. A story of sins and to acquire merit cleansed in oral tradition the A makes point: king goes to sleep popular

192
on the

Vasudha Narayanan
banks of the River sees of the night, he covered in the holy river. They from the river emerge on several nights The king returns disappear. he asks them who thing. Eventually are the embodiments of the rivers they When Ganga. some women he wakes up in filth cleansed and in the taking and the

middle a dip then same that

sees

bathe they tell him, human beings act. absolved that The rivers?embodied by to the Ganga, the moral dirt and then come to purify Ganga assumed The kinds themselves. Variations on purified, to get herself goes no that she needs generic of dirt. Moral version of dirt

they are; they reply of India. Every day, in the rivers and their sins are as women?absorb the grand purifier, describe where the it is generally between two

the story

although

purification.26 the story distinguishes or sin, known as papa in the bodies connection that in other the of between Hindu

perceptible therefore,

as physical dirt a direct makes

in Sanskrit, is the river. The story, morality contexts and his and there or is her

physical
purity, bodies clothes.

pollution.
one may of water Ritual also

In addition
note

to moral

purity and physical

a third kind of purity: ritual purity.27 Bathing in rivers and other

ritually purifies encompasses purity is not clean ritually pilgrim physical but all that purity, Even if a person is may the other with people be contagious story to purify indus? Rapid waste in used

is physically physically and garb enough Given about

and ritually clean, unclean deemed ritually to "pollute" him or her. the of and

pure.28 association the mere or impure

pollution the River Ganga in its waters themselves has

India's

rivers, the need of

traditional rivers toxic

is particularly

trialization

of India's many being as latrines, texts in the the dharma injunctions against despite to purify stand such a practice. The rivers that are to supposed un? countenance rancid of the adharma, stagnant, reflecting behavior. righteous a priest to keep his and engineer, works A mahant from more pollution. (spiritual in Varanasi, and administrative head) of the second-largest temple on why and how the holy River he educates Ganges people He notes that corpses, should be kept free of bacterial pollution. Veer Bhadra "Mother Mishra, free Ganga"

dangerous produced rivers. The sacred

poignant. levels of rivers

are often

Ecological
not quite burnt

Perspectives
from the

from theHindu
funeral pyre, are

Traditions

193

"These people," says Mishra Ganga. bitterly, avers Mother."29 Mishra that there is a saying my us salvation; he added: "this will culture grants people tradition "Mishra's technology Devotion the Yamuna stop going and dies, blend could and River. to the the faith

into the dropped "are trying to kill that Ganges if the end the that and

and if the culture river, dies, It has been observed dies." and faith with science saves

of culture be what law have The

tradition ultimately also come River

Yamuna

the Ganges."30 in the saving of together is one of the most sacred

in India, beloved for its close association with the life of Krishna. was When Krishna the river born, his father carried him across to a place on of safety; the banks of this up river, growing

Krishna played with

while moonlit rivers they were nights. in India, bathing And with

the cowherd girls and stole their clothes

in the river. is today industrial It was one on the banks the most of the

Yamuna

that he played his magic

yet this tons of

flute and danced through the

of

pollutants being Nath Chaturvedi,

into dumped a traditional

polluted and other sewage, dyes, the sacred waters. Gopishwar ritual leader for pilgrims and a

resident of Mathura

(the birthplace of Lord Krishna), has taken

a group of the lead in trying to save the river. Leading pilgrims to the river for a ritual bath in 1985, he saw the water colored

red and green from industrial dyes that had been dumped from
the nearby mills. at their picking his mother, working counsel been After District the One at the to "save in these the court Dead flesh. fish This covered scene the ground, and birds were struck him as a desecration of has been then, Chaturvedi several Interest "Public filing an attorney who has the environment. an Additional favor, to of are (and implement the of rivers. India

the river Yamuna. his mother" cases found was reflect some be was of M. cases

Since by

Litigation"

