Language Ideology in Northern/Central New York

LING 8510 Peter De Costa

Haley Berl & Jessica Mautone

5/14/13

2 Rationale We, Jessica and Haley, have chosen to examine the ideologies and attitudes of people living in Northern/Central New York towards foreign language education. The main reason for our choice of location is that we both have roots and have lived in this particular area of the United States. For the purpose of this paper, we define Northern/Central New York as including towns such as Oneonta, Albany, Binghamton, Syracuse, Watertown and Utica. These cities (and some outlying towns) are mainly considered rural, as there is a large farming community on their peripheries. Due to the fact that we have since moved away from this area, we are better able to objectively look at language as it is spoken and written there, as compared to where we currently live (Monterey, California). Our hypothesis for this research is twofold. We have predicted that people from this region will see foreign language education as a low priority. They will also demonstrate misperceptions as to how Standard English is defined. This hypothesis is based on the fact that rural areas tend to be more isolated from mainstream society, and therefore tend to maintain more ethnocentric educational views towards foreign language education. Description of Population The selected population for our data collection came from several different counties in Northern/Central New York. However, for the purposes of this paper we will name our two hometown counties as our focus: Otsego County and Lewis County. Demographic Information Based on the information from the U.S. Census Bureau as presented in Tables 1 and 2, it can be said that a very small percentage of the population has been exposed to people of a

3 different language/culture, as at least 95% of the population of each county is qualified as white. Additionally, the level of higher education in these counties is lower than the statewide average of 32%. Table 1: Otsego County Demographics (United States Census Bureau) Language other than English spoken at home Foreign-born persons White Persons Hispanic or Latino High School Grad or Higher BA or higher 6.5%

3.8% 95% 3.2% 88.3% 26.2%

Table 2: Lewis County Demographics (United States Census Bureau) Language other than English spoken at home Foreign-born persons White Persons Hispanic or Latino High School Grad or Higher BA or higher 2.8%

1.4% 97.6% 1.4% 86.9% 13.7%

4 Linguistic Variation For the duration of our time spent in Northern/Central New York, we have been exposed to several different English language variations, that of which exhibit signs of what language researchers call the Northern Cities Chain Shift (NCCS) (Labov, Yaeger and Steiner, 1973) and the Canadian Raising Accent, as identified by OGrady (O'Grady, Archibald, Aronoff & Rees-Miller, 2010). Concerning NCCS, there are six vowels that are presented; however, we will only mention the ones that tend to manifest themselves in our regions. The first vowel mentioned is the //, which is raised and pronounced in a more tense fashion, for example, in the word cat. Others include the // vowel, as it is usually pronounced in words such as bought, and the // vowel, which makes the word mit sound more like met (pronounced more in the back of the mouth). In addition, it should be noted that consonantal voiceless stops /p/, /t/, and /k/ are often not pronounced at the end of a word, so shut up sounds more like shuh uhh, with voiceless glottal stops at the end instead of the traditional consonants. The Canadian Raising Accent is more prevalent in the Lewis County region (as it is closer to Canada). The two components of this accent are a [i] diphthong (tye-er instead of tire) and /a/ as a mid-low vowel (a-boat instead of about). Our personal experiences, like that of Rosina Lippi-Green (2012), have made us more aware of these differences in pronunciation than we were before moving away. Lastly, notable vocabulary includes yall, acrosst and aint, exhibiting a bit of Southern influence (possibly due to the farming communities). In terms of grammar, there is a usage of double negatives, found in phrases like, I dont have no... and There aint nothing... Finally, improper use of the subject-verb agreement is common. A great example is, Move them tables. These

