Prof.

Baglione
VM360: Modeling, Analysis, and
Control of Dynamic Systems
Electrical and Electromechanical
Systems
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Electrical terms
Voltage (V): Expression of the potential difference in
charge between two points in an electric field;
electromotive force needed to produce current in a
wire
Measured across two points or relative to ground
Indicates the potential of charged particles
Charge (C): Measure of the extent to which an object
is electrically charged
Integral of current with respect to time
Current (A): Rate of flow of charged particles
Measured through a point
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dt
dq
i =
33333333333
Sources
Current Source: Energy source that produces specified
current as function of time, usually independent of voltage
source (e.g. transistors, constant current power supplies)
Voltage Source: Energy source that supplies specified
voltage between two points independent of current; may be
time varying or constant (e.g. rotating generators, batteries,
constant voltage power supplies)
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Electrical Elements: Resistors
i
v
R
R
=
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Material that does not conduct electricity well
Energy dissipated as heat
Ohms Law
amphere
volt
) ( ohm = O
Current is a circuit is proportional to electromotive
force (emf) and inversely proportional to resistance
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Electrical Elements: Capacitors
Two conducting materials separated by insulator
Electric field polarizes molecules in dielectric
Apply voltage, positive charge accumulates on one
side and negative on other
Stores energy in electric field
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c
v
q
C =
}
+ =
t
o
idt
C
v t v
0
1
) (
dt
dv
C
dt
dq
i
c
= =
volt
coulomb
volt
sec - amp
) F ( farad = =
66666666666
Capacitors
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Electrical Elements: Inductors
Every electric current also has magnetic field
Magnetic field stores energy
Coils magnify magnetic field
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) (
1
) (
0
}
+ =
=
t
L o
L
dt t v
L
i t i
dt
di
L v
]
/
[ units
A
weber
s A
V
H = =
88888888888
Inductances
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99999999999
Capacitors & Inductors
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Electrical Elements
) (
2 1
V V Cs I
dt
dv
C i
Cv q
C
c
=
=
=
Resistor
Poor conductor
Dissipates energy by
converting it to heat
Capacitor
Two conductors separated by
insulator
Stores energy in electric field
Inductor
Coil or neighboring
conductors carrying current
Stores energy in a magnetic
field
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1
IC zero , ) (
1
2 1
V V
Ls
I
dt t v
L
i i
dt
di
L v
L o
L
=
+ =
=
}
) (
1
) (
1
2 1
2 1
V V
R
I
v v
R
i
iR v
R
=
=
=
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Junctions
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Kirchoffs Current Law
Element Laws
J unctions
Combine
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) 0 ( =
=
C C
C
C
V Cs I
dt
dv
C i
) (
1
) (
1
V E
R
I
v e
R
i
R
R
=
=
and
0
0
=
=
C R
R s
i i
i i
function er transf
1
1
) (
) (
DE output - input ) (
1 1
+
=
= +
RCs s E
s V
t e
R
v
R
v C
C
C C

) (
1
) (
1
) (
) 0 ( ) (
1
s E
R
s V
R
s CsV
V Cs V E
R
C C
C C
= +
=
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Kirchoffs Voltage Law
The sum of voltage changes in any closed loop is zero
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0 ) (
) (
2 6 2 4 2 2 1 2 3
1 1 5 2 1 3 1 1
= + + +
= + +
i r i r i r i i r
e i r i i r i r
-
+
Rise in voltage
occurs when going
through EMF source
from negative to
positive
Rise in voltage
occurs when going
through resistance
in opposite
direction to current
flow
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Impedance
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Ratio of transformed voltage
to transformed current
(with zero IC)
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Series & Parallel Electrical Elements
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Voltage Divider
0
1
) (
1
2 1
=
o o
v
Z
v E
Z
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Z
1
Z
2
E v
o
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Analogous Systems
Mechanical
Electrical
}
= + + ) ( ) ( ) ( t f dt t v k t bv
dt
dv
M
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m
v(t)
k
b
m
v(t)
k
}
= + + ) ( ) (
1
) ( t e dt t i
C
t Ri
dt
di
L
C
R
L
e(t)
i(t)
-
+
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Analogous Systems
Power =effort x flow
) ( ) ( t t e t
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) ( ) ( t i t e
) ( ) ( t q t p
) ( ) ( t v t f
Prof. Baglione
Analogous Systems Example
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Integrated Circuits
Goal of electronic circuits is to add more transistors to chip
to increase computation power and speed of microprocessor
(tiny chips can have over 1 million components)
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Silicon ingots cut into wafers
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Ingots are big crystals grown under pure conditions
Wafers (~200 mm diameter) are sliced from ingots
[Photo: Sandia National Laboratories]
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Components of chip making
Semiconductors are made from silicon wafers
Chemicals and gases affect properties (more
conductive, more resistive)
Metals used for conductors, capacitors
UV light used for photolithography (process used in
microfabrication to selectively etch circuit pattern on
silicon wafer)
Masks act as stencils for UV light
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UV Light & Chemicals
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Process applied in layers
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Wafer is covered with photoresist (light-sensitive, liquid
plastic)
Mask is placed over the wafer, and light shines through the
mask and hardens the photoresist that isn't covered by the
mask
The photoresist that is not exposed to light remains somewhat
gooey and is washed away via chemical diffusion
May layers (up to 20) are built up to form 3D circuit involving
hundreds of steps
mask
photoresist
silicon dioxide
silicon wafer
[www.howstuffworks.com]
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Chips cut from wafer & mounted in package
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Diamond saws cut chips into 1 cm
2