(PIL) briefs in the Allahabad High Court. The legal

C. Mehta, forefront dealing in Sri Chaturvedi's appointed briefly on with

Magistrate court decision.31 also may there are to are mothers,

in Mathura the most

Though are considered male. Rivers

exceptions, while female, to be

gender of the

rivers

mountains nurturing

perceived feeding,

generally sometimes and when

judgmental)

nourishing,

quenching,

194
angered

Vasudha Narayanan
are also personified as a consort of Lord consort near river of Lord as dei? Shiva.

the earth. Rivers flooding is sometimes ties; Ganga portrayed

In the plains of Tamilnadu,

seen and have as a devotee several temples and

Kaveri Amman
the

(Mother Kaveri)
Vishnu, Kumbakonam) in the innermost

is

sometimes

a striking image In the pre-eighth-century shrine. a small village near Kumbakonam, in a maternal is swollen residents posture after the with

(like Terazhundur, of this personified Vishnu

at Tirucherai, temple the River Kaveri is seen as lap. When I have the Kaveri heard

a child monsoon

on her

the early on an in of Srirangam island the (a large temple a middle of the river) say she was is This wonderful pregnant. celebration of her life-giving the rich river, surging potential: with the monsoon into the the waters, sweeps plains, watering rains, town

newly planted crops in the Thanjavur delta, and giving birth the food that will nourish the population. On the feast patinettam perukku, the eighteenth day in the Tamil month Adi (July 15-August 14), all those who live on the banks
Kaveri in the Tamilnadu take celebrate the

to of of of

river's food "pregnancy a to eat river the banks of the and cravings." They picnic as at Kaveri is the Amman the every picnic. there; guest Just women are indulged food cravings of pregnant by the family, Kaveri Amman's extended her celebrates family life-giving potential by colored picnicking rices

woman
ful of

of the family

"
to

with

her.

In some

families,

the

oldest

[leads] the festival and [throws] a hand?

the macakkai [food cravings satisfy as she Kaveri... of the swiftly during pregnancy] flowing to the Lord's to oral tradition house."32 and hastened According a local sthala puranams that sacred (pamphlets glorify place), bathing November in the river Kaveri during a specific month of the year

(generally held to be the Tamil month

of Aippasi, October

15

sins and gives a human away one's 14) washes being to some liberation. Hindu supreme traditions, Thus, according or Mother can give one both nourish? Kaveri only Lord Vishnu and salvation.

ment Women The

and Ecology com? is sometimes years at various times in many

in recent of rivers despoliation women to the of pared denigration

Ecological
civilizations. been powerful

Perspectives
In India, women and the whose

from theHindu Traditions

situation names is complicated; are known on texts the other and there as poets, hand,

195
have pa? there

trons, performers, have also been some

philosophers; androcentric

has not been good. Although the lot of women a general statement that women have been dominated by men in the history of the Hindu tradition and that this corresponds to man's domination it is hard not of nature to draw who studies), and the plight and power. At active are the around involved ecofeminist (as is seen in many a comparison the rivers between are the target of crimes of greed of Indian women of have become

in which practices one cannot make

of women

same

time,

a number issues.

ecological in the Chipko

in communicat? of trees.33 Women protection of sometimes the such disasters, ing using tragedy ecological a as Bharata art forms traditional The Indian dance. Natyam, in India and practice of classical dance (natya shastra) theory most a religious In other words, dance?indeed, activity. a some Hindu arts?is within performing path to salvation a com? traditions. Mallika noted dancer and feminist Sarabhai, is seen as

parts which movement, are also involved

In many

India, women the promotes

municator, movement

the story of the Chipko (or "tree-hugging") presents in her dances entitled Shakti: The Power of Women. on themes compositions Sujatha Vijayaraghavan's ecological are choreographed a in well-known dance teacher by Rhadha, and

and Sunanda regularly performed by Suchitra Nitin is One of Narayanan. pieces Vijayaraghavan's particularly in this context. in which The the song refers to a myth striking save to God Shiva drank the universe. When the gods poison Channai, were the ocean of milk, the using churning as a out the snake rope, serpent fumes, spit poisonous which overwhelmed the participants. Shiva saved them by con? and the demons Vasuki the poison and his neck turned suming one. The Nilakantha?the blue-throated the pattern of Karnatic music in the blue. He is known song as following Begada: is set in

raga

0 Nilakantha, lord, come here! You have your work cut out for you; 1 understand that day, you consumed poison

196

Vasudha Narayanan
it do just to sip but will a tiny bit of poison in your We palm?