5 English language variations have been noted and addressed, as they are not considered Standard English in the United States, yet they are widely used in our region of analysis. Methodology The data for this research project were collected via questionnaire (See Appendix A), which we sent through Facebook to all of our friends and family in the general New York area. We sent approximately 100 questionnaires, with a request for participants to forward on the questionnaire to others in the same area. We received a total of 46 completed questionnaires, 28 of which were completed by the 20-29 age group. For the purpose of increasing validity, we chose to focus solely on this group of respondents, as they were clearly the majority group, and no other age group had more than ten respondents. Ideologies in Relation to Age Our data showed a significant separation between the young twenties sample (age 20-24) and the mid/older 20s (age 25-29) in opinion of bilingual education methods. In response to the question: How do you think English Language Learners (ELL's) should be taught? 100 percent of respondents under age 25 answered Total Immersion Method in favor of the Pull-out Method. The idea of a best practice for teaching a second language has long been debated in the United States. According to M.C. Combs et al. (2011), the problem with Total Immersion (English-only) is: While [students] are being taught English, using the most inarticulate pedagogy possible, they barely participate in any lessons or classes that would advance their academic learning, which severely curtails developing their

6 potentialities. Furthermore, their most potent resources for learning and development, their first-language knowledge and skills, are systematically excluded from their schooling, as are any possible beneficial contacts with their home knowledge and experiences (p. 199). M.C. Combs et al. touch on the idea of a third-space, a symbolic or metaphorical space that merges the first space of childrens home, community, and peer networks with the second space of more formalized settings like school. The third space is that in-between or hybrid space in which children can apply their funds of knowledge to create something new (p. 195). In contrast, Schumann (1976): seems to favor the Total Immersion Method, and focuses on the social distance between the second language learners group and the target language group. According to Schumanns research, the shorter the distance, the faster the acculturation into the target language takes place. We, the authors, have several theories that may explain the correlation of age with language learning/teaching ideology. Our first theory relates to Blommaerts (2009) idea of globalization having an effect on the rising popularity of the English language as it increasingly becomes associated with upward mobility, wealth, and being on the forefront of innovation. As English becomes a more necessary skill in society, native English speakers may develop an ethnocentric view of the language. However, when the older generation was being educated, English may not have been as widely revered as a prestigious language. Our second theory is that anti-immigration laws being passed in other areas of the United States had a ripple-effect, spreading the ideology of not conforming school curriculum for the benefit of international students; rather, they should just learn English

7 as quickly as possible. According to M.C. Combs et al. (2011), the rise of antiimmigration sentiment has dictated much of the language policies in the last decade. The availability of bilingual education as an approach to educating ELLs has been seriously limited since November 2000, when Arizona voters passed Proposition 203 (p. 186). Proposition 203 limits the instruction given to ELLs, essentially forcing them into the mainstream classroom before they are ready. It is possible that this mentality spread throughout the United States, even to the schools in northern and central New York. Finally, our results could be attributed to a natural cycling of language ideology through generations. Brown (2008) summarizes the transitions of best practice language acquisition methods over time. Essentially, second language acquisition has followed a pendulum-like process, beginning with a strong support of total immersion, switching to pull-out method, and finally returning to total immersion. Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism can be defined as the belief that ones own culture and language is superior to all others. On the whole, ethnocentrism is embedded in ones upbringing, a term that Landis, Bennett and Bennett (2004) call embodied ethnocentrism. Essentially, it is the belief that because one grows up in a certain country, they naturally favor that place (and its accompanying language and culture) over every other. In the data that was collected, there is evidence of embodied ethnocentrism in response to the question, Do you consider yourself to be a speaker of Standard English? Every respondent answered affirmatively yes. Nine of the responses alluded or explicitly stated that they are heritage speakers, in phrases like, Thats the language my parents spoke so there for thats the one I learned [sic], and Yes because its my main

