MSt Programme Course Director: Word count: Thesis Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Graham Beadle October 2003 Paul Kirby 16600 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Contents 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 Introduction Overview of Productivity and Building Related Issues 2.1 Definition of Productivity 2.2 Measuring Productivity 2.3 The Development of Productivity Issues 2.4 Present Status 2.5 Buildings and Productivity Change 3.1 Changing Economy 3.2 Changing Society 3.2.1 Home working 3.3 Organisational Change 3.3.1 Organisational Structure 3.3.2 Organisation Management 3.4 What Organisations Need from Buildings The Effects of Advancing Technology 4.1 Advances in Office ITC 4.2 What Will ITC Equipment Offer in the Next Ten Years 4.3 The Influence of Technology on Buildings Productivity Research 5.1 Individual' 5.2 Group 5.3 Organisation 5.4 Findings The Individual's Relationship with the Environment 6.1 Psychological Effects on Individual Productivity 6.1.1 Arousal 6.1.2 Distraction and Overload 6.1.3 Fatigue 6.1.4 Neurological Research Supporting Donald Hebb's Theory 6.2 Elements of the Environment that Affect Individual Productivity 6.2.1 Control and Adaptation 6.2.2 Forgiveness 6.2.3 Satisfaction and Environmental Factors 6.3 Environmental Factors 6.3.1 Lighting 6.3.2 Windows and Daylighting 6.3.3 Temperature and Thennal Comfort 6.3.4 Ventilation and Air Quality 6.3.5 Noise and Music 6.3.5.1 Noise 6.3.5.2 Music 6.3.6 Workstations and Space 6.3.7 Colour 6.4 Summary of Selected Criteria for Individual Productivity 4 6 6 6 8 11 12 15 15 16 17 18 18 18 19 21 21 21 23 24 26 28 29 30 31 31 31 32 32 33 34 35 36 36 37 38 39 41 42 42 42 43 43 46 46 IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 2 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Contents continued; 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 Group Working 7.1 Space Planning 7.1.1 Gathering Space 7.2 Building Space Planning for Knowledge Based Work 7.3 Summary of Selected Criteria for Group Productivity Organisations 8.1 Summary of Selected Criteria for Organisational Productivity Case Study 9.1 Background Information 9.2 The Building 9.3 "Individual" Productivity Assessment 9.3.1 Artificial Lighting 9.3.2 Daylighting and Windows 9.3.3 Temperature and Thermal Comfort 9.3.4 Ventilation and Air Quality 9.3.5 Noise 9.3.6 Workstation and Space 9.3.7 ControVAdaptation 9.4 "Group" Productivity Assessment 9.4.1 Building's Plan Form and Structure 9.5 "Organisation" Productivity Assessment 9.6 Comparison with New Build 9.7 Findings from Case Study Conclusion Appendix A Office Environment Survey Appendix B The Physical Environments Effect on Group Performance Appendix C Description of Work Style Characteristics Appendix D Staff Preferences List Appendix E Patent Application Appendix F Space Planning of a Floor plate References Bibliography 48 48 51 51 53 54 55 56 56 58 65 65 66 68 69 70 71 72 73 76 79 79 81 82 85 95 97 98 99 100 101 107 IDEE Thesis, University of Cambridge 3 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 1.0 Introduction Research has shown that the re-use of existing building structures offers significant environmental and sustainability benefits due to the reduced need for primary resources 1. However, for office buildings, this is only a viable option if the existing structures can accommodate the needs of future businesses. Traditionally, offices have been demolished and replaced as business organisations' needs have changed and new technologies introduced, but do today's and future businesses need something more than what existing structures can offer? The hypothesis proposed for determining if existing office structures can provide for future business needs is to consider how well they can provide for good productivity. For many years, organisations have been trying to improve office productivity, but never more so than with the emergence of the global economy where competition with cheaper labour forces around the world is ever increasing, and higher productivity is widely seen as necessary for survival. Some leading companies are now turning their attention to the buildings in which they work in the search for productivity enhancement 2 3 4 5 6. However, this hypothesis does introduce two complexities. Firstly, the nature of work is going through a phase change due to the rise of the global economy, social developments and advances in technology. This therefore requires the nature of future business organisations to be established, along with their requirements of office buildings. Secondly, there are no guidelines as to what provides for good productivity, so these requirements have to be established. This thesis therefore establishes what organisations need from buildings by considering the economic, social and technological changes taking place. Then, through reasoning the requirements for good office productivity are established. Which are then applied to a case study building that serves as the basis of determining if existing structures can provide for future business needs. IDBE Tllesis, University of Cambridge 4 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? / Introduction ~ / " ~ Social, Organisational Productivity Office Technology & Economic change Present Status Productivity Research ,ir , Individual Group Organisation Productivity Productivity Productivity
~ ~ I Criteria I Criteria Criteria " / Case Study ~ + Individual Group Orgall1sation Productivity Productivity Productivity Assessment Assessment Assessment 1 Conclusion - Figure l.l Structuring of thesis IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 5 Graham Beadle, IDEE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 2.0 Overview of Productivity and Building Related Issues The following section provides background information on productivity and the present status of knowledge in the subject area, and a view on the scale of influence that buildings have on the overall productivity of an organisation. 2.1 Definition of Productivity There are many definitions of the term productivity available, amongst the most clear and concise of these is that proposed by CIBSE 7
"The term productivity is generally recognised as being the measure of an individual's or an organisation's efficiency at producing products or providing services, normally expressed as a ratio of inputs to outputs. The outputs being measured in terms of quality and/or quantity, and inputs as time or money. Therefore productivity is increased by producing more with the same amount of resource or producing the same amount with fewer resources." Organisations generally gauge their productivity in terms of the ratio of input cost to revenue generated, as it is one of the few definitive measurement methods and of greatest significance in a commercial environment. Traditionally commercial organisations look to improve their productivity by reducing inputs, for example staff down-time (i.e. through illness, poor equipment), or improving outputs through employee training or staff motivation. However as workers' expectations have risen many organisations are now trying to improve their productivity by reduced staff turnover through offering incentives such as a good working environment and better career prospects. This has led some experts 8 to criticise the term "productivity" for being too financially orientated. They prefer the term "effectiveness" which is considered to encompass the human elements of organisation's operations, for example: Satisfaction and commitment among staff Communication and co-ordination among work units Adequate production Mutually supportive relationship with the external environment Ability to sustain performance The importance of individual satisfaction All of these directly or indirectly affect an organisations' performance. Satisfaction is a very important issue in its own right. In organisations where staff show high levels of satisfaction, low absenteeism and reduced staff turnover result. 2.2 Measuring Productivity The measurement of productivity is easily achieved at an organisational level where profit levels provide a clear indication of overall performance. Equally, where individuals or groups are producing quantifiable outputs, such as claims processed or calls dealt with, overall productivity levels may be measured numerically. However, determining productivity for more complex tasks involving decision- making, communication and creativity, is more difficult. Although managers generally know who their most productive and talented staff are through casual observations and again overall results. As a result, organisations are reasonably content with whatever form of productivity monitoring methods they use. IDBE Thesis, UniverSity of Cambridge 6 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? The problem of measuring productivity has prevented progress in the designing of buildings to contribute to performance because: There is no agreement on the elements that affect productivity. The elements that are chosen are difficult to quantify and rate. All office environments are unique in terms of work tasks and management style. The psychological element of individual personalities and group behaviour. As a result, most studies in offices are based on staffs perceived productivity (which is perception based). "The problem with using people is that they are difficult to calibrate" (Leaman) Many of the factors that influence productivity have been the subject of laboratory studies and field experiments, but the results often contrast, as shown below, and the claims made are often controversial. Table 6 Effect: of envlronmUl.tal on pcr{onnance. Productivby juue Mean total downcime du", to poor fi .. :ilities. " .. WII1king toIwailing at fu: :and eopicm Increased illumiDllDcc from 550 10 noo lUll for work Inccerustd iUuminancc from 100 to 1000 IWI for te:JI:ul., plant IntrOduction of up-lighting fOr YOU work Lighting n:f\arblsbment in Aircroft production Ligbt.iDll nfurbisb.m.ent in tleaignC11l' oma: Lighting rdurblsbment in drawing office JOCf'e&\ling DOise by 10 dB in POlit room Reducing (USiDg I::IU' plugs) 1m industrial weaveJS Rcdw.:iog noise in Il88CJIlbly room Inlrodudng I<OWld_absorbiQ. mau:rilll into wall or ryping pool Ez:treroe 10 nnlniUOJl$ factories Warm u:nIP"'dtuIQ in lIUIn%Jler months of tin-plate manuf'a.ctu1'C'l' High tc:UIpe:mtu...e la coal mine In(l'Odllcing AC mto utility company Io(l'Oduc:il'l. AC lnto lelillier manufacnu= Inrroducing AC into dectrical maaufac:tu.ring Uncomfortable cood.itio .. :s m typing pool mtn:lJ3ing fretlh air iOlDke to dilute pollutants Bringing office3 up to cutrcnt IAQ srandnrdo Movmg from NY to AC office Compariaooo of NV venus AC oRi""" Control ovet' envimnmentDl conditions Control over environmental CDndiLlon$ Office refurbishment RdW:biwment of bank Office ...eturbidunent of poIIt sorting office Office rdll1:bjshment and n:IIU'Uc:lllring New furniwre Properly de!ligned work:imrioD Incruaing privacy mrough offices Voice :response syst"X11.9 in calI.up c.:nucs General inlprOYernent in ""lviumment General inlprovemellt in environment lOBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 7 Soura: N A OsdQJld.& P BanJeu, Improving office produetivlly, HnI'Wl!lI: Addison, W""ley. LongJUllD (1999) . .....,,..,
"' -< . -' +3.0 "' +9.0 "' +2,8 -'N +12.9 -'N +15.0 N +6.0 -'N +61.0 N +15.0 N +10.0 -' +12.3 -' +10.0 -' +15.0 -' +15.0 -' Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? A productivity study conducted by the author on the hottest recorded day (10 th August 2003) shows the effect temperature has on mental productivity. The air temperature and words written each hour were recorded and the Figure 2.1 produced. Figure 2.1 shows how the words written per hour (mental productivity) reduced with increasing temperature. 300 - ::I 250 0 .c - 1l. 200 c Jl! 150 .;: ;: 100 II) "0 - 50 0 3: 0 33 11 :0012:0013:0014:0015:0016:0017:0018:00 Hour of Day Figure 2.1 Effect of temperature on mental productivity 34 33 I!! ::I 32 m :v 31 c . ~ E II) 30 CI) .2 - II) 29 .!: Qj IOU 28 0- o 27 B 26 .5 25 One may question the validity of these results, but the methodology is similar to most productivity studies on mental tasks. This serves to show how such studies are subject to interpretational differences and are of questionable validity. 2.3 The Development of Productivity Issues Since the benefits and methods of enhanced productivity were first recognised in the late nineteenth century by F. W. Taylor,' it has been the subject of much research. The first research by Taylor involved time and motion studies based on physical activities with the aim of minimising movement. Then in the 1930s the effects of environmental conditions such as lighting levels, temperature and rest breaks on factory workers were studied by E.G. Mayoll. Today, the subject is recognised to encompass not only the physical processes and physiological conditions, but also psychological and sociological issues associated with the mental task and social interaction inherent with office work. The psychology of human behaviour is in itself an immensely complex subject that has arguably progressed little beyond Freudian theories of circa 1902 '2 13. We are still no nearer knowing our minds as well as we know our bodies, as psychologists grapple with the question of to what extent the human mind is "hard wired". In addition to this are the complexities created by group working and managerial methods, which are time, culture and context dependent. This sociological and psychological cocktail is perhaps the greatest reason for there having been little progress on any of the subjects associated with productivity, and the reason for many researchers referring to the subject as being too complex, requiring too many interrelated variables to be taken into account'4. There is even confusion amongst researchers as to what issues affect productivity. Some researchers fail to identify buildings as having any influence on productivity, as shown in the Table 2.2 15
IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 8 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Source Paper Factors affecting motivation, job satisfaction and performance Aronoff and Physical setting, motivation, respect, satisfaction with goals, Kaplan trade-offs, expectations and equity. Arvery et al Locus of neuroticism, affectivity related to job satisfaction, education, age, cognitive ability, socio-economic status, career goals, tasks identity, autonomy, skill variety, feed back, congruence between personality and work environment. Bakke Job satisfaction and requirements, communication system, status, reward, pay, organisational character, identity, knowing job, initiatives, job security, control, pride, and self-respect. BIackler and Identity, meaning of work, social interaction, responsibility to peer group, Williams goal setting, equity, expectancy, group cohesiveness, peer pressure, Brown Relation ships with management, relationship with co-workers, responsibility, pride of craft, self respect, status, sense of usefulness and control over work Sundstrom Responsibility autonomy, pay, job security, relationship with co-workers, promotion, the work, itself, and physical environment. Table 2.2 The relationship between productivity, motivation and environmental factors IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 9 Graham I3eadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office BUildings Provide for Future Business Needs? A more holistic and structured view of the issues which affect productivity and performance as proposed by Bartlett is shown below l6 ; Environment Air quality Lighting Ventilation Temperature Ergonomics Status symbols Aesthetics/Colour Figure 2.2 Facets of productivity However, the researchers of these individual elements tend to stay within their specialised circles, and as a result a multidisciplinary approach has never been taken, and no guidance is available to building designers on the requirements for productivity. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 10 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 2.4 Present Status The influence that buildings have on organisational performance is seldom recognised by occupiers and rarely acknowledged by designers. This, combined with the complexity of the subject has meant that there has been very little interest in the subject, and investment in research has generally focused on very specific issues. This has resulted in some very good individual pieces of work, but none that provides designers and organisations with an holistic view of productivity requirements. There is also a wall of confusion that must be seen through in order to identify the real issues associated with productivity. This wall been created by businesses that profit form selling products and services to organisations on the basis of productivity benefits. For companies such as these there is no benefit for the subject area to be developed. Figure 2.3 The productivity wall of confusion To this day, there is no obvious theory or model of the office environmen t that can be used by designers or organisations to consider the issues that affect workplace performance. This is partially because of the complexity of the subject, but also due to the piece-meal approach taken by many researchers, which contributes little to advancing the overall subject. Organisations rarely relate productivity to buildings beyond basic proximity planning. This is hardly surprising as they are constantly subjected to business pressures and seek improved productivity through better management, training and better equipment where large benefits can be more easily gained and immediately recognised. Little consideration is given to the kinds of conditions that affect human performance. This is most noticeable in the space planning of many offices. Designers tend to have a rough idea of some of the basic requirements, but these are almost always overtaken by issues such as aesthetics and their perceptions of space and light. Consequently, designs produced tend to follow fashion rather than function. The design of buildings is a very complex task in itself, requiring countless judgements to be made, and priorities set within the confines of a time, cost and quality brief. Under such conditions, it is understandable that most building designers follow their perceptions, particularly as there is a lack of clear advice available on productivity issues. However, through the wall of confusion which clouds the issues there are a few individuals who are trying to break through the layers of complexity by identifying the key issues which effect organisational performance in buildings. They are: Adrian Leaman - a social scientist who specialises in the behaviour, attitudes and environmental conditions of building users, and in design and management problems related to usability IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 11 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Francis Duffy - a theorist of the rate of change in building and office space use Eric Sundstrom - a psychologist of the physical environment Bill Bordass - a researcher of the application and operation of building services systems Paul Bartlett - expert on the subject of office facilities use Understandably, these people are trying to progress the subject in their individual professional disciplines, but there is currently no collaborati ve effort despite several organisations promoting the requirement l718 19 20, One of the problems with achieving a collaborative effort is the number of specialists required and the cost of such an exercise. A research program has just begun in America that is investigating the psychological effects on building elements of neurological activity. This may provide a greater insight into the effects of various productivity issues and allow priorities to be set for further research. It is also possible that new issues may be discovered 2l