have spread potent poison all over this earth, the waters of the sea, the air, everywhere. O Shiva, be a sport, O Shiva, be a sport ?if you suck this poison out you too will turn blue all over like Vishnu!34 Notice but The with that the references from the are not to philosophical texts, that many Hindus would know. is teasing-?a in many mood adopted in which the young songs, girl flirts here

to a story tone of

the Puranas song

Natyam a god, in a romantic situation. is Shiva Here, frequently a at told that the sipping of little poison the time that the cosmic ocean is not enough; of milk was churned he is to suck out the from but

classical

Bharata

context The is pre? the whole world. traditional to to has been attention the modified draw message served, we our the poison have that and earth, water, spread through context to use the strong air. The mythic enables the writer than a more muted word rather word like "pollu? "poison," poison
tion."

The diverse. and

audience It includes

for

these

ecologically

aware

dance

recitals

is

management rectly or indirectly, in urban

dances attention as

workers, government industrialists, are responsible, who either di? for regulating Mallika Sarabhai pollution. to get the she is able and rural areas where

the very executives

A particular of multiple audiences. of dance strength is its subtlety: without the songs strident, being a message and expressions that the convey lingers long after a large extent, over. I is To would the argue, performance a medium performance of reshaping Hindu context. does and the work transforming that texts once did: that theological in the attitudes and perspectives

Sathya Sai Baba and Clean Water Supply

Sai Baba is one Sathya India. After he became of the most that influential some aware in modern gurus of parts Rayalseema

in Andhra Pradesh,

India, had suffered drought conditions

for

Ecological
years, the guru

Perspectives
announced of

from theHindu Traditions

in 1994 that a "Water Supply

197
Project"

would

be undertaken by his Sathya Sai Central Trust. He drew

the attention

to the forty and the prime minister the people connec? water draws Sai Baba clearly problem. five-year-old as He is quoted and morality. tions between the rivers, religion, are In rivers the "Rivers of God. like the Krishna, gift saying: a lot of water to flow into the sea. ... If is allowed the Godavari, to meet I am prepared the cost is constraint of finance, there

even if it is 100 or 200 crores

fulfilling to make tees are prepared to hands my anyone."35 Baba the water the morals also reason? stated: "Water of scarce this dire need of

[one crore is ten million]

people. I have not The

for
devo?

the Rayalaseema but any sacrifice

stretched

In attributing the lack of water

Because the

to the decline of morality,

scarcer

Sai

Morality is getting scarce."36 been lost, water covers and in? The Water square kilometers 20,000 Project water. Mobilizing his devotees and cludes 750 villages without have financial crease the resources, Sai Baba of has safe allegedly been water. "love of the able His and to region's supply as a gesture the project regard as an implicit sion"?as well the ecological the power of may ultimately of the behavior and Constraints philosophers have dominion that Western argued over na? and control responsibility Such today. for the environ? drinking of Sai Baba's indictment devotees compas?

is getting life breath.

is every day. What of morality men, among in the world. is For human life morality makes humanness blossom. Because

is getting decline

in?

Although debated, Sai Baba change Limitations Some

of impact the teacher have devotees. in

Sai Baba's

government. can be activities Gurus the power like to

is undisputable. their hands

environmental

traditions encourage religious burden of ture, and thus bear a special our state environment of natural tragic mental

turn to Eastern to sometimes traditions philosophers resources to help Westerners seek spiritual and embrace abjure But if Eastern traditions, eco-friendly including Hindu? policies. ism, are so eco-friendly, why do the countries in which these

198
religions

Vasudha Narayanan
have been disasters have practiced and rampant proven as well. such a lamentable Rich record of industrialization? as the devotional can be in India, Hinduism Some Hindu values may some texts for Hindus, action. assume and Articles that But within to blame land in on there in often determine

ecological The answers and a dharmic source of

are, obviously, resources have

complex.