8 language, and I was born in this country and have spent quite a bit of time reading to increase my vocabulary and understanding. All of these responses indicate a lack of understanding as to what Standard English actually is. Lippi-Green (2012) states, Nonlinguists are quite comfortable with the idea of a standard language, so much so that the average person is very willing to describe and define it, (p. 57). It is not possible to address the concept of a standard language without seeking to identify the root cause: language ideology (and moreover, embedded ethnocentrism). Standardness and non-standardness are inextricably linked to sociolinguistic theory and practice, therefore making it impossible to fully change our perspectives (Coupland, 2002). Because of the affirmative nature of the responses, it is evident that the language ideology of this small population that there is a standard form of English, which they themselves speak. One respondent, answered, Yesumm, because I speak English? I guess I dont really know what standard English is as opposed to non-standard English. Sorry! This comment exemplifies the folk belief that Standard English is whatever a given individual thinks they speak. Though the majority of responses were not worded quite so candidly, the common theme of their own way being the standard was very clear. This is interesting, given the previous information provided that demonstrates that the Northern New York version of English has its own variations that set it apart from the Standard English. An ESOL teacher correctly said, I basically speak the generic English as presented on television, which society at large portrays as the standard version of American English. Indeed, popularized language is typically that which greater population deems as standard, using the media, specifically newspapers, and the radio (Lippi-Green, 2012).

9 Education A certain ethnocentrism was also manifested in the respondents views on bilingual education, which can be defined as instruction of academic content in two languages. Garca (2005) adds, the ideal for all English-language learners is to maintain or enrich their native languages while acquiring English as a second language (p. 51). Based on the presented information, it is clear that the participants believe there is a standard of English, which they speak. It should be noted that some respondents did not qualify English as one of the languages that they speak this was implied, which may, in itself be evidence for embedded ethnocentrism. Furthermore, it seems that there is not a clear understanding of what bilingual education is as it is defined in the educational community. Table 3: Definition of Bilingual Education Definition of Bilingual Education Correct according to Garca, 2005 Fluency Understanding of Another Culture Instruction-related No Definition or Misunderstanding of Question Number and Percentage of Respondents 6/28 (21%) 8/28 (29%) 2/28 (7%) 6/28 (21%) 6/28 (21%)

In response to the question, Please briefly give your own definition of bilingual education, sixty-one percent (17 respondents of 28) were unable to correctly expound upon the concept, if at all. Common mis-associations for bilingual education include

10 fluency, as one respondent qualified speaking and thinking in another language as bilingual education. Another respondent said that bilingual education is, Learning a second language to the point of being able to hold a conversation in that language. Other respondents defined bilingual education as reaching an understanding of another culture, Understanding not only another form of communication but the culture that it provides as well. Respondents that defined bilingual education as instruction related said things to the effect of It should start at age 6, or that it is Education on more than one language. It is possible that the question was worded in a way that was a bit vague for the respondents, in that it did not provide them with a lot of context. Yet this decision was intentional we (Jessica and Haley) did not want to enable any responses, or sway their persuasion. The fact that most of the respondents were not able to correctly define this term is not evidence for ethnocentrism as much as it is for a general lack of knowledge about what bilingual education actually is because it was rarely needed in this region. Based on the provided demographic information, it is clear that there is not much need for bilingual education in the area of Northern/Central New York because there is not much ethnic diversity (see Table 1 and Table 2). Method of English Language Instruction There were two options available to choose from in response to the question, How do you think English Language Learners (ELL's) should be taught? which were Total Language Immersion and Pull-out. Respondents also had the option to choose both. There is no perfect way to instruct ELLs, although it is universally recommended to use both methods of instruction. We also did not provide respondents with more choices (i.e., Sheltered English Instruction) under the assumption that they would either

11 not know what the differences were, or become overwhelmed. As it were, a fairly high number (18 respondents of 28, which is 63 percent) of respondents advocated that Total Language Immersion is the best way to learn a second language. This is notable because it demonstrates a more outdated view of how to do bilingual education. Garca (2005) says that the superiority of Total Language Immersion is a myth, There is not credible evidence to support the time on task theory of language learning.Learning English in school is a complex process (p. 42). Likewise, the Pull-Out Method is not flawless in nature, either. Perceptions of Other Language In continuing our exploration into the ideologies of people living in Northern/Central New York towards foreign language education, we noticed patterns in our data of why participants thought learning a foreign language was important, or not important. We asked several questions around this topic in order to generate multifaceted perspectives. See Tables 4, 5, and 6. Table 4 Have you ever enrolled in a foreign language learning program? Yes (voluntary) Yes (required) No