or less
Leads soldered to circuit board
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Simple Circuit
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State-of-the-Art in Chipmaking
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Moores Law: number of
transistors on microprocessor
will double every 18 months
Limitation with current
process is lights wavelength
~240 nanometers as of 2001
As wavelength gets smaller, it
is absorbed by glass lenses that
are intended to focus the UV
light
New EUVL process uses
mirrors instead of glass to
focus light
Prof. Baglione
Electromechanical Systems
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DC Motor
R
a
= armature resistance (O)
L
a
= armature inductance (H)
i
a
= armature current (A)
e
a
=applied armature voltage (V)
e
b
=back emf (voltage produced by rotating armature) (V)
u =angular displacement of motor shaft (rad)
e =angular velocity of motor shaft (rad/s)
T =torque developed by motor (N-m)
J = moment of inertia of motor and load (kg-m
2
)
B =viscous friction coefficient of motor load (N-s/m or kg/s)
K
m
= motor torque constant (relates torque produced by electric part)
K
b
= back emf or generator constant (relates voltage induced by motion)
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How A DC Electric Motor Works
Armature (or rotor) is an electromagnet made by
coiling thin wire around two or more poles of a metal
core (electric current in wire creates a magnetic field)
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Electric Toy Motor
If you hook the battery leads of the motor up to a
battery, the axle will spin. If you reverse the leads, it
will spin in the opposite direction.
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Inside An Electric Motor
The brushes are just two pieces of
springy metal or carbon that make
contact with the contacts of the
commutator
Brushes transfer power from the
battery to the commutator as the
motor spins
The axle holds the armature and
the commutator
Contacts of the commutator are
attached to the axle so they spin
with the electromagnet
Field magnet in this motor is
formed by two curved permanent
magnets
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Brushes
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How A DC Electric Motor Works
As armature spins, poles of the electromagnet flip so that it
repels the field magnet
Commutator and brushes work together to let current flow to
the electromagnet and to flip the direction of the electric field
Here 2 poles are shown but motors almost always have 3 or
more poles for greater efficiency
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Where we find electric motors:
Washers and dryers, vacuum cleaners
Refrigerators (one for compressor, one for fan, and in
icemakers), blenders, can openers, garbage disposal, fan in
stove and in microwave
Electric power tools (drills, saws, electric screwdriver, etc.)
Power windows and power seats in your car, electric starter
motor, windshield wipers, heater and radiator fans, garage
door opener
Hair dryer, electric razor, electric toothbrush
Computers (disk drives and fans), DVD/CD players, toys
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DC Motor Example
Now use Newtons Law and KVL to write
differential equations and derive transfer function
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Gears
Used to reduce speed, magnify torque, or for most efficient
power transfer by matching member and load
Points of contact
have shared motion
have equal and opposite reaction forces
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) (
2
t e
) (
1
t e
r
1
r
2
2 2 1 1
2
1
2
1
1
2
2 2 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
: power conserves gear train loss, friction Neglecting
equal is point contact at speed since and
2 gear of teeth of number
1 gear of teeth of number
e t e t
e
e
e e
=
= = =
=
=
=
n
n
r
r
r r
n
n
r
r
n
n
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Levers
Levers have
shared rotation
reaction forces have equal and opposite torque
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Prof. Baglione
Electromechanical System Example
Prof. Baglione
Generating Electricity from Human
Walking
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Payload Suspended on Springs
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During walking, a person moves like an inverted pendulum
One foot is put down and the other vaults over it causing hip to move
up and down ~4 - 7 cm
Convert mechanical energy from vertical movement of carried
load to electricity during normal walking
[Source: Art Kuo (U of M)]
[Rome, et. al. 2005]
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Mass-Spring Model of Backpack
Extract energy from
oscillating sprung mass
Base excitation drives
generator
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[Kuo 2005]
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Energy Cost Lower than Expected
Expected additional metabolic energy (oxygen, food
energy) required to carry 29kg backpack and generate
12.1 W electricity was 48.6 W (based on 25% muscle
efficiency)
Actual measured metabolic cost was 19.1 W
One theory: sprung mass redistributes load and
reduces mechanical work required of muscles to
walk while carrying load!
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Work performed on center of mass
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[Kuo 2005]
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Rigid Backpack Requires More Work
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[Kuo 2005]
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Sprung Mass Reduces Work
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[Kuo 2005]
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Future Studies and Applications
Potential applications include portable energy device
for field scientists or disaster relief workers in remote
locations
Future studies could include optimization of
backpack design, ergonomics, more compact
mechanism, etc.
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Acknowledgements/References
Ogata. Systems Engineering. Chapter 6. (Section 6-6
only if time permits)
Kuo, A. (2005). Harvesting Energy by Improving
the Economy of Human Walking, Science. 309: 9
(1686-1687).
Kuo, A. (2007). ME360 Lecture Notes, University of
Michigan.
Rome et al. (2005) Generating Electricity While
Walking with Loads, Science. 309: 9 (1725-1728).
DC Motor Figures, www.howstuffworks.com
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