soil&

ELSEVIER Soil & Tillage Research 36 (1995) 165-174

ii!tsLh

Influence of long-term tillage, straw and N fertilizer

on barley yield, plant-N uptake and soil-N balance
M. Nyborg”, E.D. Solberg”, R.C. Izaurraldea~*, S.S. Malhi”, M.
Molina-Ayala”
“Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alfu., Canada T6G 2E3
“Soils and Crops Branch, Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Edmonton, Alga., Canada T6H
5T6
‘Agriculture and Agri-Food Cunada. Lacombe, Alta., Canada TOC IS0

Accepted 12 July 1995

Abstract

Long-term influence of N fertilizer, tillage and straw on crop production and soil properties are not
well known in central Alberta. Field experiments were established in autumn 1979, on a Black
Chernozemic soil and on a Gray Luvisolic soil in north-central Alberta to determine the long-term
effect of tillage, straw and N fertilizer on yield and N uptake of barley (Hordeum uulgare L.).
Fertilizer N was applied annually at 56 kg ha- ‘. The 11 year averages of barley yields and N uptake
under zero tillage were lower than under conventional tillage. Retention rather than removal of straw
tended to reduce barley yield for the initial 6 years and 2 years at Site 1 and Site 2, respectively. A
simple mathematical model of average annual plant N uptake and grain yield could account for most
of the variation in the data observed at both sites ( R2 = 0.907; P < 0.01). Final values of soil N.
calculated using a mass balance approach, agree closely with values measured at the end of the
eleventh year. Conventional tillage and zero tillage, with addition of fertilizer N and retention of
straw, were the only treatments with apparent but small net addition of N to soil at Site 1 (40 kg ha- ’
and 117 kg ha- ‘, respectively). At Site 2, only the zero tillage treatment with addition of fertilizer
and retention of straw gained soil N (29 kg ha- ‘). In conclusion, soil ecosystems functioning in
subhumid environments with slight to moderate heat limitations such as those in central Alberta can
adapt, within a few years, to zero tillage practices with full retention of straw.

Krvword.s: denitrification; N mineralization-immobilization; nitrate leaching; soil quality; zero tillage

*Corresponding author

Elsevier Science B.V.

SSDfO176-1987(95)00502-l
166 hf. Nvhor,y CI al. /Soil d; l’illagr Rrsearch 36 (1995) 165-174

1. Introduction

Cultivated soils of northxentral Alberta, Canada, are productive but subject to water
erosion and soil organic matter loss. Zero tillage, or direct seeding, is a conservation farming
system that is increasingly appealing to producers in the area. Benefits of this farming
approach in terms of long-term sustainability of soil and water resources and profitability
have been indicated world-wide (Carter, 1993). There are constraints, however, that appear
to prevent its quick adoption by local producers (Larney et al., 1993). One such constraint
is the handling of heavy amounts of straw under continuous, or semi-continuous, cereal
grain production. This is true especially with barley, a major crop in the area. Two concerns
arise regarding straw handling under reduced tillage systems. The first emerges from a
probably increased N immobilization caused by continuous straw addition (Malhi et al.,
1989), with the question of whether immobilization decreases with years. Returning, rather
than removing, cereal straw to soil tends to decrease yields of following crops (Tomar and
Soper, 1981) but it is not known whether this effect continues indefinitely. The second
concern originates from a possible negative effect of frequent straw baling on soil quality
(Campbell et al., 1991).
Regardless, changes in soil quality caused by either retaining or removing straw would
probably be measurable under medium- to long-term conditions. Two field experiments
were initiated at two sites in north-central Alberta in autumn 1979. In a previous paper,
Nyborg et al. ( 1995) reported the influence of fertilizer N application, straw handling, and
tillage methods on the soil organic C and N contents after 11 years of conducting these
experiments. Retention of straw, annual addition of urea N at 56 kg ha- ‘, and zero tillage
practices contributed to an increase in organic C of the surface 0.15 m of aTypic Cryoboralf.
In this paper, we report on the long-term influence of these tillage methods, straw handling
techniques, and N application on barley yield, N uptake and the soil N balance.