14% (4 of 28) Table 5 Should students be required to study an additional language in school? Yes

53% (15 of 28)

32% (9 of 28)

No

82% (23 of 28) Table 6

17% (5 of 28)

12 If you were to sign your child (or other family member) up for a foreign language program, which language would you choose? Spanish French Chinese Arabic Italian Latin

67% 19 of 28

25% 7 of 28

18% 5 of 28

7% 2 of 28

3.5% 1 in 28

3.5% 1 in 28

In response to the first question: Have you ever enrolled in a foreign language learning program? 32 percent of respondents answered No, 53 percent only took language courses required in high school, and a small 14 percent of respondents voluntarily took a language class, either as an elective in college or through online learning programs. In response to the second question: Should students be required to study an additional language in school?, 17% of respondents answered No, but the majority, 82%, answered Yes. Of this group, all thought that language instruction should begin at a young age, ranging from 5 to 13 years old. In response to the third question: If you were to sign your child (or other family member) up for a foreign language program, which language would you choose? Why? The large majority of respondents chose Spanish, stating practical reasons such as It would help them get a job or because its the second-most commonly used language in the U.S/world. A smaller percentage (25 percent) chose French, largely for personal reasons: I have always preferred French, I think it sounds cool; I do not like the sound of Spanish, or I personally took French in high school and the country appeals to me. Seven percent of respondents arbitrarily chose a language such as Italian or Latin, recognizing that learning a second language is important. However, they could not

13 provide a reason for their choice: Latin maybe? Not really sure, as long as its a different language. Latin seems a good one, Ive always wished I knew it. This shows that the people from this region are not as motivated to learn another language by external forces, as opposed to people groups from more urban areas. In Northern/Central New York, there is not a high demand for fluency in a language other than English, simply because the vast majority was born into an English-speaking home. Investment As globalization is a relatively new concept in the United States, the younger generation seems to have more awareness of the necessity of critical language usage in todays intercultural society. Many respondents were aware that knowledge of certain languages brings advantages, such as working in international business, while some respondents took a more romantic, less logical approach. However, despite knowing that languages are important, the overwhelming response of participants who did not have a desire to actually learn a foreign language indicates that they are not invested in foreign language education on the larger scale. This exemplifies Nortons (2010) research, which states, If learners invest in the target language, they do so with the understanding that they will acquire a wider range of symbolic and material resources, which will in turn increase the value of their cultural capital (p. 353). Northern/Central New York folk understand this concept, but dont necessarily have the motivation to apply it, preferring to stay close to home, and begin working in a small business or start a family. This is clear based on the occupations indicated in the survey responses. (See Appendix A). Motivation

14 In order to gather more information about how people from Northern/Central New York view bilingual education, we deemed it pertinent to collect some data concerning views on motivation and language learning. For the purposes of the research, we define motivation as a learners commitment to learning a language. Gardner and Lambert (1972) identify two different types of motivation. The first, integrative motivation is the desire to learn a language in order to integrate into the language community, culture, and way of life. Instrumental motivation refers to a learners incentive to learn a language in light of an ambition, specifically practical benefits such as economic advances and personal achievement (e.g., graduation requirements, getting a job, earning more money, etc.) (Corts, 2002, p. 320). In our survey, we posed the question, If you were to sign your child (or other family member) up for a foreign language program, which language would you choose? Why? The majority of our respondents replied mainly with Spanish (19 respondents) with the rationale that they are more marketable in todays search for a job if they possess this language skill. This reasoning is not only a clear example of what has been defined as instrumental motivation, it also exemplifies a language ideology that views language as currency. Several different beliefs and attitudes towards language learning are based on the idea that there is something to gain by speaking a foreign language.The play for power manifests itself in language ideology as what people believe about the benefits of knowing a certain language ...in the interest of a specific social or cultural group (Kroskrity, 2010, p. 195). Conclusion In light of the research results and analysis, it can be concluded that our hypotheses were correct, in the sense that foreign language education is a low priority, and that Standard