2.5 Buildings and Productivity Although it is not known how great a role buildings play in the productivity of an organisation, it is likely to be relatively small compared to other elements. The diagram below shows the likely order of influence. The organisation itself must have the greatest influence, because without it the efforts of the individuals would not be harnessed. This is followed by the individuals who must be fit and well to work, followed by the facilities, which must be available for operation and up-to-date. The building is shown as having least influence. This may be justified as excellent work can be produced by highly motivated people under very poor conditions. ORGANISATION INDIVIDUAL FACILITIES BUILDING INCREASING INFLUENCE Figure 2.4 Influence of various elements on productivity IDIlE Thesis, University of Cambridge 12 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? However, the importance of the building's influence on productivity is more apparent when the rate of change of each element is considered. If the building is considered in terms of Francis Duffy's Five S's diagram 22 with the rates of change shown below, the importance of the building's contribution to productivity may be said to be raised by its static nature. Space planning Skin 30 years Structure 60 years Services 15 years Space planning 5 years Stuff Figure 2.5 The five S's and the rate of change diagram The rate of change of the relatively static elements of the building may be expected to vary from 15 years for the services to 60 years for the structure of the building. Whereas an organisation today, which represents space planning and stuff, may be expected to change almost completely within a 5- year period. This raises the importance of building design's contribution to productivity, as it is a long-term influence, and identifies a key issue in designing for productivity. The key issue is the design of a static building, which can provide for the productivity needs of organisations that are, by comparison, very dynamic. This is of particular concern for existing buildings because if they are to provide for productivity, they must at least be sympathetic to the needs of future organisations. Figure 2.6 shows the nature of this issue, a dynamic organisation evolving in response to the external pressures of economic and social change and advances in technology, whilst being contained within a static building. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 13 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? TECHNOLOGY ECONOMY SOCIE1Y Figure 2.6 The dynamic organisation and the static building To determine if existing buildings can provide for the productivity needs of future organisations, the influence of the external factors that are forming organisations must be understood. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 14 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for FUture Business Needs? 3.0 Change Organisations have always had to adapt to changing economic and social pressures and keep up-to- date with the latest technologies, but never before in history has the rate of change being so great, the environment so competitive and knowledge so valued. This has caused organisations to adopt new methods of operation, not only to increase profits but simply to survive. Many organisations today appear to be under constant reorganisation. Their aim is to become faster at change, free of legacy and flatter in hierarchy whilst adopting more flexible conditions to retain staff. The following sections discuss the economic, social and organisational changes that are taking place today. 3.1 Changing Economy 23 24 25 26 27 28 John Maynard Keynes revolutionised economic thinking during the great depression of the 1930's by recognising that the economy is not driven by supply but by what people are willing to bur". "Real GDP does not depend on what can be produced [supply}. Real GDP depends on what people are willinlZ to buy {demand/" (fohn Maynard Keynes) Ever since this time businesses have being competing to provide customers with improved services and products at the lowest prices. They have been achieving this for years by employing the latest available technologies, developing better processes and cutting staff costs. As transportation and communication methods have improved, businesses have been able to spread their nets further to gain access to more market places. Similarly, customers are presented with more choice, and competition between manufacturers has further increased. This process of advancing technologies, improving communication and transportation has created the global economy we have today. The pressures of globalisation have been growing since the end of the Second World War, from which time the regulation of world trade has been reducing, most significantly between the late 1970's and early 1980's. The process of deregulatin.g trade is considered to be the way to liberate underdeveloped countries by improving health and education, and relationships between countries, so reducing the risk of war. However, in doing this, business competition has become global and is now often referred to as being super-competitive. As water always flows along the path of least resistance, businesses always seek to reduce costs and improve performance. As we have already seen with manufacturing industries, products are imported and exported all around the world as businesses compete for market shares to maintain profits and production levels. Production levels must be maintained to ensure economies of scale are gained from mass production techniques. Through low labour costs and maintaining high production levels and a reputation for quality, Japan has cornered the market for mass-produced electrical goods. In contrast, manufacturing in the UK has declined, primarily due to high labour costs. These processes that have been taking place among manufacturers around the world for many years is now set to begin in the services businesses sector, due to the advent of cheap and effective Information technology Communication (ITC) equipment which is removing the economic insulating effect of distance. ITC equipment is already enabling services-based businesses in Europe and America to operate in economies where labour rates are low and skills are in good and ready supply. Many businesses are now using this labour for "back office" processing, technical support and even for customer contact in the case of call centres. India is a particular target for these kinds of workers having 70% unemployment and a supply of over 2 million graduates each year. Labour cost are only 40% of those in Europe. South Korea, Vietnam, Russia and the Philippines are also emerging to provide similar opportunities despite the inevitable questions about political stability. IDBE Thesis, University ofCambddge 15 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? As these lower wage countries and economies develop, they are gaining the skills necessary to compete directly with higher wage economies, such as the UK and America, for lucrative highly skilled services sector work. This will inevitably cause the decline, or at least down-scaling, of many services business in developed countries as experienced in the manufacturing industry. It is already the cause of rising unemployment and contributing to reduced business confidence in the developed world, reflected in current interest rates and the existence of deflation in Japan. In some respects, this development may be viewed as the start of the balancing of wealth around the world, but it is the high wage economies that are at risk of losing the most, as they must find ways of improving performance in order to maintain their wealth. The changes that have taken place in the manufacturing industry may take place in the highly skilled services businesses. However, the most significant difference will be the pace of change. It took over twenty years for a significant change in global manufacturing to occur, but with technology bridging the effects of distance, the pace of change in the services sector could to be much quicker. The highly skilled services sector businesses are different to manufacturing businesses in that performance is more affected by the individual members of staff rather than the operation of the organisation as a whole. As this sector of work becomes more competitive, a growing emphasis is being placed on the knowledge and abilities of individual members of staff for business success. As business competition increases the value of knowledge and the marginal benefits it can provide are becoming increasingly valuable. In the most basic terms, talented staff can save costs through their intellectual productivity. Although knowledge workers are seen to hold the key to maintaining marginal business benefits, they are in short supply. Most of the world's knowledge is currently in developed countries and this is where the future success of the economy is seen to lie. It is therefore important for buildings to provide an appropriate working environment for knowledge workers. 3.2 Changing Society'O,3! It is widely recognised that the pressures of working life today are much greater than ever before. This has been brought about by the shift in work from manufacturing to the service sector and knowledge work, and the rapid adoption of information and communication technology systems. These have in tum brought about increased competitiveness. There has also been a substantial erosion of government support for both individuals and organisations, who are now clearly masters of their own fate. Added to this, life in the office has changed dramatically. Masses of staff are no longer employed to complete dull repetitive tasks. Technology has created work intensification, the erosion of traditional job demarcations and increased workloads. All of which may be much more interesting and potentially fulfilling, but it is also a major cause of stress-related illnesses and has eroded the quality of family life. This is particularly evident when you consider that it is no longer possible for the average family to live comfortably on a single income. Through this economic and technological progress, a social change has taken place. Individuals are now free to move between employers and redundancy is nO longer viewed as a threat to livelihood and a source of shame, simply as an inconvenience, or perhaps an opportunity. Similarly, staff who find themselves dissatisfied with their work conditions will simply seek alternative employment. In essence, today, "there are no sticks and carrots are everywhere" for skilled workers. Advancing technology is no longer a source of major upheaval as it was during the industrial revolution. This was when cities developed which severed communities as people left the land. Today technology is viewed as the potential source of reducing many of the problems that it originally introduced. The government certainly recognises this and supports the introduction of flexible working practices as the way to re-address the work-life balance. Equally, organisations, particularly those that IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 16 Graham Beadle, lOBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? employ knowledge workers, realise that happy, stress-free staff are better motivated and produce better results. 3.2.1 Home Working Advances in technology have enabled home working with full access to all necessary information. The nature of knowledge work being more about results than process means that organisations do not insist that everybody should go to the office every day, unless the job cannot be done anywhere else or that strict times should be worked, unless co-ordination is disadvantaged. Remote working with full access to resources is easily achieved with current lTC. The adoption of remote working can be beneficial to employers, clients, staff, and family life by reducing unnecessary distractions such as travelling. The diagram below shows the work location model being adopted by some organisations and individuals. CLIENT Figure 3.1 Work location model This does raise the question of whether offices will be needed in the future. However, continuous home working has been recognised to have many negative effects including isolation, loss of motivation and loyalty, and is therefore not considered a long-term solution". The office serves as much more than just a place to work as wonderfully described by Leaman 33
"There is occasional talk about the demise of the office which I consider to be, like the death of Mark Twain, wildly exaggerated. On the contrary, the office may well take on a greater social role in the rapidly evolving culture. It will become the centre of operations for those workers who are spending an increasing part of there time out of the office. It will of course be a place of relief, humour, buzz and conviviality. The office becomes the centre of the social activity of the corporation; it is the place where people come to meet, and perhaps just talk and catch up on the goings on. It is where the social interaction happens automatically and the synergy of corporations happens naturally. This is the hub of activity; it is the village market place, surrounded by the business, rewritten in a new twenty-first century model. This is not a new model, but merely one with an increased importance for the office of the future. The canteens become the restaurants, the drinks machines are replaced by cates, and as much business is done in these areas as on the boulevards of Paris. It is the focus for social interaction and communication without which the company withers. All of this may suggest an office environment that looks more akin to the home than the office, a place of interaction, community and 'fraternity' ". IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 17 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 3.3 Organisational Change Increased business competition and the rising importance of knowledge workers is causing business organisations to change to become more flexible in structure and in staff working conditions. 3.3.1 Organisational Structure" '5 The days when large organisations benefited from their size and self-sufficiency are long gone. Today, organisations focus On their core objectives and out-source for everything else, thereby reducing their fixed overheads and reducing their loses when there is a sudden change in workload. The diagrams below illustrate the need for organisations to become more flexible'6. The first graph shows a traditional organisation with fixed overheads that grow as the level of work increases. However, when there is a sudden change in workload the fixed overheads cannot be reduced quickly enough to prevent profits being eroded. The second graph shows the model that most organisations are now aiming fOLIn this case, the organisation's costs and commitments are designed to vary to match demand through flexible leasing and supply arrangements. As the organisation grows it does so without legacy, and is in a better position to cope with a downturn in work. Cash Flow Time Profit Loss Cash Flow Figure 3.2 Need for flexible organisational structure 3.3.2 Organisation Management'7 Profit Overheads Time Knowledge based work is different to traditional office work in that the skills and abilities of the staff are more directly related to the performance of the organisation. This therefore puts the emphasis on organisations to not only create conditions which are conducive to knowledge work, but also to make sure that high calibre staff are satisfied and retained. Knowledge C Manag- Organisa- Hours of workers ement lions work become styles become valuable change more asset flexible Location with staff of work Figure 3.3 Organisational management change This is not only causing organisations to flatten their hierarchies and share responsibilities amongst all their members, but also to empower staff to challenge the status quo and be comfortable in putting IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 18 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? forward ideas which may lead to advancing the organisation. The kind of management that seems to suit these kinds of organisations would appear to be more humanistic and organic than mechanistic. Traditional mechanistic styles are most unsuited to the requirements of flexibility and diversity of tasks which knowledge work typically involves. Organic humanistic styles accommodate these requirements better and can more easily adapt to the changes taking place. Perhaps the only view contrary to this one is put forward by Professor Richard Scase, author of "The Living ZOO,,38. He believes that traditional hierarchies are the only long-term solution 39 . Also Professor Price, a lecturer in business at Sheffield University, recently observed that, "business and management theory is today broadly comparable to nineteenth century medicine" which suggests little confidence in any theory4D. One such humanistic "leadership" concept, which is gaining increasing popularity in America, is that of primal leadership as proposed by Daniel Goleman 4l Goleman postulates, "The task of a leader is to prime good feeling in those which they lead, and through the powers of emotional intelligence inspire, enthuse, motivate and gain commitment from staff'. By this method it is considered that managers lead by example rather than controlling through fear, and evolve to become coaches, helping individuals to improve, achieve their aspirations and gain satisfaction from their endeavours. Parallels may be drawn between Goleman's leadership concept and that of Maslow's Motivation theory, where the ultimate aim is self-actualisation. Clearly, this also aligns well with human nature and the nature of knowledge work, and creates conditions for success to generate further success. Direction of Movement MECHANISTIC HUMANISTIC Figure 3.4 Changing management styles 3.4 What Organisations Need From Buildings Business organisations have to navigate the rapid economic, social, and technological changes and look harder to find ways to enhance their performance in super-competitive markets. There is an increasing sense that organisations are striving to make the office they occupy relate better to their structure, climate and image, and provide for maximum productivity. There has been a lot of investment in lTC, business processes, reorganisation and knowledge management, but little in the buildings which organisations occupy. As observed by Leaman, "many organisations today are completely frustrated by the desperate poverty of imagination in conventional offices, firms are extremely articulate about their organisational features and get no response from a realistic industry more dead than alive." A few leading companies now recognise that the buildings they occupy are an untapped resource. They realise that the building, and amenities within, are not only a means of impressing clients, but also serve as a way of attracting and retaining the best staff. They are a method of changing the culture of an organisation, a tool for implementing management strategies and a facility for stimulating workers. As Duffy states: "The pressure is now on for every organisation to occupy flexible high value space that promotes a sense of motivation and co-operative interaction among staf1"2". IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 19 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? The ideal design forms characteristic of offices prior to the 1960s have now been superseded. Rightly or wrongly, the current trend in office design is towards intensification and diversification of building use with much greater attention given to: The adoption of new technologies Growing emphasis on team working Flexibility and adaptability of space use Aesthetics from an organisational and staff perspective The office being the hub of activity rather than the sole location Designing to support people in their tasks However, little consideration has been given to creating the conditions under which knowledge work is best performed, despite it being seen as the key to continued global economic success. This is most likely due to the confusion that surrounds the subject. Therefore designing office buildings for the faster creation and commercialisation of knowledge, along with the current design trends, would appear to be the next logical step in office design. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 20 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 4.0 The Effects of Advancing Information Technology43 The requirements of current technology on the physical space is undefined with no documentation investigating the effect of ITC integration into buildings in public circulation since the ORBIT studies of the 1990s, when IT was first being introduced into offices 44 This documentation recognised the need for raised floors and increased riser space inherent in all modem offices, and served as the death sentence of many existing buildings. However, technology has progressed rapidly since this time. The following paragraphs establish the status of technology, and identify the impact which technology has on buildings today. 4.1 Advances in Office ITC A little over ten years ago, general office ITC equipment consisted of telephones, electronic typewriters and fax machines. At this time computers were large, expensive, hot machines that sat in dedicated rooms, and were operated by technologists for privileged users. Today Computers are smaller, cheaper, produce less heat and are considered standard office equipment, just like a desk or chair. ITC equipment now provides us with e-mail, video conferencing and a whole host of other digital devices that have sped up everyday tasks and changed the way we work. The advances in office ITC equipment as observed by Ken Yeang is shown below 45. o!C.eccce-- --- --- ----------- -- i , , ,---- - ----- --r --- ---- -- --J Figure 4.1 Advances in office technology 4.2 What will ITC Equipment Offer in the Next Ten Years? Office technology equipment is currently limited by computing speed and what may be termed "flexibility." The rate at which computing speed increases is known to obey "Moore's Law", which states that the computing speed and complexity double every eighteen months. This, as Steven Hawldns suggests, is one of those exponential growths that cannot continue indefinitely. The diagram below shows the exponential growth in computing speed (number of calculation per second) from 1972 to 2007 as achieved and forecast by Inte1 46
IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 21 Graham Beadle, !DDE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? The .'r",.OOM',1 g,,,,,,h,, tot"" 19n 1<, 0: 2007 01 ""'" CPU f",,,. "hoc (i'.c <0(",1 <bip .. "' 'bo 0.,..,""",,' d {/.!,,,1>\icni por ,"(oM Figure 4.2 Growth in computer speed As computing power increases, more intensive applications such as speech and image recognition, natural language processing and massive multi media data bases will appear on individual's desk-top computers and note books. The next step will be when a computer becomes an active platform where it will tell you when you have received an e-mail, read it to you and respond by voice recognition, and expensive and cumbersome videoconference suites may be expected to be replaced by desktop systems. In addition to computing power increasing, we are currently on the verge of a bandwidth boom and what is often referred to as the "wireless revolution". Bandwidth affects the speed at which information is transferred. Presently, mainly businesses have access to broadband due to the limited extent of the network and the cost of connection. However, broadband cable networks are growing rapidly and this year 3G technology was launched. 3G technology is "wireless" broadband communication, which will enable mobile computers to be just as connected and functional as a desktop computer no matter were they are. This will provide endless flexibility in working habits and is set to spawn a whole new generation of multi-media communication devices. Further developments are WiFi and Bluetooth, which are short-range radio based technologies that are set to remove the inconvenience of cables from peripheral devices. The combination of 3G and WiFi essentially means that working environments can be entirely free from ITC cabling. With the growth of these technologies it is clear that in the next ten years technology will have minimal influence on the style of working, as anything that we can currently imagine will more than likely be achievable. ITC will present a wide range of communications options such as: audio- conferencing, video conferencing, e-mail chat, virtual presence etc. It is not unimaginable that the office environment will be free from the masses of ITC cabling which presently occupy our buildings. It is also realistic to imagine that corporate server rooms will be banished from offices and replaced by remote specialised server farms accessed via the Internet. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 22 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Pnxluctivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 4.3 The Influence of Technology on Buildings The most obvious influence this will have in buildings is the reversal of space requirements that was brought about by the introduction of lTC. In turn this will eliminate the reason for demolition of many existing buildings. The introduction of technology into buildings brought with it raised floors and larger cooling systems requiring greater structural floor-to-floor heights. It also introduced lTC distribution rooms, route and riser space. The changes in floor-to floor heights over time as observed by Duffy are shown in Figure 4.2 47 . With the introduction of wire-free lTC equipment it may be expected that the mid 2000 section will be similar to that of the Pre-1980s. o Pre 19805 00 o 1980s IL o MId 1990s Figure 4.2 Changing floor-to-floor heights related to the changing needs of information technology As these wire-free technologies are all currently available, some perhaps in an infantile state, it would appear that lTC is likely to have little more than a requirement for desk space in the future and should not represent a reason for demolishing an existing building. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 23 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 5.0 Productivity Research Despite the many studies on various issues that influence human performance, a clear theory or model of how people relate to buildings has not been established, This is partially due to the difficulty in any one theory being accepted due to the lack of empirical evidence, but primarily due to the unknown psychological element. However the various studies, polls and theories offered by recognised pioneers of human performance, such as Maslow and Herzberg, may be considered along with the lesser known researchers to identify how buildings contribute to human performance. By studying the work of these researchers, models are proposed which serve to identify the mechanisms through which the physical building is considered to influence productivity at each level of manifestation. The different levels of manifestation are considered to be the individual, the group and the organisation. Individual Group Organisation Figure 5.1 Elements of overall building productivity IDBE Tllesis, University of Cambridge 24 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? The models proposed are: INDIVIDUAL Model Psychological Sociological GROUP Model Psychological Sociological ORGANISATION Model Psychological Sociological Psychological Psychological Psychological Figure 5.2 Building productivity models Physical Performance Physical Performance Physical Performance At each level, the inputs to the element that provide for performance are shown, along with mechanisms through which human behaviour is affected. Where the human behaviour inputs are shown to be physical, this is where the building is considered to influence performance, and in turn productivity. In each case the physical input is accompanied by a psychological input that requires the application of reasoning in order to select appropriate building productivity criteria. The following sections provide further details on the derivation of each of these models. IDBE 111esis, University of Cambridge 25 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Need,,? 5.1 Individual The most consistently recognised contribution that buildings make to human performance and productivity is through environmental satisfaction", simply through providing comfortable conditions. The route through which environmental satisfaction contributes to productivity is shown diagrammatically in Figure 5.3. Performance Productivity Figure 5.3 Relationship between environmental satisfaction and productivity Environmental satisfaction has been proven to correlate well with job satisfaction along with several other components such as the work itself, remuneration and relationships with fellow workers. Job satisfaction is described by Sundstrom as representing: " the individual's attitude towards the job .... as a summary evaluative judgement that reflects the individuals past and present experiences, including experiences with the physical environment,,49. The components of the physical environment that Sundstrom considers as contributing most to job satisfaction are shown in the diagram below'D: Lighting Work itself Windows and daylighling Responsibility autonomy Temperature Chance of advancement Air quality Pay NoiselMusic Colour Supervision Status symbols Relations with colleagues Privacy Job security Furniture! Equipment Company Policy Figure 5.4 The physical environment as a component of job satisfaction The conditions that influence comfort and satisfaction vary from person to person. Herzberg observed this from his surveys that the influence of the physical environment was not as high as other job IDBE The.sis, University of Cambridge 26 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? satisfaction components, being rated 10 th out of 14 factors". This led him to his "Two-Factor Theory", which suggests that an adequate environment does not contribute to job satisfaction, but an inadequate environment distracts from it. Other researchers also support this theory52. In Herzberg's terms we have two basic needs: the need to avoid pain and the need for self-actualisation. Hence providing comfort avoids pain, but will not necessarily increase productivity as motivational needs also have to be met (self-actualisation). This relationship may be shown diagrammatically: Psychological Physical Psychological Performance Sociologic Figure 5.5 Individual building productivity model Maslow's Motivation Theory "hierarchy of needs" provides a simplistic model to relate elements of the environment to performance". Maslow's Theory on motivation identified five major "need" categories which apply to people in general, starting from fundamental physiological needs, leading through a hierarchy of safety, social and esteem needs and finally the need for self actualisation, the highest need of all. Need Maslow Self - the need to develop potentialities and actualisation skills, to become what one believes one is (selffulfilrneut) capable of becoming. Esteem - the need to have a stable, firmly based, high evaluation of oneself (self esteem) and to have the respect of others (prestige). These needs may be classified into two subsidiary sets; first, the desire for achievement, for adequacy, for confidence in the face of the world, and for independence and freedom, and, second, the desire for reputation or status defmed as respect or esteem from other people, and manifested by recognition, attention, importance, or appreciation. Social - the need for love, affection and acceptance al) belonging to a group Safety - the need for protection against danger and the deprivation of physiological needs Physiological - the need for oxygen, food, water and sex Figure 5.6 Maslow's "hierarchy of needs" IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 27 Graham Beadle, lOBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? On the basis of Maslow's Theory it may be considered that a building contributes to the physiological and safety needs of motivation. However, the achievement of these needs may be considered the most basic of requirements, and does not contribute to the concentration and cognitive thinking required for knowledge-type work. The building's long-term contribution to individual performance may be recognised as providing environmental satisfaction but not motivation Summary On the basis of Herzberg's "Two Factor Theory" it may be appreciated that at an individual level a building is considered an enabler of performance through providing environmental satisfaction, but does not enhance performance. This Theory will be used for the selection of individual building productivity criteria. 5.1 Group As well as the building affecting performance through individual job satisfaction, it is also recognised as contributor to group performance by influencing cohesion. The route through which cohesion contributes to productivity is shown diagrammatically below. Performance Productivity Figure 5.7 Relationship between group cohesion and productivity Sundstrom suggests, " the existence of a cohesive team contributes to the efficiency of a work unit. The process underlying group formation is face to face conversation made convenient by the physical environment.',54. Sundstrom considers this to be achieved by workspace layout, which affects privacy, communication and cohesion. He identifies the following facets of the physical environment as being influential 55 : Room layout: Seating arrangements Furniture Building Layout: lnter-workspace proximity Enclosure of works paces Gathering space The issues listed here are generally implemented through space planning processes. The relationship between space planning, communication and performance may be shown diagrammatically, as in Figure 5.8. lOBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 28 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Psycholo gical Physical Psychological Performance Sociological Figure 5.8 Group building productivity model Summary Buildings may be considered to contribute to group productivity through enabling desired space planning arrangements. On this basis again it may be recognised that the building serves as an enabler of performance rather than an enhancer. 5.2 Organisation There is little research on the influence that buildings have on the performance of an organisation. However, Sundstrom 56 does postulate that the building influences performance through proximity, separation and differentiation of work units, which can be a direct influence. Also by reinforcing certain organisational characteristics, such as management structure, culture and image, the building can have an indirect influence on performance. In overall "building productivity" terms, a building has the most influence on performance by indirectly supporting management strategy, as the organisation is considered the most influential element of overall productivity. See Section 2.5. The relationship between organisational congruence, management and organisational performance may be shown diagrammatically, as shown in Figure 5.9. Psychological Physical Psychological Performance Sociological Figure 5.9 Organisational building productivity model Summary It is perhaps only at an organisational level that a building may enhance productivity through it's indirect influence, rather than simply enabling it. It is however highly dependant on the arrangement and scale of building complementing an occupying organisations unique requirements. IDBE lbesis, University of Cambridge 29 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Pnxluctivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 5.4 Findings The element through which a building may directly influence productivity most is the individual, as this is the source of output, particularly in terms of knowledge workers, independent of group and organisational productivity. The group may be considered the next most directly influenced by building productivity through providing flexibility in space planning and therefore providing for efficient communication. At an organisational level the building is considered to contribute the least directly to productivity. At each of these levels, the building is viewed as a performance enabler rather than an enhancer. However, it is at an organisational level a building may serve to enhance performance by indirectly supporting management aims. The diagram below shows the relative order of influence of each element through which overall building productivity manifests itself. ORGANfSATION