impede are more

complacency activism. ecological effective than

Moreover, in inspiring others furthermore worldviews

environmental is a direct fact, there the Hindu Western have sible view an

philosophy link between Hindu

are competing forces that Recent tradition. academic thought and actions for

practice. behavior tends of

scholarship the devastation colonization and southern

Third World

countries.
we in

J. Baird Callicott
intellectual in eastern Indian India's see

and Roger T. Ames

is respon? Asia.37 This

suggested for the failures is also held

that Western some

by

evaluating "focuses

important her almost of

figure position, entirely

like Vandana Shiva, authors, movement. In environmental that World's she

experience mentalism, tal devastation. pects of

colonialism, and so on, as the root She

notes Lance Nelson however, on the West, and the Third modernist modernization, of her

ings of Hindu thought."38 The responsibility around. gious certain There traditions contexts. than faith

the problem. the environmental

to thus tends . . . She also tends implications

develop environmen? country's as? the pre-colonial ignore to give idealized read? of certain of aspects

are

blame, and passages that encourage One must keep the

and

to be spread I believe, has texts within the Hindu reli? the acquisition in mind that of wealth of wealth in the Hindu in

hierarchy, Bhu-Devi/Prithvi
portance Sri/Lakshmi, and

(the Earth Goddess)

goddess

is of less im?
and good the for

fortune. Lakshmi has traditionally

people's for wealth quest In a world the earth. consumer than aspirations seems to be more where good

had a far greater hold on

the Earth intense fortune and Goddess, reverence than seems

and industrial growth, spending some very stiff competition. faces are other in Hindu There strands religious helped contribute to the current

on to depend the Earth Goddess traditions crisis. One that is

have

ecological

Ecological
the Hindu pure rectly that

Perspectives
that can

from theHindu Traditions

rivers like Ganga them.39 Others sacred are so have

199
inherently cor?

conviction

pollute nothing to notion of the pointed spots to be kept clean, is not sacred, which If certain

quite

pollution. and ought which tional Hindu focus niche, nity.

like Vrindavana

to space as contributing are inherently sacred the "profane earth or devo? to Puranic

one may pollute is not attached

narratives."40

And then there is the focus on "individuality"

traditions. lies on to the . . Whereas . into the Anil self, notes: Agarwal one's immediate of private the larger sphere family, society is carefully

in some of the
and and primary caste one's commu? scripted in

"Hinduism's

neglect the

Hindu
scends River same

tradition, public
chaos. to purify sacred at himself ..

life in India borders on and often de?

or herself. to may go down The next moment, is more on true the the Ganges the same

... A Hindu

person will
communities noted,

flush the toilet and discharge effluent into the very

river. than least ."41 While this in some Hindu "self" has to be the emphasis others, in some traditions.

TEXTS ON DHARMA

AND TEXTS ON THEOLOGY:

BIMORPHIC WORLDVIEWS

Classical Hindu
enumerate These sure), While

texts

in the beginning
matters

of the Common
a human

Era

being. kama (wealth, (sensual power), plea? and moksha from the circle of life and death).42 (liberation are usually seen as and sensual dharma, wealth, pleasure moksha rebirths wealth, of a sensual is liberation soul. There and from are this world texts that The and deal the with

the goals?or are dharma, artha

of value?of

this-worldly, repeated dharma,

pleasure,

liberation.

multiple

Hindu
this

traditions do differ from other world

religions in having

of goals and the array of texts that accompany variety means sev? them. This that Hinduism with adherents presents eral competing but distinct. systems, conceptual intersecting or liberation, texts that deal with moksha, are generally The with concerned three issues: the nature of reality, the including goal; and supreme being and the nature the of human the soul; the way goal. to the supreme Generally supreme the nature

200
of reality

Vasudha Narayanan
is called These tattva texts (truth) do not and focus that corresponds on much is the province with ethics of the or term

"theology." teous behavior

texts.