2. Materials and methods

Two experimental sites were chosen, with Site 1 at Breton, Alberta (53”07’N, 114”28’W),
on a Gray Luvisolic soil of the Breton loam series and with Site 2 at Ellerslie, Alberta
(53”25’N, 113”33’W), on a Black Chemozemic soil of the Malmo silty clay loam series.
Slope gradients at Sites 1 and 2 were 3% and l%, respectively. Normal annual precipitation
at Sites I and 2 is 547 mm and 452 mm, respectively. The experimental area at both sites
was square with sides of 28 m. The experimental design was randomized complete block
with four replicates. Plots were of 6.9 m length by 2.8 m width.
Soil organic C concentration at the O-O.15 m depth at the beginning of the experiment
was 13.8 g kg ~ ’ and 56.4 g kg- ’ for Site 1 and Site 2, respectively, and corresponding soil
total N in the same order was 1.2 g kg- ’ and 4.9 g kg- ’ (Nyborg et al., 1995). Both sites
had been previously cropped to cereal grains and had shown, especially Site 1, symptoms
of N deficiency. The experiment was initiated in autumn 1979 to investigate the effect of
tillage (zero and conventional), straw handling (removed and retained) and N fertilization
(0 and 56 kg ha-’ year-‘) on barley yields and N uptake. The conventional tillage (CT)
plots were cultivated in the autumn and in the spring, with either a rototiller or a sweep-
 M. Nyborg et al. /Soil & Tillage Research 36 (1995) 16-174 167

chisel cultivator. The zero tillage (ZT) plots were not cultivated, except for the disturbance
caused by the hoe drill used each spring. The N fertilizer was surface-applied urea, but for
the CT plots, it was also incorporated within the O-O. 12 m soil depth. A blanket application
of P, K and S was applied to each plot each year. A hoe-opener drill with a 0.23 m spacing
between rows was used to sow spring barley at the rate of 100 kg ha-‘. When the crop was
mature, two randomly selected rows, of 5 m length (2.3 m*), were harvested from each
replicate of each treatment. All plant biomass above 0.05 m was harvested, dried at 60°C
threshed, and the mass of grain and straw determined. The remaining plant biomass was
then removed from all plots and straw returned to plots as per experimental plan and in
amounts equivalent to straw yield determinations. Weeds were controlled with herbicides
and, if needed, by hand. Nitrogen in straw and grain was determined either by Kjeldahl
method or by calorimetric analysis (Technicon Industrial Systems, 1977) of a H,SO,-
H,Oz-digested sample.
Results of this continuing investigation correspond to data obtained from 1980 to 1990.
Statistical analyses were performed using procedures ANOVA, GLM and REG in SAS
(Statistical Institute, Analysis Systems Inc., 1987).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Grain yield and plant N uptake

Average annual yield of grain without N at the two sites was greater with CT (1640 kg
ha- ’ ) than with ZT ( 1400 kg ha-‘) (Table 1). The average yield responses to the annual
N applications of 56 kg ha-’ were especially large, ranging from 1230 to 1580 kg ha-’
among the three treatments that received N. At Site 1, the yield response to N was greatest
when the straw was removed from the CT plots, but at Site 2, the response to N was greatest
on plots with straw retention and CT. At both sites the yield with N was less with ZT than
with CT. The response of N uptake values followed different patterns at the two sites. At
Site 1, N uptake on the treatment without N was greater with CT than with ZT. At this site,
where the soil is low in total N (Nyborg et al., 1995), the CT treatment with removal of
straw yielded highest grain yield and N uptake values. However, at Site 2, with a much
higher total N, the CT straw-returned treatment resulted in the greatest grain yield and N
uptake.
Yields varied with years at both sites (Fig. l), but there was a positive response to applied
N at each site each year (Table 2) _At Site 1, the grain yield on N-fertilized CT plots with
straw removal was greater than with straw retention in the first 6 years (average of 480 kg
ha- ‘, significant in three of 6 years), whereas there was little average difference (40 kg
ha- ’ ) in the last 5 years (Fig. 1) _At Site 2, where the soil was high in soil organic matter
content, CT plots without straw yielded more grain than CT plots with straw in the first 2
years (average of 4 10 kg ha- ‘), but during the next 9 years, CT plots with straw retention
resulted in higher yield (290 kg ha-‘) (Fig. 1, Table 2). In other words, returning straw
to tilled soils no longer depressed yield after 6 years at low-soil organic matter Site 1 and
after only 2 years at the high-soil organic matter Site 2.
16X M. Ndxwg et al. /Soil & Tillqe Research 36 (1995) 165-173