GROUP fNDfVIDUAL INCREASING INFLUENCE ORGANfSATION (fndirectly) Figure 5.10 The buildings influence on productivity IDBE Thesis, Uolversity of Cambridge 30 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Proouctivily: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 6.0 The Individual's Relationship with the Environment Theories on a building's affect on perfonnance indicate that an individual's relationship with a building is based on physical and psychological elements. A building contributes to perfonnance through providing an adequate environment and not serving as a distraction. The relationship of distraction with dissatisfaction, and satisfaction providing for concentration and perfonnance, is illustrated in Figure 6.1. DISlRACTfON DISSATISFACTION LOW PERFORMANCE SATISFACTION CONCENTRATION HfGH Figure 6.1 Satisfaction and concentration lead to perfonnance 6.1 Psychological Effects on Individual Productivity One theory that addresses psychological effects on individual productivity has been put forward by Donald Hebb. Hebb suggests that perfonnance is influenced through arousal, stress, overload, distraction and fatigue 57 . This important theory will be discussed in the following sections. 6.1.1 Arousal Arousal is seen as the gauge of alertness, ranging from extreme agitation to drowsiness. Central to this theory is that the level of arousal must be appropriate for the task in hand. High arousal is advantageous to the perfonnance of repetitive dull tasks, and low arousal is preferred for knowledge based or complex tasks. Therefore an optimal level of environmental arousal must be attained to suit the demands of the task. IDBE lbesis, University of Cambridge 31 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? High Performance Low Relaxation Low Optimal range of Arousal Moderate Arousal Excitation High Figure 6.2 Relationship between arousal and performance The physiological elements of increased arousal include heart rate, raised blood pressure, blood flow in peripheral vessels, perspiration, skin temperature and muscular tension. Hence, the stimulation properties of a physical environment reflect both physiological and psychological processes. Sundstrom gives the example of how heat can create arousal, at least through the body's mechanism to maintain a core body temperature". But intense environmental stimuli such as loud noises or bright lights can lead to arousal for psychological reasons including perceived novelty or stress. 6.1.2 Distraction and Overload Distraction effectively disrupts the performance of tasks, and in the office environment, concurs with dissatisfaction. Overload occurs when information arrives at a greater rate than which it can be dealt with. Hebb suggests that a consequence of distraction or overload is called "low priority inputs". Elements of the physical environment such as loud noise, glare, high or low temperatures, may cause people to ignore aspects of the job that they perceive as least important (or have little responsibility for). Equally the environment may become a low priority input to the worker if overloaded. In which case the environment will represent only a temporary influence on performance. 6.1.3 Fatigue Fatigue is recognised as being a result of muscular tension. It oCcurs mostly in environments that cause uncomfortable posture, strenuous movement and awkward procedures. It frequently occurs as a result of poor or unsuited office furniture design such as chairs for example, which may cause back pain, discomfort, distraction or even stress and may lead to reduced performance. lOBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 32 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 6,1.4 Neurological Research Supporting Donald Hebb's Theory Recent neurological research, using positron emission tomographical brain scans, is beginning to show that when we are distracted, overloaded or stressed, the chemicals our body releases tum off the part of the brain that allows us to concentrate and think effectively, which supports Hebb's theory of the 1940' s. Maclean's model of the "Triune Brain" provides a useful metaphor of human brain operations, which assists in understanding and explaining the relationship between performance and distraction s9
The diagram below shows the brain in three layers and identifies the role of each. Essentially, the brain layer shutdown sequence starts with small distractions turning off the frontal lateral cortex within the cerebral cortex. This part of the brain is responsible for cognitive thinking. The shutdown continues to the reptilian brain, responsible for basic fight, flight and flock reactions. Cerebral Cortex (thinking cap) Cognitive and problem solving Language writing and drawing Long range planning and forecasting Discerning relations and patterns of meaning Creates models for understanding Some processing emotions Reptilian brain Fight or flight and flOCking behaviour in response to fear and stress Monitoring motor functions Mating rituals Territory Hierarchies Rate behaviour Generates emotions Filters information in and out Immediate expressiveness Sexuality Social bonding and attachments from parental bonding Attention and sleep Hub for long term memory via hippocampus Governs concepts of value and truth Validates knowledge and understanding Figure 6.3 The "Triune Brain" IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 33 COGNITIVE THINKING human r in has a predispositio 0 think meaningfully a d make sense of the world bu eeds to be in a positive state active and en mind, stress free, ged mn t be as multi sensory and otionally engaged as p S 'ible- the dull, boring and r p titive will be filtered out a not engage our thinking The human from thinkin flight and flo threat, In thi is possible, ain 'n shifts down ode to fight, 'ng when under s te, no learning BLACKOUT Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 6.2 Elements of the Environment that Affect Individual Productivity The following section provides reasoning for arriving at criterion that may be used for judging the satisfaction occupants gain from an office workstation environment due to the physical structure which envelopes it. There are no technically correct values as they are all affected by personal experiences and expectations, gender, culture and age differences, but may be considered appropriate for determining the general acceptability of an office environment. The environmental factors associated with the physical environment, which are recognised by Sundstrom as contributing to job satisfaction, are noted in Figure 5.4, Section 5.1. However, in terms of the potential environmental satisfaction that a building might provide, status symbols and privacy will not be considered, as they are secondary issues not associated with the physical building. In addition, control, adaptation and windows will be considered, along with the issue of forgiveness. There is no evidence to suggest that performance is reduced due to aesthetic features although this element of buildings is often the most considered, possibly due to corporate image issues. The diagram below shows the elements that influence performance, which will be considered further, and identifies the interdependencies between them. This illustrates why the overall satisfaction an individual has with their environment is a sum of the individual parts, rather than anyone individual element as proposed by Leaman 60 and Sundstrom 61. All parts need to be achieved to a satisfactory level, as severe dissatisfaction with one can cause loss of productivity through distraction or stress, and ultimately lead to absenteeism. Secondary issues: Aesthetics Figure 6.4 Elements of the building environment that influence productivity and the interdependences between them To gain a better understanding of an individual's satisfaction with various elements of a building the author conducted a survey in an office of 42 staff. The Herzberg" Two Factor Theory" was applied, with staff simply asked if satisfied or dissatisfied with various elements of their environment. The results of this survey are shown in figure 6.5. Further details of this survey are shown in Appendix A. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 34 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Percentage (%) 100 90 80 70 60 50 40' 30 20 10 o Figure 6.5 Office satisfaction survey summary 6.2.1 Control and Adaptation
Satisfied (%) Dissatisfied (%) Satisfaction with an environment is recognised as been more likely if users are provided with a means of modifying conditions through controVadaptation. Control may be considered to be the ability to change a setting at source, such as temperature, close a window that is the source of a draught, or lower a blind to reduce glare. Adaptation may be considered as a secondary means of control that does not eliminate the source of dissatisfaction but allows satisfaction to be achieved by blocking the source. Examples of this are: users being able to install partitions as desired to reduce noise levels or provide a level of privacy, wearing more clothing if feeling slightly cool, changing seat orientation to avoid distractions. Leaman states that" one of the most prominent findings of the office environment surveys was the importance of control to the building user" and he related control to "loss of productivity and complaints of ill health,,62. The graph below shows the results of Leaman's survey on the control of various elements of the environment and the perceived affect on productivity shown in terms of "greater productivity than average,,63. If control cannot be provided the response time to complaints must be very quick to compensate 64 . 1.0 0.8 0.8 MoM or ,,,' -, ..., OA aw"",, 02 0.0 -{)2 0 2 6 Degree of COfltrol (1ow=:1 , hlgh= 7) Temperature Ventilation Ughling Ovemllcontrol 8 Figure 6.6 The effect of control on perceived productivity IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 35 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 6.2.2 Forgiveness Forgiveness is a factor that is difficult to quantify but influences an individual's satisfaction with an environment. Where there is a recognised and justifiable reason for conditions not being ideal, people are more likely to accept, or "forgive" the faults and rate a building with greater satisfaction 65 . Forgiveness is an entirely psychological issue. Examples are: naturally ventilated buildings can achieve better satisfaction as the user feel that they are contributing by reducing environmental issues, and existing buildings may be forgiven for the inconveniences they introduce because the limitations are recognised. However there is little information or quantification of such issues presently available, although Building Usability Studies (BUS) are understood to be researching the forgiveness issue 66
6.2.3 Satisfaction and Environmental Factors The relationship between the environmental factors and satisfaction is considered to follow the process shown in Figure 6.7 and simplified in Figure 6.8. The individual environmental factors are sensed and mentally processed and a response generated. If the response is unsatisfactory, the individual will desire to modify the situation through either control or adaptation to achieve satisfaction. When the behavioural differences of people are considered the powerful influence which human control and adaptation provides may be recognised. The influence of forgiveness is also shown to influence human response. For a user perspective control is the single most important factor underlying comfort 67 Experiences Artificial lighting Satisfaction Sight Windows and daylight Culture TouchIFeel Thelmal comfort Gender Smell Air quality Age Taste Noise and music Religion Hear Workstation and space Expectations ControVAdaptation Forgiveness Figure 6.7 The relationship between environmental factors and satisfaction - Detailed IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 36 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Controll Adaptation Figure 6.8 The relationship between environmental factors and satisfaction - Simplified 6.3 Environmental Factors There is an abundance of laboratory and field studies on most of these elements of the environment, which have been carried out in various contexts. However many studies are based on individual occupants and miss out on the wider context of !be differences between buildings and their operational and managerial circumstances. Buildings and occupying organisations are rarely similar which complicates comparison, and the simple fact that users may perceive that they are being studied can cause them to behave differently. Methodological and interpretational problems cause differences in most studies that often lead to conflicting results. This makes it difficult to determine !be most important issues. The following sections identify the key criteria known about each aspect of the environment. Herzberg's "Two Factor Theory", (which suggests that an adequate environment does not contribute to productivity but an inadequate environment distracts from it) will be used, along with insights obtained through surveys, to select a datum for the balance between satisfaction and dissatisfaction for the majority of people. Hence, the finite detail is not important but !be adequacy of an environment for the majority of users is. The main sources of surveys used for this assessment are:
Sundstrom 68 CIBSE 69 Author's own IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 37 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Ex.isting Office Buildings Provide for Future Dusiness Needs? 6.3.1 Lighting In terms of the office environment artificial lighting serves two primary purposes?o: Facilitates the performance of visual tasks The creation of an appropriate visual environment Studies on lighting have shown that there is a good correlation between lighting intensity and quality, quality being used to describe reading speed (performance). See Figure 6.9 71. 10 9 ~ 8 g m ~ 7 2 1 ~ ~ __ ~ ~ __ ~ - L __ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o 400 800 1200 1600 Illuminance em desk (IK) Figure 6.9 Mean assessment of light quality The graph shows that performance increases with intensity of lighting, with diminishing returns. This would suggest the brighter the better, although a balance must be gained between performance effects and practical and economic requirements. Reading performance diminishes with lower lighting levels as the contrast between text and background reduces, requiring greater effort and time to read. Figure 6.10 illustrates tills 72. Figure 6.10 Contrast and reading performance IDDE Thesis, University of Cambridge 38 Graham Beadle, IDilE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? The current lighting standard for offices is 500 lux for general offices, and 300 - 500 lux in offices with visual display units (VDU). The lower lighting level for VDU users reduces contrast and glare problems that can cause fatigue. From a performance point of view, it may be desirable to have all surfaces of a uniform brightness, but this would create a bland appearance and provide poor modelling of facial features, hindering effective communication. For these reasons it is normally desired that lighting should provide good definition of textures and a building's internal architecture. This is normally achieved using directional light designed to avoid introducing glare problems. A further consideration is the contrast in lighting levels around the office space. This should be sufficiently consistent not to cause eyestrain when looking up from a workstation to the surrounding space. As recognised by Sundstrom 73 and confirmed by the authors survey (see Figure 6.5, Section 6.2) artificial lighting is rarely identified as a source of dissatisfaction, provided it is designed to best practice standards. Therefore, it may be concluded that the Herzberg "Two Factor Theory" will be satisfied if office artificial lighting provides an adequate lighting level for the task performed and if glare is avoided. 6.3.2 Windows and Daylighting Windows perform many functions besides those that contribute directly to user satisfaction, which are generally recognised as being: control, view and provision of daylight. As noted by Leaman 74 from a study of building users "most satisfied staff sit next to windows". This is confirmed by the authors survey work. Leaman believes this is because, "from a user perspective, perception of control is the single most important factor underlying comfort,,75. This maybe correct, but it would impair operations and be highly uneconomic if buildings were constructed solely on this basis. It is known from surveys of workplaces with no windows that negative psychological effect have been experienced, as "it seems to be associated with a feeling of being denied something that is one's right,,76. Words associated with such environments taken from surveys are: cooped-up, isolated, claustrophobia, depressed, tense. Other researchers believe that outdoor lighting levels affect the body's circadian cycle and the physiological processes associated with it 77 This means that a disruption in normal lighting patterns can produce temporal disorientation, sleep deprivation, mood changes and mental exhaustion. Conversely, research in a hospital in Pennsylvania claims that patients with views of vegetation recover more quickly78. Views are also considered to contribute to knowledge work through providing visual escape, for thought and assisting with maintaining concentration 79. The association of daylighting with well-being is recognised in the Netherlands and Germany were health regulations prohibit buildings where staff are more than 6m from windows. There are no such regulations in the UK although the Building Research Establishment's environmental assessment method recognises that daylighting can contribute to reduced absenteeism and increased productivityBO. This suggests that office workers will benefit from having visual access to the outdoors from their workstations, and sufficient daylighting provision. In the 1930' s, before electric lighting was common, office depths were limited to 18m on the basis that daylight would not penetrate more than 9m from a window. At this time experts recommended 12m from window to window, such depths also served well for natural ventilation". These shallow depths remained until the advent of air-conditioning which allowed comfortable temperatures to be maintained in deep-plan buildings. A formula more commonly used by architects for building daylight penetration estimates is 2.5 times a building's floor to ceiling height. A more accurate prediction method for office design purposes, which recognises window design and building dimensions is 82: IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 39 Graham Beadle, lOBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Daylight penetration: UW + UHw < 2/(l-Rb) Where: L W Hw Rb Distance from the window (m) Room width (m) Window head height (m) Average reflectance of surfaces The depths given by this formula are shown in the table below for various room surface reflectances, widths and window head heights 83