in this world;

righ? dharma

texts or sections tattva The that deal with focus theological on weaning a human from the of pursuit being earthly happi? ness to what to be the supreme they consider goal of liberation to keep this taxonomy in from this life. It is important (moksha) mind, tion because do not theological necessarily in many Hindu dharma doctrines trickle down that are oriented dharmic there to or libera? ethical into

injunctions; tion between Indeed,

traditions, and moksha.

in fact,

is a disjunc?

says that there is a fundamental J. A. B. van Buitenen is release between them: "Moksa, from the 'release,' opposition ... It is governed entire realm which dharma. there? stands, by . . Moksa, . to in is dharma. aban? the fore, however, opposition not in favor of anarchy, of the established but donment order, in favor dharma."43 of edge the of a self-realization While Daniel which Ingalls described cleavage by van Buitenen, were some men, that "[a]lways there religious dharma is precluded on disagrees he and in the realm the of sharp does acknowl? a few of them on the texts encour? like the para? of God, (Prithvi, or the Dharma texts texts nature

India's among greatest between contradiction promote age one digms. a theology that Thus, a pervasive pan-Indian Bhu Devi) Vasundhara, notion with that Nature the Mother

who leaders, and moksha."44

insisted

on Earth, behavior and moksha righteous concerns. to be detached A few from such have tried to bridge dharma

Bhagavadgita

and moksha

as a body the world emphasizes belief that Goddess Earth a consort is also of Vishnu, Goddess does not (Amba, Durga)

friendly tachment from that the the

necessarily (prakriti) behavior. renunciation, Likewise, celibacy, are virtues for one who seeks laudable cycle of life and have the Hindu children but death, is necessary to be kept traditions the texts for in mind of Western on

is synonymous to eco translate and dharma are de? liberation say These to see

begetting worldviews bimorphic relevance for

salvation. if we

viewpoints

Ecological
such tween to be as deep dharma

Perspectives

from theHindu Traditions

201

On another ecology. and tattva/moksha

the dissonance be? front, texts also accounts in part

for the fact that while

supreme, in society. correct It is quite of certain the texts "oneness" speak of the human the concept women

some Hindu
may to not

traditions hold the Goddess

hold a high position

necessarily some

speak cases, tattva

kinds

texts ?ito\ogicd\ltattva some of the universe in and, not most, of all creation. Some, though the absolute between the supreme identity say that of "oneness" soul of (atman)?an of many equality identity distinct that souls. in fact This

and being transcends

philosophical

system of nonduality

is discussed

by Western
Deutsch between that this

as an important resource in ecology. Eliot philosophers . to affirm ". .what it mean does writes, continuity man means essence natural thrust and the rest of life? Vedanta would maintain the recognition everything

expression of the arguments that Hindu

that fundamentally all life is one, that in is reality, and that this oneness its finds in a reverence for all things."45 The main made by Deutsch, philosophy or the supreme hurt ourselves. and Lance its ecological implications has recently argued not does system conceptual Nelson shows concludes how that the doc? doctrine Callicott, that emphasizes being, and and others if all creation therefore,

is to show

is ultimately Brahman, we hurt someone we While that the the "oneness" are underscored advaita eco-friendly

by Callicott,

promote

("non-dualism") behavior.46 nature. "is not

Nelson He

trine developed

by the Hindu

philosopher
the kind

Shankara

(c. seventh
non-dual that of

devalues century) actually istic Vedanta philosophy those for

of non-dualism

modes searching ecologically supportive thought it to be."47 wish might The philosophies are relevant of Shankara to and Ramanuja those who seek liberation, but not to those seeking moral rules to govern behavior. Hindu communities and customs everyday are established not on the sense of oneness or equality in found but on many on differences and hierarchies based moksha, caste, age, economic gender, class, limitations and richness, therefore, and we so on. With have had all their with to deal

202
the rule

Vasudha Narayanan
texts, narratives, of moksha for and actions traditions of dharma to prosperity rather of from direct than the the earth.