Table I
Average of yield and N uptake over II years at two sites in north-central Alberta from 1980 to 1990

Treatment Grain yield Plant N uptake

(kg ha-‘) (kg ha-‘)
No. Tillage straw N
(kg ha-‘)

Site 1
ZT off 0 820 21
4 ZT 0” 0 900 23
3 ZT On 56 2090 50
5 CT on 0 1080 26
8 CT on 56 2640 58
2 CT off 0 1020 24
10 CT off 56 2850 65
LSD, o’r 170 4

Site 2
I ZT off 0 2070 46
4 ZT on 0 1920 41
3 ZT on 56 3240 15
5 CT on 0 2170 48
8 CT on 56 3750 95
2 CT off 0 2360 52
10 CT off 56 3590 94
LSD,, 05 170 4

Yields were often less with ZT than with CT. At Site 1, ZT plots yielded as much as CT
plots in six instances, and the effect was nearly as pronounced at Site 2 (Fig. 1, Table 2).
These 11 year results were generally similar to earlier 3 year results from two other north-
central Alberta sites (Nyborg and Malhi, 1989). Two other ZT and CT year-long experi-
ments with “N-1abelled urea showed markedly less barley uptake of labelled urea with ZT
than with CT, but the amount of r5N remaining in soil was about the same for the two
treatments (Malhi and Nyborg, 1991).

3.2. Estimation of plant N uptake

Over 11 years, cumulative annual N uptake in grain + straw for each treatment at both
sites showed an unusually close linear regression fit with time (Table 3). Evidently, three
processes, depending on the treatment, contributed to the amount of annual N uptake. These
were: net N mineralization and how it was affected by tillage; fertilizer-use efficiency;
changes in N mineralization-immobilization. The slope values of the linear regressions of
cumulative N uptake with time (Table 3) were used to build a simple explanatory model
of the form

X Added C +FUE,,, X FertN

(0
 M. Nyborg et al. /Soil & Tillage Research 36 (1995) 165-I 74 169

Site 1 - Breton (Alberta)

11. 1. 1 1 * I, I I

lws
1990
1980
*geL?
se4
Site 2 - Ellerslie (Alberta)

Fig. I. Temporal changes of barley yields as affected by tillage method, straw disposal. and fertilizer N at two
sites in north-central Alberta from 1980 to 1990.

where (t) is subscript for tillage method; Nupt,,, is annual N uptake (kg ha- ’ year- ’ ) ;
Nmin,,, is apparent annual soil N mineralization (kg ha-’ year-‘), assumed to be equal to
the average plant N uptake from Treatments 1 and 2; (AMI/C) (Ij is change in N mineral-
Table 2
Statistical significance of grain-yield contrasts

Contrast 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Site 1
CT vs. ZT ns * ns * * ns * * ns * ns
Straw vs. no straw * * ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
No N vs. N * * * * * * * * * * *

Site 2
CT vs. ZT ns ns * ns ns ns * * * ns *
Straw vs. no straw * * ns ns ns “S ns ns ns ns “S
* * * * * * * * * * *
No N VS. N

ns. Not significant; *significant at P < 0.05.

170 M. Nyborg et ul. /Soil & Tillage Research 36 (1995) 165-174

Table 3
Annual N uptake rate estimated by linear regression

Treatment N uptake rate Standard error R’ II

(kg ha-’ year-‘)a (kg ha-’ year-‘)
No. Tillage Straw N

Site 1
1 ZT off 0 21.2 0.260 0.999** II
4 ZT on 0 21.9 0.404 0.997** 11
3 ZT 0” 56 47.1 1.614 0.990** II
5 CT 0” 0 26.3 0.211 0.999** 11
8 CT 0” 56 53.4 1.850 0.989** II
2 CT off 0 24.8 0.255 0.999** 11
10 CT off 56 62.9 1.390 0.996** 11