15 English is misunderstood in the Northern/Central New York. While our original premise was to collect data concerning Bilingual Education views, it is clear that the majority of respondents were greatly unaware of this concept, due to the fact that bilingual education in this area is largely absent. Therefore, the survey was designed to assess the respondents perspectives on foreign language education, perhaps a more familiar concept to them. Furthermore, while the respondents were aware of the importance of learning a second language, their motivation and investment levels were low, due to the fact that, in this cultures opinion, learning in general is not as important as earning a living.

Haley and Jessica, A fascinating study and interesting findings. However, this paper needs to be reorganized because there doesnt seem to be a clear a clear organizational structure. You appear to have meshed various sections together. A research-based study generally follows this structure: 1. Introduction + Rationale 2. Theoretical Framework For this study, it would have been helpful if you included a lit review with two subsections: (a) bilingual ed, and (b) ideologies 3. Methodology 4. Findings 5. Discussion 6. Implications (Optional; you could discuss pedagogical implications or more general implications here) 7. Conclusion

Grade: A- (90)

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References Brown, H. D. (2008). Teaching by principles, an interactive approach to language pedagogy. (3rd ed.). White Plains, NY: Prentice Hall. Combs, M.C., Gonzlez, N., & Moll, L.C. (2011). US Latinos and the learning of English: The metonomy of language policy. In T.L. McCarty (Ed.), Ethnography and language policy (pp. 185-203). New York: Routledge. Corts, K. H. (2002). Youth and the study of foreign language: An investigation of attitudes. Foreign Language Annals, 359(3), 320-332. Coupland, N. (2002) Sociolinguistic prevarication about standard English. Journal of Sociolinguistics 4(4): 622-634. Garca, E.E. (2005). Teaching and learning in two languages: Bilingualism and schooling in the united states. New York: Teachers College Press. Gardner, R., & Lambert, W. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second-language learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House Publishers.

17 Labov, W., Yaeger, M. and Steiner, R. 1973. The Quantitative study of sound change in progress. Philadelphia: U.S. Regional Survey. Landis, D., Bennett, J., & Bennett, M. (2004). Handbook of intercultural training (3rd ed.) Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications Ltd. Lippi-Green, R. (2012). English with an accent (2nd ed.) London: Routledge. Landis, D., Bennett, J., & Bennett, M. (2004). Handbook of intercultural training (3rd ed.) Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications Ltd. Norton, B. (2010). Language and identity. In N.H. Hornberger & S.L. McKay (Eds.), Sociolinguistics and language education (pp. 349-369). Buffalo, NY: Multilingual Matters. O'Grady, W., Archibald, J., Aronoff, M., & Rees-Miller, J. (2010). Contemporary linguistics. (6 ed.). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's. United States Census Bureau. Census Bureau Homepage. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 May 2013. <http://www.census.gov/>.

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Appendix A: Survey 1. What is your age? 2. What is the highest level of education you have completed? What is your current occupation? 3. What is your race/ethnicity? 4. Have you ever enrolled in a foreign language learning program? If so, when, and for how long? 5. In what languages can you speak? 6. Should students be required to study an additional language in school? At what age should they start? 7. If you were to sign your child (or other family member) up for a foreign language program, which language would you choose? Why? 8. Please briefly give your own definition of bilingual education. 9. How do you think English Language Learners should be taught? (That is, students who speak a different native language at home) 10. Do you consider yourself to be a speaker of Standard English? Why or why not?