What moksha to worldly Dharma in other times as the

I am urging is a shift texts to the resources behavior. texts and These narratives sometimes to do

leading in our perspective that have a more are the popular in some

the tattval relevance embodied

practices like

in the dharmic
countries: ignored,

tradition and in the bbakti/devotional

are followed, evaded?and ways sometimes sometimes social law

rituals.
codes some?

sometimes devotional resource

flouted, taken to heart

right thing to dharma texts,

to maintain (bhakti) for

In addition stability. seem to be the exercises

in India. As activists greatest potential ecological we or or to to have devotion Krishna Mother seen, Ganga some people to take action to supply Yamuna has impelled safe rivers. and and clean water, trees, up protect drinking plant can we some stories? What learn from such success Clearly, Hindu and the texts, traditions, Narratives behavior. like saplings as universe Goddesses the seem the and the of rituals story more God. can of Shiva inspire eco-friendly Parvati and Ganga, about talking as of rivers

to have

Mother

the and inspired great passion one Yamuna and of the other up rivers; rivers, Ganga cleaning care of soon. can Gurus will and teachers be taken hopes, awareness and these teachers mobilize and organize action,

body has evoked

than impact The sanctity

may

hold

the key to avoiding

ecological

tragedy.

It is when

like Chaturvedi families leaders, whether they are from the priestly or gurus, or heads institutions and Mishra, of environmental team up with and like Dr. Purohit, scientists, lawyers temples, the greatest activists for that Hindu have potential ecological
success.

and goddesses, gurus Stories, hagiographie to be pressed will all have dharmic models can make we Prithvi further progress. Devi, can protect transform herself us if we from protect a nourishing her. If she

into

and literature, service before

Earth, is abused, she can into a wrathful mother

or Mother

deity. One beings

texts is to encourage human of the Hindu of the goals a composer to seek enlightenment. and Vairamuthu,

Ecological
poet

Perspectives

from theHindu Traditions

203

a song on the wrote in South India, popular recently a us tree. to In of the last he have the right urges line, beauty a tree. tree. toward the is attitude Bodhi tree, he says, Every was tree: now The Buddha the Bodhi under every enlightened can enlighten us about on Mother tree in the world the burden Earth.

ENDNOTES
^ome in this essay in an earlier of mine, "'One Tree

paragraphs

appeared

paper

is Equal to Ten Sons': Some Hindu Responses to the Problems of Ecology, Population and Consumption," Journal of the American Academy of Reli? gion 65 (2) (June 1997): 291-332. 2Two of the most important books that have highlighted the many answers to this question are Lance Nelson, ed., Purifying the Earthly Body of God: Reli? gion and Ecology in Hindu India (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1998) and Christopher Key Chappie and Mary Evelyn Tucker, eds., Hinduism and Ecology: The Intersection of Earth, Sky and Water (Cam? bridge: Center for the Study of World Religions, Harvard Divinity School,
2000). For an overview of early Indian literature, see Purushottama Bilimoria,

Ethics of Indian Religious Traditions," emory.edu/COLLEGE/RELIGION/faculty/bilimoria/paper.htm>.

3Kurma fur ana, 1.27.16-57. Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van

"Environmental

at <http://www.
Buitenen, Clas?

A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas sical Hindu Mythology: Temple University Press, 1978), 39.
4J. A. B. van Buitenen, trans., The Mahabharata: The Book of

(Philadelphia:
the Forest (Chi?

cago: The University

added. 5Richard 757-769. 6Gerald J. Larson, Lariviere,

of Chicago Press, 1978), 586-589,

and Panditas: Some Ironies

595-596;

emphasis

"Justices

in Contemporary

Readings

of the Hindu Legal Past," Journal of Asian Studies 48 (4) (1989):

"Conceptual Resources in South Asia for 'Environmental

Ethics,'" inNature inAsian Traditions of Thought: Essays in Environmental Philosophy', ed. J. Baird Callicott and Roger T. Ames (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1989), 267-277.
7For a typical hymn of this genre and its connection to environmental ethics, see