Reflectance (Rb) 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 Room width (m) 3 10 3 10 3 10 Whldow head height Depth of daylight penetration (m) (m) 2.5 4.5 6.7 5.4 8.0 6.8 10.0 3.0 5.0 7.7 6.0 9.2 7.5 U.S 3.5 5.4 8.6 6.5 10.4 8.1 13.0 Table 6.1 Limiting depths for daylighting Survey work shows that occupants generally overestimate the contribution of natural daylight to desk lighting particularly the further away they are from the windows". Percentage 90 90 (%) of light 80 80 Estimated provided by 70 70 daylight 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 4 3 10 0 0 2.4 3.3 4.2 5.1 7.5 10.5 13.5 18.9 2.4 3.3 4.2 5.1 7.5 10.5 13.5 18.9 Median distance from source of daylight (metre) Figure 6.11 Measured and estimated daylight levels IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 40 Graham Bead1e, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? However, this does not account for the issue of views. A view provides for well-being, visual orientation and change of focus. Based on the above information a maximum acceptable distance of 6m from a window may be considered reasonable provided the building design also permits daylight penetration to this depth. On the same premise, the maximum distance of 3m from an atrium may be considered a maximum. This may be justified because an atrium may be expected to provide some visual stimuli, but daylight penetration is adversely affected. 6.3.3 Temperature and Thermal Comfort The effects of temperature on human performance and productivity have been the subject of hundreds of studies, and there have been many collective reviews of the results of these studies. These reviews have been largely inconclusive, and it is generally stated that the effects of temperature on mental performance are not as clear as those on physical performance 8S Although short term exposure to heat and cold is noted as increasing mental performance, this is thought to be due to increased arousal. Perhaps the best graphical representation of the effects of temperature on performance is that proposed by Wyon 86 Figure 6.12. Figure 6.12 Summarised relationships between temperature and performance Figure 6.12, shows how mental performance may be expected to reduce with continued exposure to temperatures higher than 20C. However, temperature alone offers little guidance on whether thermal comfort and satisfaction with the environment will be achieved. In terms of the Two-Factor Theory where the environment serves as a distraction to performance, the important issue is that the occupant is not distracted by the thermal environment. For this reason the thermal comfort standards as proposed by Fanger are considered . 87 more appropnate . The comfort assessment method proposed by Fanger takes account of air temperature, air movement, radiant temperatures, humidity, clothing and activity levels. It is based on the assumption that a person is comfortable when their body is in, or close to, thermal equilibrium with the surrounding environment. By this method the percentage of people dissatisfied are calculated for the given room conditions. The "best percentage people dissatisfied" score achievable is 5% since it is not statistically possible to create an environment that will fully satisfy all occupants. The environment is considered unacceptable if conditions frequently exceed 30% dissatisfaction. The method proposed by Fanger is the basis of current international standards, but it does gain some criticism for being based on comfort chamber tests and predicts comfort at slightly higher temperatures than measured in workplaces. IDBE Thesis. University of Cambridge 41 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 6.3.4 Ventilation and Air Quality Air quality is concerned with the presence of air pollution which survey research has shown to be a considerable problem in offices, being recognised as one of the major sources of sick building syndrome in recent times. Air quality is reduced when pollutants, gases, dust, mist, vapour, or fibres are present in the air, besides its natural constituents. The effects may be alleviated by increasing ventilation rates, thereby reducing pollution concentrations. Certain pollutants do have well- documented health effects. However "research on the effects of specific forms of pollution has been infrequent, and the psychological effects are largely unknown"88. The effects of air quality on performance have not been studied in any detail but in the terms of this study, it is acceptable to assume that if ventilation rates are achieved as recommended by CIBSE there should be little cause for reduced performance 89 However, it is recognised that a greater supply of fresh air is associated with a feeling of well-being. Any performance reduction that does result from air quality issues is due to the source of pollution. It should be mitigated and should not be the reason for an increasing the ventilation rate, which could cause discomfort through draughts. The ventilation rate recommended by CIBSE is 8 litres/second per person. This does not al10w for smoking, which on no account should be allowed in office spaces, primarily for reasons of satisfaction. 6.3.4 Noise and Music 6.3.5.1 Noise Noise in offices and its affect on performance is one of the most researched elements of the office environment and is recognised as being a major source of dissatisfaction. However much of the research has been conducted within laboratories and does not relate to a real office context. A summary of the findings from studies in offices suggests that the most disturbing sources of noise are: 90 91; Conversations Phones ringing Office machines Conversations are the most disturbing noise source. This is not because of its physical qualities but more because of its meaning to the listener. Annoyance caused by office noise is not related to its general intensity but strongly related to the intensity of sound audible above background noise levels92. Noise is generally associated with a decrease in accuracy. Predictable noise is sometimes associated with increased performance of simple clerical and mental tasks 93 This may be explained by increased arousal. However, studies on unpredictable noise, either intermittent or irregular, found it to be associated with reduced levels of performance. Most of the adverse effects of noise can be explained in terms of temporary distraction of attention. Sundstrom suggests that, "issues concerning noise may be reduced to a question of balance, if noise is too loud or erratic, and workers are likely to experience annoyance, distraction and perhaps disturbance of their work". On the other hand, if background noise is too subdued, any moderately loud sound may be audible above it. This includes conversations by colleagues, compromising privacy and confidential conference. Moderate background noise may be used to mask unwanted sounds, but this itself can be a cause of annoyance and distraction. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 42 GrahamBeadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Setting acoustic criteria for the judgement of the suitability of an environment is difficult due to the variety of task possible. Nevertheless, a relationship has been established 94 , which shows that discomfort generally increases with greater occupancy levels, see Figure 6.13. 50 47 46 Percentage 40 (%) reporting 30 dissatisfaction 20 10 0 2 3 4-8 9-15 16+ Number of people Figure 6.13 Percentage of workers complaining of excessive noise in relation to the number of people in the office It may be deduced that greater satisfaction may be gained if efforts are made to introduce sound attenuation into offices to simulate the conditions of smaller offices and ensuring that sufficient background noise is present to prevent over sensitivity to colleagues' conversations. 6.3.5.2 Music's The introduction of music into offices is different from other noise because it is associated with pleasure. Music may be played in some offices to boost employee morale through greater satisfaction, stimulate performance or serve as background masking noise. For simple clerical tasks there is no evidence to suggest that performance is impaired and music is generally considered to be of no harm in most cases. However for complex mental tasks requiring concentration there are strong theoretical reasons to suspect that music can create distraction and information overload. In summary, introducing music for employee satisfaction, where clerical tasks are in progress, appears likely to succeed provided the music is agreeable with the listeners' preferences. 6.3.5 Workstations and Space The workstation is generally recognised as consisting of a work surface, chair, ITC equipment, storage space and an associated floor space provision. Certain elements that make up the workstation have been the subject of much research, like chair design, for example. The combined effect of the individual elements has received little research in recent years, although Bartlett suggest the following workstation issues affect productivity96: Providing sufficient desk space will produce a more rapid and efficient completion of tasks. Larger desk spaces reduce wasted time spent searching for documents, and allows papers to be read and equipment operated more easily, thus reducing fatigue Providing adequate storage space, which is immediately accessible, will directly eliminate wasted time. Ergonomics o.fwork station lOBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 43 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 ProductivHy: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Sundstrom logically suggests that satisfaction may depend on the avoidance of discomfort due to muscular fatigue. The avoidance of pain is central to Herzberg's theory and can be related to dissatisfaction and therefore distraction from performance. The discomfort is caused by muscular fatigue from an uncomfortable seating position or irregular movements required to access equipment for tasks. However, over time, such physical movements may become habitual and cause less discomfort through adaptation. Adaptation may overcome discomfort but may also distract from the core task, reducing performance. In summary, the most important element of a workstation is for it to be comfortable and provide good access to the equipment required to perform required tasks. A component of the workstation is the floor space provision. Often, the emphasis is for organisations to minimise space requirements with the aim of reducing costs. This can result in overcrowding. Work space provisions significantly around the world. Leaman suggests the following typical densities (net lettable areas) for the various locations 97 : London 14 - 16.5 m 2 Sydney 14 - 15 m 2 Frankfurt Brussels and Amsterdam 25 -27m 2 Stockholm 30 -35m 2 US 20 - 21m 2 Survey work by Hakfoort and Lie reports that the average amount of space per person seems to decline with larger bUildings 98 . Leaman observes that people may be more tolerant of conditions in smaller buildings because they are more likely to have control over their environment 99
Crowding is related to dissatisfaction but the effects of it remain relatively unexplored, possibly due to the contextual complexity. However, survey work carried out into employee's, satisfaction with floor space, shown in Figure 6.14, suggests that 95% of people are satisfied with minimum of 9.3m2 100. 100 60 Percentage (%) satisfied 40 20 1.8'3.6 3.75.5 5.6-7.4 7.5-9.2 9.3+ Number of people Figure 6.14 Percentage of office workers satisfied with their floor space as a function of net floor space per person The primary issues related to crowding are: loss of privacy, reduced scope for adaptation and of course the increased difficulty of working without being disturbed. The privacy issue has been studied with the findings shown in Figure 6.15 101 . lOBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 44 Graham Beadle. IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? .... Space Conversational Privacy Wom 40 or tess 41-60 61-80 81-100 100 or m o ~ Workmace size eftl) Figure 6.15 The relationship between workspace and privacy This survey of satisfaction with workspace by Langdon was carried out in 1966 and may have been influenced by the space required for task-associated equipment and storage 102 However, today, and more so in the future, the space required for equipment and storage may be expected to diminish as technology plays a greater role. This may be expected to place the emphasis for minimum space provision on personal boundaries rather than operational requirements. If this is the case, the proposals of Edward Hall may be considered 103 Hall postulates that we have zones around us within which we feel comfortable with different people, depending on our relationship with them. This is illustrated in Figure 6.15, shown in scale with a standard Herman Miller desk lo4
Intimate zone 0.5) Personal zone (O.5m - 1.8m) Social zone (1.8m - 3.0m) D Public zone (+3.0m) Figure 6.16 Desk space and Hall's Space Zone Theory lOBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 45 Graham Beadle, lOBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Based on Hall's model the green zone should only transiently be entered otherwise invasion of space may be perceived, resulting in discomfort. Although this is not a precise science, it does suggest that personal space may represent a limiting factor on space densities. The area covered by the green zone equates to an area of 10m 2
In summary technology (office equipment) is getting smaller requiring less space, but it is the personal boundaries that dictate the satisfaction one gains from the workspace. It may be concluded that a workspace provision of 10m 2 per person may be the appropriate minimum space provision for satisfaction. 6.3.7 Colour Many claims are made about the influence that colours have on spaces, which relate more to personal preferences, past experiences, and cultural differences and are largely unproven. Some examples of the associations made about colour are that they can make things appear closer or further away or make rooms appear larger or smaller. Studies that have been carried out do suggest that people prefer blue, red, green, violet, orange and yellow in that order. However, preferences without context have little value or application. Studies specifically on office colours have shown different results with a preference for blue, green and red in that order lo5 Field research on colours has found little consistency except an association with perceived space temperatures. Wann colours are generally recognised as being at the red and orange end of the colour spectrum and cold colours the blue end stretching through to the green. There are a number of cases where rooms have been repainted a "cold" colour with no other changes made, and people have complained about being cold and have started wearing extra clothing. Laboratory studies have also associated colours with arousal, and greater perfonnance in accuracy testing recorded in rooms painted red10 6 However, these effects are considered short tenn and there is no evidence of such effects in offices. 6.4 Summary of Selected Criteria for Individual Productivity If the following criteria are achieved, individual satisfaction may be expected from an office environment: ControVAdaptation Providing users with control and potential for adaptation can serve to provide satisfaction. Lighting Adequate lighting level for the task perfonned and glare avoided. General offices 500 lux Offices with VDU's 300-500 lux Windows and daylighting Maximum acceptable distance of 6m from a window provided the building design also pennits daylight penetration to this depth. On the same premise, a maximum distance of 3m from an atrium is acceptable. Temperature and Thermal Comfort Achieved the thennal comfort standards as prescribed by Prof Fanger with percentage dissatisfied of less than 30% under extreme design conditions. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 46 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Air Quality Ventilation rates as prescribed by CmSE (sources of pollution removed) Noise Introduce sound attenuation into offices to simulate the conditions of smaller offices, whilst ensuring sufficient background noise levels are sustained. Music Music has limited affect on productivity as long as the work involves little concentration and the music is agreeable with listeners' preferences. Workstations The most important element of a workstation is for it to be comfortable, and provide good accessibility to equipment required to perform a task, and a minimum workspace provision of 10m 2 per person to maintain acceptable personal boundaries. Colour Colour has no long-term effects on productivity but can influence thermal comfort. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 47 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Fulure Business Needs? 7.0 Group Working The importance of group working to overall performance is captured by Elton Mayo's statement: "its no good getting the best man for the job if he cannot get on with his workmates. Good lighting, ventilation and heating arrangements are of little consideration if the relationship between workers and managers are unsatisfactory". Issues associated with group working are often recognised as being within the realms of the behavioural scientist and psychologists who carry out most research into management practices and space planning guidance. Research on the physical environment and its influence on communication and group cohesion has generally focused on interpersonal distance, psychological barriers. and symbols and sources of comfort and environmental stress such as "crowding". Appendix B contains the most significant findings from this research, summarised in order to convey the level of knowledge that currently exists for space planners besides the regularly applied requirements for proximity. However there are few conclusive results and the findings are sometimes contradictory. In the following section, issues associated with space planning are discussed and a model proposed for the best arrangement of space for knowledge work. 7.1 Space Planning Space planning has long been recognised as being crucial to the successful and efficient operation of an organisation, but few space planners fully appreciate the implications of their designs. The task has traditionally been carried out by office managers who have historically awarded office spaces with the best characteristics to senior staff, with the remainder of space being arranged on the basis of corporate image and the minimisation of walking distance between people who need frequent contact. More recently, space planning has been seen as the remit of architects and facilities managers, which often results in arrangements being based on casual observations, personal preferences and past experience, rather than any knowledge of the needs of the user. The present trend with space planning is the adoption of open plan arrangements. This trend started in America in the 1970's and crossed the Atlantic in the '80's. Today it is strongly associated with the changing nature of organisations from old "Tayloristic" values to the flattening of hierarchies and increased communication and knowledge sharing. However, the opening up of spaces has resulted in the introduction of many problems that may be seen in offices today. Leaman portrays an excellent list of tell-tail symptoms 107. Problems in modern office are: o Circulation routes indiscriminately cutting through and dividing working groups. o People sitting at desks that are close to circulation routes or other sources of distraction. o People sitting with their backs to circulation routes and thus feeling unnerved by people approaching from behind. o Windows and views out are obstructed by desks, partitioning, cellular offices or blinds left down. o Working-group layouts that do not allow people to see or overhear their colleagues properly. o Situations where people cannot escape from the boisterous intrusions of their colleagues. o Poor, unusable or non-existent occupant control especially over cooling, ventilation, glare and noise. o Staff who use VDUsfor long periods sitting in the poorer locations (e.g. in the centre of large open plan areas). IDOE Thesis, University of Cambridge 48 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Fulure Business Needs? Duffy also identifies the following paradoxes in arranging offices 108 : Collaboration between people should be encouraged but not at the expense of thwarting individual effort. Managers should remain accessible but still be given conditions where they can carry out concentrated work with little distraction. Conditions of total privacy should be achievedfor the few individuals who require them, but without completely separating them from other members of the group. There are a number of space planning practices that are keeping pace with the changes taking place in organisations and the nature of work, and taking advantage of behavioural research findings on the issues that influence overall performance. This is enabling them to find a balance between the paradoxes and arrive at solutions, which are tailored, to particular organisations' needs. The most prominent character in the more scientific approach to space planning is Francis Duffy. Through his studies of the way individuals and groups within organisations work, he has derived work-type characteristics on the basis of the level of autonomy and interaction undertaken in the work task. He defines these as: Cell, Den, Hive and Club. A summary of work type characteristics along with typically associated space arrangements is shown in Figures 7.1 & 7.2 109. A detailed description of these work styles is provided in Appendix C. Den (several simple settings) Club (many rich complex settings) Group process work Varied work (individual and group) Low autonomy High autonomy High interaction High interaction PC, speciali,ed equipment Elaborate IT 9 to 5 hours. some variation Comolex timetablin. Hive (Simple work stations) Cell (one rich complex setting) Individual process work Isolated work Low autonomy High autonomy Low interaction Low interaction Networked PC Laptop, networked PC 9 to 5 hours, shift work Individual time-tabling Figure 7.1 Work-type characteristics Hive Cell Figure 7.2 Hive, Cell, Den, and Club space plans IDBE 'lbesis, University of Cambridge 49 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Most organisations now seek a balance between enclosed and open plan spaces reflecting the social and technical characteristics of various tasks. The diagram below shows how organisation space budget trends have been changing with the nature of work over time according to Duffy"o. Occasionally some organisations need open plan spaces with no partitioning of the space. Others require predominantly cellular spaces. An organisation's requirements for space allocation must be compatible with a building's form and module. The planning module and the depth of space is of paramount importance for incorporating perimeter cellular offices. 1960,- 1970, 1970,- 19808 .. Beyond 2000 III D - - Figure 7.3 The changing office space budget Off,ite (i.e. home, traveling) Specialist (e.g. IT, meeting, amenity) Group space/free address Open plan Enclosed Studies have been carried out on how building forms lend themselves to the various work patterns as shown below. Figure 7.4 shows that some building forms are more receptive to a multiplicity of layouts than others. Duffy suggests the key to finding the right building in this sense is in the depth of space"! As tasks become increasingly diverse in the future, more varied types of workspace may be required. On this basis, the most adaptable building capable of accommodating all of the various work types is one with a 15m-floor plate depth, as highlighted in Figure 7.4. Leaman also considers this distance to be the threshold of complexity after which the management of space is much more complicated!!2. Building types Hive 00 [I] " I ~ ' ~ I ~ i! Key: I"" ....j good adequate poor ... De" Cell Club