Site 2
I ZT off 0 47.3 0.463 0.999** 11
4 ZT on 0 41.5 0.407 0.999** 11
3 ZT 0” 56 14.2 0.889 0.999** 11
5 CT 0” 0 48.0 0.496 0.999** 11
8 CT 0” 56 92.5 1.329 0.998** 11
2 CT off 0 52.8 0.463 0.999** 11
10 CT off 56 91.8 1.000 0.999** 11

“Slope ( p) of linear regression model: cumulative-N uptake (kg ha- ’ ) = (I + @time (year).
**Significant at P< 0.01.

ization-immobilization per unit carbon (kg ha- ’ yea.- ’ Mg- ’ ), where AMI/C is calcu-
lated as the difference in average plant N uptake between Treatments 1 and 4 (ZT) and
between Treatments 2 and 5 (CT), each divided by the average addition of C in straw to
soil; ‘Added C’ is average annual rate of residue C (Mg ha-’ year-‘) added to plots;
FUE,,,is fertilizer use efficiency, calculated as the difference in plant N uptake between the
fertilized and unfertilized treatments divided by the amount of fertilizer N added (kg plant
N from fertilizer [kg fertilizer N added] - ’ ) ; FertN is annual addition of fertilizer N (kg
ha-’ year-‘).
Eq. ( 1) was used to predict tillage effects on grain yield as follows:

GY=HIx-
Nwt,,,
Nfrac
where GY is annual grain yield (kg ha- ’ year- ‘), HI is harvest index, calculated as the
ratio between grain yield and the sum of grain yield plus straw yield (a single average value
for each site is used throughout the calculations) (kg grain [kg of grain + straw] - ’ ); Nfrac
is average N concentration in dry matter at harvest (kg kg-‘).
Values of the variables used in Eqs. ( 1) and (2) are listed in Table 4 for various tillage
and N rates used in this study. Numerical values of variables used in Eq. (1) allowed for
the quantification of the various treatment effects on N uptake. At Site 1, N-mineralization
on soil without straw addition averaged 21 kg ha-’ and 25 kg ha-’ under ZT and CT,
respectively. Addition of straw C promoted between 1 and 3 kg ha-’ of further N miner-
alization. Fertilizer-use efficiency averaged 41% under ZT and 52% under CT. At Site 2,
Table 4
Variables used to estimate N uptake and grain yield with Eqs. ( 1) and ( 2)“; predicted and observed values of N uptake and grain yield

Treatment Nmin AMI/C Added C FUE Nfrac HI FertN N uptake Grain yield
(kg ha-‘) %
(kg ha-‘) (kg ha-’ Mgg’) (Mg ha-‘) (kg kg-‘) (kg kg-‘) (kg kg-‘) (kg ha-‘) (kg ha-‘)
Straw 3
8-
No. Tillage N Pred. Obs. Pred. Obs. 0;:
z
Site 1 %
41 ZT on
off 0 21
21 -1 0 0.5
0.001 0.41
0.4 1 0.014 0.48 0 22
21 23
21 131
120 898
819 5
3 ZT on 56 21 -1 1.08 0.4 1 0.014 0.48 56 45 50 1535 2092 ;;:
5 CT on 0 25 -3 0.52 0.52 0.014 0.48 0 21 26 911 1085 2
8 CT on 56 25 -3 1.40 0.52 0.014 0.48 56 58 58 1995 2643 8
2 CT off 0 25 0 0.00 0.52 0.014 0.48 0 25 24 857 1021 p
10 CT off 56 25 0 0.00 0.52 0.014 0.48 56 54 65 1851 2852 g
2a-
Site 2 3
l ZT off 0 47 0 0.00 0.58 0.012 0.5 1 0 46 46 2010 2069 2
4 ZT on 0 47 7 0.84 0.58 0.012 0.51 0 41 41 1760 1916 %
53 ZT
CT on 560 47
53 57 1.47
1.01 0.70
0.58 0.012 0.51 560 49
69 48
75 2072
2942 2169
3240 ;
r
8 CT on 56 53 5 1.75 0.70 0.012 0.51 56 83 95 3532 3754 z
2 CT off 0 53 0 0.00 0.70 0.012 0.51 0 53 52 2244 2361 *
10 CT off 56 53 0 0.00 0.75 0.012 0.51 56 92 94 3904 3590