O. P. Dwivedi, "Dharmic Ecology," in Chappie and Tucker, eds., Hinduism and Ecology, 10-11. Christopher Key Chappie summarizes the literature on ecology and the Vedas in his article "Towards an Indigenous Indian Environ inNelson, ed., Purifying the Earthly Body of God. mentalism," 8"Ahimsa paramo dharma" Anusasana Mahabharata, ("Nonviolence Parva 115.1. is the highest form of dharma"), "Lack of malice to all beings in

204
thought,

Vasudha Narayanan
word, and Shanti deed; Parva, this quoted is the essence of Vaman the eternal Kane, faith." of in Pandurang History

Mahabharata,

Dharmas?stra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law) dia: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1958).
9Manu Smriti, 4:56.

(Poona, In?

10Manu Smriti, 2:17-23; adapted from Georg Buhler, The Laws of Manu Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1964), 32-33.

(New

nSee David Kinsley, "Learning the Story of the Land: Reflections on the Liberat? ing Power of Geography and Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition," inNelson, ed., Purifying the Earthly Body of God, 225-246.
12See, for instance, Vandana Shiva, Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and Survival

in India (New Delhi: Kali forWomen), 1988, and Kapila Vatsyayan, Prakriti: The Integral Vision, 5 vols. (New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Center for
the Arts), "Sacred 1995. For a revisionistic Reflections Tantric of Immanence: view, Ecofeminism see Rita Sherma, DasGupta in Hindu in Tantra,"

Nelson,

ed., Purifying
in Chappie The

the Earthly Body of God,

and Tucker, of Ramanuja eds., Hinduism (New

89-132. An Ecological
23-38. Univer? Yale and

13K.Seshagiri Rao, "The Five Great Elements

Perspective," 14John Carman, Theology

(Pancamah?bh?ta):
Haven, Conn.:

Ecology,

sity Press, 1974),

15S. S. Raghavachar,

124-133.
trans., Ved?rtha Sangraba of Sri R?m?nuj?c?rya (Mysore:

Sri Ramakrishna
*6Ibid., 17Matsya Matsya Asrama, 14. Puranam, Puranam,

Ashram,

1968),

11, 13.

chap. pt. 2

154, 1917).

506-512.

(Allahabad:

Adapted Surendra

from Natha

"A Taluqdar of Oudh," Vasu of Bhuvaneswari

Bahadurganj,

18Kane,History
Law), 19Ibid., vol. 415. V,

of Dharmas?stra
pt. 1, 415-416.

(Ancient and Mediaeval

Religious

and Civil

20Shamasastry,

trans.,

Kautilya's

Arthasastra

(Mysore:

Mysore

Printing

and

Publishing House,
21Choodie Shivaram,

1967), 225.
"Court Decree Retires Tirupati Temple's Hereditary

Priests," Hinduism

Today

18 (6) (1996): 1.
available n.d., information in the see information office of T. T.

of T. T. Devasthanam, 22Pamphlet For Devasthanam. general vana_schemes_p7htm>.

<http://www.tirumala.org/

23Edwin Bernbaum, "Badrinath's Trees: Local Forests Being Restored as Pilgrims Now Plant Trees as Offering to God," Hinduism Today, May 1999, and at
Himalayan Almora, <http://www.hinduismtoday.eom/1999/5/#gen382>. Environment and Development Uttar Pradesh, India. G. is located B. Pant Institute Armai, of at Kosi-Kat

Ecological
24For discussions

Perspectives
on the involvement

from theHindu Traditions

of the International Society

205
of Krishna

Consciousness with ecological schemes and the philosophical background, see Ranchor Prime, Hinduism and Ecology: Seeds of Truth (Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass, 1994), and Michael A. Cremo and Mukunda Goswami, Divine

Nature: A Spiritual Perspective on the Environmental Crisis (Los Angeles: Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 1995). The ecological efforts inVrindavana and
the textual sources that inspire such activities are also discussed in Bruce M.