... ... ... ... ... ... Figure 7.4 Affinities between work patterns and building types IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 50 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 7.1.1 Gathering Space The new emphasis on creating knowledge sharing and interactivity has spawned a requirement for a new kind of space within the office often referred to in this context as "gathering space". Gathering spaces are designated communal spaces intended to enable staff to: "share and increase what they know, discover what they know and exploit what they know" 113. In reality, gathering spaces have always existed in some form or other but have not always been convemently located, and have rarely been recognised on plans or in the planning of spaces. The ideal characteristics of gathering spaces are noted to be ll4 : Convenient accessibility Comfortable seating for conversations One should pass through it on way to other places Comfortable temperature, moderate background noise level without obscuring speech but masking more distant noise, privacy may also be needed. Gathering spaces may contain for example mailboxes, reference materials, and coffee machines. 7.2 Building Space Planning for Knowledge Based Work An ideal theoretical space planning model for knowledge-based organisations may be devised by considering the requirements for group and individual productivity. The requirements for group productivity, of communication and cohesion, are best achieved by optimising the distance between the knowledge workers and maximising their potential of meeting. lndividiIal productivity is best achieved by providing a satisfactory working environment, which is recognised as being perimeter spaces, near windows for example. If a theoretical limit of 20m is taken for good communication and the preferred maximum distance from the fa9ade is 6 (for individual satisfaction), the model shown in Figure 7.5 may be developed. The central core space is then allocated to those who require very efficient communication routes, such as the group leader and group co-ordinators. The central core also encompasses shared facilities including the "gathering space" where all knowledge workers ideally gravitate. The spaces beyond the 20m distance are then best used for formal meeting spaces, storage, ITC hubs and other infrequently used spaces. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 51 Graham Beadle, IDDE 8 Productivity: Can ExisLing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Figure 7.5 Theoretical model for Knowledge Worker Space Planning This is not to suggest that offices for knowledge work are ideally round in plan, but it does suggest that they are preferably hub based rather than of long and narrow dimensions. See Figure 7.6. O j C j ~ Figure 7.6 Suitability of plan layouts for Know ledge Worker Space Planning IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 52 Graham Beadle, JDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 7.3 Summary of Selected Criteria for Group Productivity Space planning is about communication and group cohesion. If the requirements below can be accommodated, a satisfactory solution may be expected for future knowledge based organisations. Space planning should: Reflect organisational culture (present or desired). Provide sufficient flexibility to allow individuals to carry out adaptation and personalisation if desired. Reflect work type characteristics (den, club, hive, cell), preferably with a 15m floor plate depth, and ideally lead to hub type office arrangement. The building'S plan form must be suited to space planning layouts. Spaces should be arranged to minimise walking distance to facilitate communication, 20m being recognised as a preferred maximum distance. Gathering spaces should be incorporated for knowledge generation. Leaman's tell tale symptoms should be recognised and mitigated. See Section 7.1 IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 53 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 8.0 Organisations The overall building form contributes to an organisation's productivity indirectly by reinforcing certain characteristics such as management structure, culture and image. The building also enables productivity directly by allow for the efficient arrangement of work groups and shared facilities. How groups within organisations occupy space raises similar issues to planning groups for individuals, but the complexity introduced by individual personalities are removed, and the nature of a group's operation and overall characteristics prevail. Within large organisations, groups share senior management and facilities such as training rooms, auditoria, a canteen etc. Locating work groups within a building, to minimise travel distances between these facilities influences communication and productivity. Consideration needs to be given to the interaction between each of these elements, and locating them appropriately. Figure 8.1 illustrates this. Communication routes Figure 8.1 Building space planning model However, for this to be achieved effectively, an organisation's scale and characteristics must be matched to the building occupied. This can be a difficult task as organisations change not only due to external pressures, but also through internal growth. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 54 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Figure 8.2 provides an example of how an organisation's needs change as they grow and illustrates the need for different types ofbuildings 115
Customer'sales Training Research Manufacl;uring Distribution Corporate HQ Infant Youthl'ul Figure 8.2 As organisations grow the requirements of space change to be more specialised 8.1 Summary of Selected Criteria for Organisational Productivity At an organisational level, a building provides for productivity indirectly through reinforcing organisations' characteristics. These are as unique to each organisation, as physical arrangements are to each building. The building's direct contribution is in enabling productivity through facilitating efficient space planning of groups and shared facilities. If the criteria noted below are met, a satisfactory solution may be expected for future knowledge based organisations. A building should: Be of appropriate scale to effectively accommodate an organisation Provide good proximity between work groups and shared facilities Reflect the organisation's desired image. Support management aims IDBE 111esis, University of Cambridge 55 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Pnxluctivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 9.0 Case Study The aim of this case study is to detennine how well the major refurbishment of an existing building can provide for the productivity requirements of future organisations. The study of a single building provides the advantage of a coherent setting from which practical limitations can be identified that may be considered generic of existing buildings of the same era, also potentially threatened with demolition. The major refurbishment project chosen for the basis of the case study is the Amp headquarters building in Fitzrovia, London. Amp are a multinational engineering consultancy finn. Besides this, being one of only very few major refurbishment of 1950's and '60's buildings, this project in particularly provides a number of additional benefits as noted below: The author, having been an employee of the firm for over 6 years, has a good knowledge of the organisation, its staff, and the nature of the work. The refurbishment work is nearing completion with Amp having undertaken the engineering design and project management of the work. This enabled the author to learn about issues associated with the refurbishment directly from those involved with the design and constmction stages. Amp's work is knowledge based, and highly varied in nature, autonomy and level of interaction. This is seen to be representative of future business organisations. The building is leased to Amp and the landlord requires the project to meet the British Council of Offices requirements" 6 . The case study begins with a description of the organisation, the work and the people, along with background infonnation on the aims and perceived benefits of the refurbishment. This is followed by a summary of a staff consultation and a description of the project. Understanding the nature of the work carried out is one of the most important elements in understanding the building's effect on performance. An assessment of the building's potential for achieving the requirements of individual, group and organisational productivity is then undertaken, based on the earlier findings. Finally, a comparison is made between the refurbished building and what could have been achieved by a new building occupying the same envelope. 9.1 Background Information 117 118 119 120 Amp have been based in Fitzrovia in London, in 10 separate buildings for over 50 years. Most of the buildings were built in the 1950's and '60's. They were recognised as an embarrassment when clients visited, due to the ramshackle layOl,lt and dreary old interiors. The company, being aware of the changing nature of business and the importance of company branding, along with the issues of staff attraction and retention, decided that something must be done. They wanted a headquarters building that provided a "striking" and "modern" image for the organisation whilst providing an inspiring, supportive place to work. The project also presented an opportunity to re-examine the ways that the company worked and types of spaces needed now and in the future. Amongst the mission statements, the desire is noted to achieve a cultural change in Amp, embrace new technology and change the way buildings are used and perceived. The project sponsors also recognised the sustainability benefits of retaining the existing IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 56 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Busine.<ls Needs? structure. The aim of the Fitzrovia project was set: to create a single coherent campus by the major refurbishment of the existing buildings. The Arup Board are keen to promote the modem values of reducing the visible signs of hierarchy and state their preferences for a "meritocratic" structure with transparency in their briefing documents for the project. The management style aligns with the current managerial preference for humanism, which is best conveyed by the company gaining 29 th place in the Times Top 100 Companies To Work For List l2l
The nature of the work is engineering design. This is knowledge based, requiring individuals to complete tasks with varied requirements for automation, communication and interaction, dependent on project stages. The diagrams below show the current task characteristics and expected future change, and the changing portion of task types within the organisational groups. As automation increases, the group sizes are expected to reduce. Degree of task interaction Range I
High Low Future: Increased interaction Degree of autonomy Range High Low Future: Increased Autonomy Variety of tasks Range High Low Future: Increasing task variety Duration of task: Range High 'Low Future: Little change Figure 9.1 Nature of current and future tasks, for the majority of staff IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 57 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Management style Direction of Movement c=:lJ Mechanistic I' Future: Becoming more "Humanistic" Task types current and future Staff task types Management: Engineers: Technicians Administration: Support: Coordinators: Current 15% 55% 20% 4% 4% 2% Figure 9.2 Management style and task types current and future Humanistic Future 15% 65% 10% 2% 2% 6% In the early stages of the project SHM, the social analysts company, carried out a study on how the staff use, and work within, the existing buildings122. The comments made by the staff and impressions that researchers gained are noted in Appendix D. This provides a good independent insight into the employees' preferences and attitudes. 9.2 The Building!23 !24 The new Arup campus will be built in 3 phases spread over 4 years allowing the project benefit from the latest technological advances, to gain feed-back on earlier phases, and maximise design resources for the first phase. The case study is based on a floor of phase I of the development. The refurbishment involves stripping the building back to the bare structure and joining two existing buildings together to create single open plan floor spaces. The building will have a single main entrance providing access to the primary vertical circulation cores. The secondary (existing) escape stair cores will be retained at each end of the floor plate and will be re-designed to incorporate service risers. The project will provide the following facilities: Auditorium Cyclist facilities, including bike store, changing areas and showers Exhibition space for public access Conference and meeting facilities Accommodation for visiting overseas directors Deli bar IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 58 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for F'llture Business Needs? The flexible space integrated on each floor plate is intended to be multifunctional as illustrated in Figure 9.3. Flexible Meeting Social Breakout DispJay Communal Figure 9.3 Multifunctional flexible space Amongst the many functions, these spaces are also intended to be the communication points within the building. This is strongly emphasised in the fa<;;ade, where the hub breaks through the regular horizontal linearity. lOBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 59 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Basic Building Data: Area: Work station density: Task types: Types of space: Typical working hours: Space ownership Building depth: Slab to slab height Floor to ceiling height Types of environmental services: General office lighting level: Temperature, Winter: Summer: Noise level: Fresh air ventilation rate: Figure 9.4 Basic building data 2450 nnn 421lUU ~ ~ t ~ 158 rnm _ 330 rom 80mm ===#= ITC Power Recessed lighting 9,200 m 2 1 per 10m 2 Varied activities Mixed Flexible generally 9 am to 6 pm All open plan dedicated workspaces 15m and 9m to central atrium 3.06m 2.45 m Floor supply & perimeter heating 400 lux 22 2e 24 2e NR 35 min NR 38 max 12 to IS Htres/second Roar supply system Inner skin of facade Outer skin of facade ~ . Perimeter heating Supply air duct Figure 9.5 Environmental strategy section showing storey dimensions IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 60 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? l1li Primary Circulation Interactive Space Atria/Secondary Circulation Roof Garden Figure 9.6 Diagram showing the three project phases and building massing Figure 9.7 Cross section through refurbished building IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 61 t _1 -1 I Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? ~ o 0 + .,
o + 0 0 0 0 0 0 Figure 9.8 Second floor plan of existing building 0 0 Figure 9.9 Second floor plan of refurbished building lOBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 62 C t f,:ve I and Mews 0 0 c; ~ + a N , 0 0 v. 0 " " + ,
-+ Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Figure 9.10 Views of external facade IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 63 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Ex.isting Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? - ' - ' ~ " - "3 Ground floor plan View I View 2 View 4 I 1 Figure 9.11 Visualisations of refurbished building interior IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 64 Second floor plan First floor View 3 View 5 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs'? 9.3 "Individual" Productivity Assessment 9.3.1 Artificial Lighting The artificial lighting will generally be achieved using fluorescent tube luminaires recessed into the suspended ceiling. The design illuminance is 400 lux, which is below the current best practice for general offices, bnt in the mid range for VDU users. Glare, high contrast and the unevenness of illumination levels have been avoided by following good practice guidelines. The lower lighting level has been chosen for energy efficiency reasons. This level of 400 lnx is gradually becoming the accepted design norm bnt has not yet been officially recognised. Research suggests that this is below desirable levels for reading accuracy and speed shown in Fignre 9.12. Eqnally the lower lighting levels are more condncive to VDU use. 10 9 Decrease in quality/pcrfonnance
14-1-- 400 lux 2
!liurnintlnce on desk (Ix) Figure 9.12 Mean assessment of lighting quality Overall, there is little reason to suspect that the artificial lighting will not be satisfactory to the majority of users, as shown in the diagram below.