Sullivan's detailed article "Theology and Ecology at the Birthplace of Krsna," inNelson, ed., Purifying the Earthly Body of God, 247-267. 25Swami BV Parivrajak, "Where is 'That' Vrindavan?" (15 January 1999) VINA (Vaishnava Internet News Agency) at <http://www.vina.org/articles/
where_is_that_vr 26Professor 27Vasudha Diana Narayanan, inda van. Eck, Harvard "The Two html>. University, Levels personal of Auspiciousness communication. in Srivaisnava Ritual

in

and Literature," Journal of Developing

Societies

1 (1) (1985): 57. Purity and Pollu? Time

28Kelly D. Alley, "Idioms of Degeneracy: Assessing Ganga's tion," inNelson, ed., Purifying the Earthly Body of God. 29Meenakshi Ganguly, "Veer Bhadra Mishra: Holy War Magazine, 2 August 1999, 81.

for 'MyMother,'"

30Robert Sanders, "Saving the 'Mother of India': Berkeley Technology May Clean Up Ganges River," <http://www.berkeley.edu/news/berkeleyan/1998/ 1118/india.html>.
31I am indebted to David Haberman for this information. Professor Haberman's

work on the Yamuna River will be published Yamuna: River of Love in an Age of Pollution.
32V. Sadagopan, 33Vandana Shiva, personal Staying communication. Alive: Women, Ecology,

in his forthcoming

book,

and

Development

(London:

Zed Books, 1988); J. Baird Callicott, Earth's Insights: A Survey of Ecological Ethics from the Mediterranean Basin to the Australian Outback (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1994), 220-221; Bart Gruzalski, "The Chipko Movement: A Gandhian Approach to Ecological Sustainability and Liberation from Economic Colonisation," in Ethical and Political Dilemmas of Modern India, ed. Ninian Smart and Shivesh Thakur (New York: St.
Martin's Press, 1993), 100-125. See also Mark Shepard, "'Hug the Trees!':

Chandi

Prasad

Bhatt

and

the Chipko

Movement,"
Ayya," song

at <http://www.
in Begada raga,

markshep.com/nonviolence/GT_Chipko.html>. 34Sujatha Vijayaraghavan, personal "Neelakanthare communication. Varum

unpublished,

35Sanathana Sarathi, December

The Project: works/water. "The Sathya Acute htm>. Sai Water Project," Need

1994, 323; quoted

in "The Sathya Sai Water

for Water,"

at <http://members.aol.com/introsai/

as above.

206

Vasudha Narayanan

37J.Baird Callicott and Roger T. Ames, Nature in Asian Traditions of Thought: Essays in Environmental Philosophy (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1989), 281. 38Nelson, "The Dualism
83, n. 16.

of Non-Dualism,"

in Purifying

the Earthly Body,

82

39See the excellent article by Kelly Alley, "Idioms of Degeneracy : Assesing Ganga's in Nelson, ed., Purifying the Earthly Body of God, Purity and Pollution," 297-330. 40David Kinsley, "Learning the Story of the Land: Reflections on the Liberating Power of Geography and Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition," inNelson, ed., Purifying the Earthly Body of God, 242. 41 Anil Agarwal, "Can Hindu Beliefs and Values Help India Meet its Ecological Crisis?" in Chappie and Tucker, eds., Hinduism and Ecology, 174. 42Kane,History
Law), tute, 43J. A. B. vol. 1974), van

of Dharmas?stra
1, 2d ed. (Poona,

(Ancient and Mediaeval

India: Bhandarkar

Religious

and Civil
Insti?

II, pt. 8-9.

Oriental

Research

Buitenen,

"Dharma

and Moksa,"

Philosophy

East

and

West:

Journal of Oriental (1957): 37.

44Ingalls, "Dharma

and Comparative
in ibid.,

Thought
48.

7 (1) (1957): 33-40;

7 (2)

and Moksa,"

45Eliot Deutsch, quoted in J. Baird Callicott, Earth's Insights: A Survey of Eco? Basin to the Australian Outback logical Ethics from the Mediterranean (Berkeley: University of California Press, 199A), 49.
46Callicott, 47Nelson, Earth's "The Insights, 50; Nelson, "The 65. Dualism of Non-Dualism."

Dualism

of Non-Dualism,"