Fignre 9.13 Plan of building showing likely satisfaction/dissatisfaction with artificial lighting IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 65 Graham Beadle, lOBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 9.3.2 Daylighting and Windows FulJ height perimeter glazing surrounds each office floor plate. The intention is to use glass partitioning in perimeter celJular offices to assist in maximizing the penetration of natural daylight throughout the floor space. The calculation proposed for daylighting, shown in Section 6.3.2 shows that, assuming good exposure to the sky, daylight will penetrate just over 6m based on a celJular office in a 4.3m structural module, and over 8m for an open plan space. Spaces within 3m of the atrium may have some daylight, perhaps more perceived by occupants than actualJy achieved. The surrounding buildings and trees adjacent to the fa9ade (dependant on the time of year) will reduce daylight penetration distances in some locations. See Figure 9.14. Building Indicates office space with poor dayHghting due to over shading by adjacent buildings Street Case study building Road Building Figure 9.14 Section of building showing office floor space with clear view of sky A significant portion of the building may be perceived as having poor daylighting, as shown in Figure 9.14. If sedentary workers are located in these areas it may be a cause of dissatisfaction. lDilE thesis, University of Cambridge 66 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Figure 9.15 Plan of building showing likely satisfaction/dissatisfaction with daylighting A larger risk of potential dissatisfaction is expected from individuals over 6m from a window. The plan below shows the areas considered to be an unsatisfactory distance from a window. i l l l l ~ ~ I ~ ~ ~ I I I I I I ! Figure 9.16 Plan of building showing likely satisfaction/dissatisfaction with distance from window lOBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 67 GrahamBeadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 9.3.3 Temperature and Thermal Comfort With the proposed floor supply system, a reasonable level of comfort may be expected throughout the offices. However, the system offers no user temperature control, and the building manager will set the operation based on comments received from staff. On this basis, it will be crucial that management respond quickly to complaints to minimise dissatisfaction. The areas of greatest risk of discomfort are those in the O.5m perimeter strip, where the building interacts with the external environment. Another is the top floor around the atrium. To compensate, the design with integrated shading devices should limit discomfort to the design extremes. The results of simulating such a system in operation on a warm summer day in London is shown are shown in Figure 9.17. Figure 9.17 shows that the percentage people dissatisfied, determined using Fanger's comfort criteria, is generally low during normal working hours for a glazing transmissivities of less thanI5%. Under such design conditions a maximum percentage people dissatisfied of 30% is considered acceptable, increasing when strong sunlight shines on the System OFF System ON Ii ooj----------;:---
15% transmissivity * 1 1
I
o 1 a 3 4 5 e 7 8 a 10 11 12 1$ 14 15 16 17 18 19 2() 21 22 23 24 Hour of Day 29% l()%-S%J Figure 9.17 Graph showing the percentage people dissatisfied - for a south facing with various glazing transmissivity values IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 68 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? The plan below shows the areas that are likely to provide for the thermal comfort of occupants Figure 9.18 Plan of building showing likely satisfaction/dissatisfaction with thermal comfort conditions 9.3.3 Air Quality The air quality within the building is expected to be very good as the floor supply system supplies roughly 1.5 to 2 times more fresh air to the office space than the minimum selected of 8 lis per person for satisfaction (see Section 6.2.4). Figure 9.19 shows that satisfaction may be expected in all areas of the building. U'!,mmatisfied Figure 9.19 Plan of building showing likely satisfaction/dissatisfaction with air quality IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 69 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 9.3.5 Noise An open plan office arrangement is to be adopted which can give rise to dissatisfaction through distraction from, for example, noise generated by ringing phones and equipment, and most often by colleagues conversations. The desire for an open-plan office to convey management policies, such as transparency of operations and flattening of hierarchies, introduces these well-recognised paradoxes. Due to the variety of task and concentration levels needed by consultants, noise is probably the greatest source of potential dissatisfaction. The offices have many hard surfaces within them, for example, full height glazing will surround the office floor plate, full height glazing will also be used in the few cellularised offices, and the balustrade to the atrium is glass. Perhaps the worst additional generator of noise will be the atrium itself, which with its wooden floor and enveloping hard surfaces, will serve to reflect and echo voices and foot fall throughout the building, and from floor to floor. Measures taken to reduce the spread of noise include: the use of acoustic ceilings carpeted floor in the general office spaces workstations pulled back one metre from the atrium edge. However, these elements will provide little absorption to prevent horizontal noise propagation. The acoustics may be improved by introducing masking noise as the floor supply systems are extremely quiet and cannot perfonn such a function. Masking noise generators will be required. However, the introduction of masking noise would increase the building's overall noise level, which may lead to further complaints. Another option is the introduction of more absorbent surfaces. This would require opaque vertical elements and cause the loss of some transparency on the floor plates. A balance must then be achieved. If a flexible, easily adjusted, solution were to be adopted, conditions may improve and greater satisfaction gained through providing an element of control. The author is in the process of gaining a patent for a product that achieves this function. Refer to Appendix E. On the basis of the office being open plan, a high level of dissatisfaction is likely due to the variety of task that will be carried out in the spaces. Undoubtedly, some occupiers will consider the space too noisy, others too quiet. This is a recognised paradox with all open plan offices. On this basis, it may be expected that the majority of the large open space will be found unsatisfactory by most individuals for a multitude of reasons. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 70 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Figure 9.20 Plan of building showing likely satisfaction/dissatisfaction with noise 9.3.6 Workstation and Space The intention is to use the existing workstations in the refurbished building. This should not give rise to significant dissatisfaction, as 74% of staff surveyed were content with the design of their workstation. The workstation space provision is 10m 2 per person. This should also be considered satisfactory. It is unlikely that satisfaction levels could be improved significantly using a standard desk solution for all, as current policy dictates.
Figure 9.21 Plan of building showing likely satisfaction/dissatisfaction with workstation space IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 71 GrahamBeadle, lOBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 9.3.7 Control! Adaptation Most occupants are expected to find the levels of control over their environment unsatisfactory. The thermal comfort conditions will be set centrally, the lighting will be controlled locally and there will be no user control over ventilation. although those close to windows will be able to operate them. These problems may be considered typical of open plan offices and are not attributable to the existing structure, but the building services design. The plan below shows the level of satisfaction associated with each area of the office.
it:Oi,satisfied Figure 9.22 Plan of building showing likely satisfaction/dissatisfaction with control provision IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 72 Graham Bead1e, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 9.4 "Group" Productivity Assessment The aim of this section is to discuss productivity issues related to group activities involving communication and cohesion. Issues to be considered include desk arrangements in relation to the existing structure and how well knowledge generation can be accommodated by the dimensioning of the space. The space planning of the areas within the offices will be completed by the occupying groups to suit their own requirements using standard furniture and a demountable glass partitioning system. To date, no knowledge-based work groups have produced plans; therefore a space planning arrangement has been developed by the author for the basis of the case study and represents a likely layout for a typical engineering group. In arriving at this notional office arrangement, consideration has been given to the elements shown in the Figure 9.23. Changing nature of the work Changing nature of the tasks Advances in technology Changes to staff skill requirements Current staff preferences Management style Requirements for productivity Organisational aims for cultural change Figure 9.23 Elements considered in arriving at a space planning solution Interviews were also carried out with members of an engineering group in order to determine the work style preferences and the potential for change. It was found during interviews that most knowledge- work based staff could not contemplate working without a permanent desk and considered that the technology was available at all workstations for the range of tasks necessary to be completed. lOBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 73 Graham Beadle, lOBE 8 Productivity; Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? A survey of the group's current workstation utilisation shows that occupancy levels are high for much of the week as shown in Figure 9.24. There was a consensus of opinion that additional, shared, quiet spaces would be desirable to enable occasional disruption-free concentration. Dedicated spaces for itinerant staff and visitors were also considered desirable. The requirements for hot-desking were minimal and it was found that people worked from home for only few days a year, if at all. Most employees preferred the office for face-to-face communication, collaborative designing and the general camaraderie of the workplace. >- 100 " c '" 90 c. " 80 " " 70 0 " ' ~ 60 "':11. ~ a . . . 50 CI) 40 Cl '" 30 c CI) 20 "
10 CI) Q. Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Figure 9.24 Desk occupancy survey results The space planning arrangement proposed, and the designation of space, is shown in Figure 9.25. The key influences in arriving at a space plan, additional to those determined in Section 7.0, are shown in Appendix F. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 74 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? " Store : ..................... ...... "; .... ! : Copy : . . .. 00' O() /J." .... ........................... "
Store :
........................... : r'aliID&la
: O'Dt::IO , ......................
o 0 0 :Workstations Qffi
ft!II'oJj" : 0 :Workstations
............... "0',,. Figure 9.25 Space planning arrangement for know ledge based engineering group IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 75 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 9.4.1 Building's Plan Form and Structure The building's plan form, of 15m from window to window, is recognised by Duffy as being flexible and effective for the integration of all recognised work patterns. See Figure 9.26. Building types Hive 00 [I] Iii 1"...,;Ij Key: good adequate poor Den Cell Club ... Figure 48 Summary of affinities between the work patterns: building types Figure 9.26 Summary of affinities between work patterns and building types However, the project space planners found that the close and irregular column spacing was obstructive and restrictive when allocating office space. Standard space planning options were considered using the organisation's existing standard "L" shaped Herman Miller desks and also bench type, arrangements. Figure 9.27 shows the various generic desks arrangements using these types of desks. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 76 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 6.1m 7 1 o . ~ 1
LtrJ o 0 0 0 0 O ~ . ; ~ m"o' m ................ . 0 ... 0
o 0 0 ~ 0 0 O Figure 9.27 Various generic desk arrangements shown within the building's structural grid The target space-occupancy density of 1 person per 10 m 2 could be achieved, but the columns are an obstruction. The current preference for new office buildings is for spans of between 7 and 9m instead of 4.57 m here, as this allows for greater flexibility in space planning. The existing structure is therefore a major restriction to space planning as it limits workstation positions to the structural module, causing inefficient use of space. The existing structure also imposes floor loading limitations, which could restrict the type of use for some areas. It was not a problem in this case, but if it were it may have been accommodated by organisational space planning activities. The application of the knowledge-based space-planning principle (see Section 7.2) to a typical floor plate is shown in Figure 9.28. Although the floor plan does not reflect the ideal dimensions, the planning principle may still be applied about an elongated core, and used to gauge the effecti veness of the floor plan. It can be seen that the majority of spaces on the floor plate are within 20m of the core services, and most importantly, the gathering space is within 20 m of most workstations. The distance between workstations is greater than 20m in a number of cases. This will reduce the effectiveness of group working. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 77 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? SCALE 10m ..................... " ......... . : Store : , . , . , , ......................... ............. "" ......... . Formal :
.. " .............. _ .. _"...... - Ii .... " .. .................. . : ! . . ..... ! " .. "" .. :Workstations: M _,_, ., ""'"" , __ .: Ii .. .......... .. .............. "'. . . . . : Formal : . : meeting : . . ....................................... .' " . """""..-, Aexible ,; ,," ... , space .. " .. . . ... J\1eeting .. :.. """"' .... ,, ........................... .. Figure 9.28 Application of knowledge based planning principle IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 78 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? The flexible spaces are considered social areas concerned with knowledge-sharing and increasing communication. However, it is doubtful that they will serve well as gathering spaces as they do not have the desirable characteristics (see Section 7.1.1) that these spaces require, particularly accessibility. These spaces should serve well for the other intended functions, but the main role is in enhancing the organisation's image. 9.5 "Organisation" Productivity Assessment At an organisational level, the building's direct influence on productivity is achieved through enabling logical space planning of the building. The building's indirect influence on productivity, gained through supporting management aims, will be achieved through the large open plan office arrangements and open central atrium which will generate communication and increase familiarity between staff and groups. The fagade of the bUilding is not opulent and may be considered suited to the occupying engineering organisation. The brise-soleil and particularly the double skin facade are considered to offer a solution to many environmental problems such as noise and solar control, and general reduction in energy consumption. The common view on the colour of the facade is that it is too garish, but when it is explained that the colour is intended to reflect that of the nearby BT Tower, there is a greater acceptance. Overall, the building may be expected to have no direct detrimental effects on organisational productivity and should serve to indirectly enhance productivity through supporting management aims. 9.6 Comparison with "New Build" To determine how successful the refurbished building is in terms of productivity, a comparison has been made with what could have been achieved within the same building envelope with a "new build" office (see Figures 9.29 and 9.30). The main objective when planning an office space is to create the maximum area of prime, or primary, office space. This is most effectively achieved by keeping clear as much perimeter space as possible and locating the building's cores and circulation routes in the deeper spaces. The remaining space is then termed secondary or storage, depending on access to windows and daylight. Spaces designated as storage are generally considered undesirable for working in due to the distance from windows, or because they are prone to distraction, for example, where there are circulation routes on two or more sides. Refurbish Primary office space Multifunctional Secondary office space Circulation Core ---J... Figure 9.29 Space usage within refurbished building IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 79 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Re-Build Figure 9.30 Space usage if rebuilt When the percentage of floor spaces are compared it is found that the refurbishment provides less primary office space, which may also be interpreted to mean less satisfactory office space, and hence less good productivity space. A comparison is shown in Figure 9.31. Refurbished 16% E1Prirre 44% ElSecondary 9Storage I!ICirculation C1Core Space Figure 9.31 Space usage comparison Re-build 58% The location and size of the existing core is the most disadvantageous element of the refurbished building, along with the restricted positioning of the atrium. It may be concluded from this comparison that a new building could have resulted in more space suited to enabling better individual productivity, but this would have had a negative effect on: space planning flexibility by reducing the floor plan depth to less than 15m, and group productivity by increasing the distance between some workstations. Also, the forgiveness inherent with the existing structure, with its irregularities, unique characteristics and sustainability benefits, may offset any dissatisfaction created, and perhaps equalise the productivity balance between the two options. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 80 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? 9.7 Findings from Case Study Through considering the likely influence of the new Fitzrovia building on individual, group and organisational productivity, it has been found that the building may cause a loss in productivity in some spaces through being a source of dissatisfaction causing distraction to concentration, primarily due to noise, poor window access and day-lighting, and a lack of user control. On a group productivity basis, the building is well suited to the size of an average building group, providing for good communication between all primary office space and core areas, which will also serve well for cohesion. At an organisational level, the building should not be a cause of distraction, and may initially boost morale and motivation through psychological effects. The case study shows that the requirements of ITC have had little effect on the height of space (which in the past has been the major reason for office buildings to be demolished). However, the structure represents a major setback in terms of space planning with column layouts severely restricting the office space use and setting out. The minimum workstation space requirement of 10m 2 per person for comfort, privacy and adaptation, as recommended in Section 6.3.6, has been met. The floor loading capacity of the existing structure did not impose limitations on the use of spaces in this instance. When comparisons are made with what could have been achieved with a new building constructed within the same building envelope, it was found that more primary office space could have been created by relocating the cores to the central to the building, to free up the perimeter space. This would have created more quality space which would have been better for individual productivity. In contrast, the space actually created may be slightly remote and not as desirable for group productivity due to reduced communication efficiency and reduced cohesion. Overall, it may be concluded that the existing building structure has imposed major space planninglflexibility restrictions and provides less high quality space than could have been provided by a new building occupying the same envelope. This may be considered as the cost for the environmental benefits. However, the building is well proportioned and will provide for good group productivity within the occupying organisation. It may be concluded from this work that existing buildings can provide for the productivity needs of future knowledge based organisations. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 81 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity; Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business N e e d ~ ? 10.0 Conclusion The aim of this thesis was to determine if existing office buildings could provide for the productivity needs of future organisations. If they can, this thesis would offer further justification for the reuse of existing office structures in addition to the established sustainability benefits. The assessment has been carried out considering the social, economic, organisational and technological changes taking place, and adopting a multidisciplinary approach in determining the buildings role in office productivity. Productivity literature has been researched and new models, theories, and criteria for productivity have been assembled. The application of these findings to a case study building has shown that an existing building can provide for the productivity needs of future knowledge based organisations. However, the structure can impose a loss in space planning flexibility and must be complementary to the occupying organisation's aims. The key findings from this work are noted below: Social, economic, organisational and technological: Business competition is global, and future success depends on highly skilled knowledge workers. Knowledge workers are becoming increasingly valuable and employers must keep them satisfied in all respects. Organisations are flattening traditional hierarchies and adopting more humanistic management styles. Organisations want buildings designed to support people in their tasks. It is no longer justifiable to demolish existing office buildings on the basis that space for ITC is inadequate. Productivity: The influence that buildings have on productivity relative to other elements has been proposed. Models were proposed which show the route through which buildings influence productivity at an individual, group and organisational level. lOBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 82 Graham Beadle, lDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Herzberg proposed that buildings, at best, enable performance, but do not serve to improve performance. This was considered incorrect in the case of indirect organisational productivity where performance could be enhanced through supporting management aims. The order of influence that buildings have on individual, group and organisational productivity is proposed. The building was considered to have least influence over direct organisational productivity, but greatest influence over indirect organisational productivity. An individual's relationship with an office environment has been explored, the prime elements of influence identified and desirable criteria selected A process model was proposed through which environmental factors were related to human response and satisfaction. It was considered that the minimum desired floor space provision was limited by personal satisfaction rather than the traditional requirements for office equipment and storage space. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 83 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? An ideal theoretical space planning methodology for knowledge-based organisations was proposed, based on selected individual and group productivity requirements. lOBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 84 Graham Beadle, lOBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Appendix A Office Environment Survey Staff Questionnaire INITIALS PLEASE TICK THE APPROPRIATE BOX REGARDING YOUR SATISFACTION/ DISSATISFACTION WITH THE ENVIRONMENT ABOUT YOUR WORKSTATION. SATISFIED DISSATISFIED ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING D D WINDOW/DAY-LIGHTING D D TEMPERATURE D D AIR QUALITY D D NOISE D D COLOUR D D WORKSTATION D D CONTROL OVER ENVIRONMENT D D AESTHETICS D D FOR COLLEGE USE IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 85 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Appendix A, cont; Artificial Lighting The following plans show the collective results for each element of the office environment surveyed. ~ I E S IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 86 Satisfied Dissatisfied FlRE DtfT Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Appendix A, conti Windows Satisfied Dissatisfied (lIES F1R EXIT IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 87 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Appendix A, conti Temperature Satisfied Dissatisfied F1RE EXIT IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 88 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Appendix A, conti Air quality ~ I E S IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge """ 89 Satisfied Dissatisfied FIRE Oil Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Appendix A, cont; Noise Satisfied Dissatisfied ,., Kn'CHEN FlF!f D:IT lDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 90 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Appendix A, cont; Colour Satisfied Dissatisfied FIRE 011 IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 91 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Appendix A, conti Workstation Key Satisfied Dissatisfied OiES ~ D .. ~ W O " " ' ' ' ' e;w .... "".9 000 [ill8 ClClCl fiRE EXIT IDEE Thesis, University of Cambridge 92 Graham Beadle, IDEE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Appendix A, cont; Control Over Environment Satisfied Dissatisfied FlRE oaT IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 93 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Appendix A, cont; Aesthetic Satisfied Dissatisfied ,,, '''"' FlRE EXIT IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 94 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Bui1dings Provide for Future Business Needs? AppendixB The Physical Environment's Effect on Group Performance Summary of findings from research on the physical environment and it's influence on communication. General People prefer face-to-face communication People select associates based on physical accessibility There is a relationship between proximity and communication Proximity is associated with informal communication People tend to address people they can easily make eye contact with People prefer certain distances for different encounters but can adapt to a variety of arrangements When distances are too great adaptation may be difficult Loud background noise can interfere with conversation, the louder and closer people need to be to communicate Leaders Leaders tend to occupy positions that permit maximum eye contact with group members Research on communications networks associated leaders with good accessibility to members of the group Cohesion Co-workers whose work spaces are close together and whose jobs call for frequent contact may develop close formal ties. These could form the basis of cohesive work groups Symbolism and self-identity Personalisation of an assigned workstation may be a personality trait which some exhibit more than others do as such it can be important to job satisfaction through an individuals expression of territory or zone of control Workers participation in the design of their office environment has been linked to satisfaction with environment and job. People are most satisfied with work spaces which reflect their status (Adam theory) Desks serve as a psychological barrier the way people converse over them is less open than withou t them Studies on non-working settings have found comfortable pleasant environments associated with relatively favourable reactions of people IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 95 Graham I3eadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Appendix B, cont; Space planning Office worker performance surveys show only a minority prefer private offices, and greater variance as to the number of people in an office Open plan offices Experiments into non-territorial unassigned workstations show high levels of satisfaction Open plan offices promote interdepartmental communication, but decrease confidential communication. Crowding in offices is related to dissatisfaction but the effects are relatively unexplored. Private offices There is little evidence to suggest that enclosure promotes cohesion through privacy Non-designated work stations There is no evidence to suggest greater satisfaction or better performance from shared works paces as apposed to assigned Shared facilities considerations Significant time can be wasted travelling to, or queuing at, shared equipment. IDBE Thesis, Universily of Cambridge 96 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs'? Appendix C Description of Work Type Characteristics Description of work type characteristics: Den The Den office space arrangement is associated with group process work, interactive but not necessarily highly autonomous. The space is designed for group working with a range of several simple settings, typically arranged in the open plan or group room. While the settings are normally designed on the assumption that every individual occupies their own desk, the group would also have access to shared equipment or special technical facilities that are used as needed. The tasks are typically short duration involving teamwork. Typically, organisations include design, research, some media work and advertising. Club The club office space.arrangement is for knowledge work: both highly autonomous and highly interactive. The pattern of occupancy is intermittent and over an extended working day. A wide variety of shared task based settings serve both concentrated individual and group interactive work. Individuals and teams occupy space on an as-needed basis, moving around the space to take advantage of a wide range of facilities. Hive The Hive office space arrangement is characterised by individual routine process work with low levels of interaction and individual autonomy. The office worker sits at simple work stations for continues periods of time on a regular 9 to 5 schedule (variants of this type include 24 hour shift working). The settings are typically uniform, open planned, screened and impersonal. Typical organisations or work groups include telesales, call centres, data entry or processing, routine banking, financial and administrative operations, and basic information services. Cell The Cell office space arrangement is for individual concentration work with little interaction. Highly autonomous individuals occupy the office in an intermittent irregular pattern with extended working days, working elsewhere some of the time (possibly at home, at clients office, or travelling). Each individual is typically provided with the use of either an enclosed cell or highly screened workstation in an open planned office. Each individual setting must provide for a complex variety of tasks. The autonomous pattern of work, implying a sporadic and irregular occupancy of the space means that the potential exists for the settings needed by the individual to be planned and used on a shared basis, Typical organisations include lawyers, some accountancy firms, academic offices, research organisations and management consultancies. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 97 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? AppendixD Staff Preferences List Staff preferences: Preferences Staff preference for communicating face-to-face, e-mail, telephone, informal environments, video conferencing, flexibility to manage, when, where and how they work and interact. Internal organisation and expression on the new Fitzrovia Staff prefer workspace based on need rather than working hierarchy. Expressed Staff feel personal work space does not need to be large if meeting facilities, private areas etc. are available elsewhere. Staff expressed enthusiasm for hot-desking for those who spend substantial time out of the office. They also believe that having your own place was not only individually desirable but meant others know where to find you. Staff envisage flat screen and stow-away or pop-up technologies in conjunction with lap top PC's making smaller workstations still fit for purpose. Staff believe centralised storage away from individual work space would be ideal but challenging to implement. Staff found to be excited, enthused, sceptical. Look and Ceel Staff would like an environment that is impressive, modern, light, bright and warm with uncluttered simple clean lines. Staff don't want the space to look flashy and opulent. Staff want a building that conveys a business which uses technology in innovative ways but not generic glass and metal modern box. Like Modern, light, bright, impressive, natural, organic, hand crafted, earthy values Ordered structure internally and externally, calm blues, greens, teaacotta, varied heights and textures, colours etc. Dislike Flashy, opUlent, sea of obstacles. Want Staff want layouts to promote interaction and team working. Staff desire access to spaces to have a cup of coffee, relax and talk informally. Younger stafC wanted a space that exudes creativity, manic, learning, calm, cutting edge, innovative, energy, and expression. Staff would like an appropriate environment for a given activity rather than sitting in a shoe box all day. Staff wanted group differentiation across the landscape to prevent regimented look. Staff felt space should be mUlti-purpose at multiple times without becoming intermediate e.g. equip meeting rooms with mobile IT furnishings Various fOnDS of meeting area. Staff believe the external fa<;ade should convey Arup. IDDE TIlcsis, University of Cambridge 98 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? AppendixE Patent Application FILING RECEIPT GUeadJ. 15 G"Udfom Close 'Beytdey
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Milljc"(l7lt: 11.8-159 _212:lS0 -I));. 72Z!i1{1,'4l CJcllfm 'P.nrk:.!. ... ..... - .. --.-.----.---------... .. - .... -'-.--..------.,-- ,-.. _ ... --'-"., The appliC:lllinn number im::ludell lhell.e<l.(ll11.g abDve should un illl 'oorrespondcnOl; with Tht:' ,"P-.:l.to:::m Office. Any queries uti this rta::e.ipt suould be ,addressed to JanlT.lc Geron, ll!t 01633 81457U. An otht.""T enqu.irit:'s ,hould b.dhwed to CeJltrnlEnqu,ry linit, tol. OS,5 Q .100 .105. The-aoo .....cftIJ:ng i:;. pmvir-;klnw wad m.ay tobealllCmkd ifthc pmyisiu-(ls of section 15(1) (If lhl! Patto:::nl:-i Act 1977 are jjot mer. IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 99 GrahamBeadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? Appendix F Space Planning of a Floor Plate Space planning considerations: An open plan office space has been provided for all staff including the Group Leader. The circulation route has been logically placed along the centre of the main floor plate. The Group leader has been positioned centrally providing them with good access and sight lines form most vantage points. Partitions (glazed) have been incorporated to shield workers from noisy office machinery (photo copiers) Desks have been pulled back from the edge of the atrium to reduce distraction from noises within the atrium. Prime office space has been used for bays of workstations to maximise daylight and views for occupants. Meeting rooms are at the extremities of the office where workers may have felt detached from the group if workstations were permanently located there. A gathering space has been incorporated in the darker area of the floor plate. near and on the route to the kitchen and main core toilets. Desk spaces next to corridors face onto them to minimise distraction. Itinerant work space has been provided adjacent to the atrium, perhaps the location where noise distraction is most likely. Large glazed partitions have been incorporated to reduce the transmission of sound along large open spaces. Similarly, the floor length has been broken up by the introduction of quiet booths. Meeting rooms have been placed in the southwest corner because it is relatively remote from the remainder of the group and will be prone to high solar gain although the double skin facade will protect against this to some extent. IDBE Thesis, University ofCamhridge 100 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8 Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs? References 1 Anders, J. Mills, K. Refurbishment or Redevelopment of Office Buildings: Sustainability Comparisons. BRE Information Paper, 2002. (IP9/02 Part 2). 2 Pearson, A. Building Analysis British Airways Waterside Bjorn Again, Building Services Journal, September 1998, p.30-34. 2 Powell, K. Lloyd's Register Office: AI Building Study. The Architects Journal, 10 January 2002, p.26-41. 3 Jones, D. 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