“Eq. ( 1): Nupt,,, = Nmin,,, + (AMI/C),,, X Added C +FUE$,, X FertN (see text for explanations of variables).
Eq. (2): GY = HI x Nupt,,,/Nfrac (see text for explanations of variables).
171, M. Nyborg et al. /Soil & Tillage Research 36 ( 19951 165-l 74

N-mineralization on soil without straw addition averaged 47 kg ha- ’ and 53 kg ha-- ’ under
ZT and CT, respectively. Addition of straw C promoted between 5 and 7 kg ha-’ of N
immobilization. Fertilizer use efficiency averaged 58% under ZT and 70% under CT.
Our results suggest that the soil ecosystems studied reacted differently to additions of
plant residues. At Site 1, the addition of straw C with a C/N ratio of 34 produced a small
release of N in both tillage systems. At Site 2, however, the effect was opposite to that at
Site 1. We interpret these results as being caused by the different sizes and activities of the
soil microbial biomass present at each site. Previous comparisons of these soil ecosystems
(Dinwoodie and Juma, 1988; Rutherford and Juma, 1989) revealed that: ( 1) the size of
the soil microbial biomass at Site 2 was larger than that at Site 1 and (2) the soil microbial
biomass at Site 1 was more active than that present at Site 2. In our study, the addition of
straw to a soil with a relatively small but active microbial biomass (Site 1) produced a
faster turnover of the added straw N than that resulting from adding straw to a soil with a
large but not as active microbial biomass (Site 2).

3.3. Calculation of soil N balance

In a previous paper, Nyborg et al. ( 1995) reported on the influence of these seven
treatments on the concentration and mass of soil C and N in the O-15 cm soil layer. With
regard to soil N, they concluded that annual addition of fertilizer N and return of straw had
resulted in a net increase of soil N over a period of 11 years. Using the mass of soil N at the
beginning of the experiment and the quantities of N added or removed from the system as
fertilizer, grain and straw, we calculated the theoretical mass of soil N to be found at the
end of the experimental period as follows:

PredSoilN,, = SoilNini - GrainN - StrawN + FertN (3)

where PredSoilN,, is predicted soil N in O-O.15 m layer at the end of the experimental
period (kg ha- ‘), SoilNi,’ is initial soil N in o-O.15 m layer at the beginning of the
experimental period (kg ha- ’ ) , GrainN is mass of N removed in grain (kg ha- ’ ) , and
StrawN is mass of N removed in straw (kg ha-‘).
Predicted values of soil N agreed closely with the observed values at the end of the
experimental period (ObsSoilN,, = 1.09 PredSoilN,,, R* = 0.989; P < 0.01, n = 14). This
indicates that it was possible to predict the range of soil N at the end of the experimental
period (2580-7950 kg ha- ’ ) by accounting for the subtractions and additions of N to the
system in the form of fertilizer or plant compounds. In terms of output-input N balance,
both CT and ZT treatments with addition of fertilizer N and retention of straw were the
only treatments with apparent but small net addition of N to soil over 11 years at Site 1 (40
kg ha- ’ and 117 jg ha-‘, respectively). At Site 2, only the ZT treatment with added N and
straw retained had a small estimated gain in soil N (29 kg ha- *) .
An extended conclusion to the agreement between observed and predicted soil N is that
other losses and gains of N from and to the soil system had to be in balance, as in Eq. (4) :

DenitN + LeachN + VolatN = NonSymbN + RainN + SubSoilN (4)

 M. Nyborg et al. /Soil & Tillage Research 36 (1995) 165-I 74 173

where DenitN is N denitrification (kg ha- ’ ), LeachN is N leaching (kg ha- ’ ), VolatN is
N volatilization (kg ha- ’ ) , NonSymbN is non-symbiotic N fixation (kg ha- ‘) , RainN is
N added in precipitation (kg ha- ‘) , and SubSoilN is redistribution of soil N from subsurface
horizon through plant uptake and decomposition (kg ha- ‘).
From the N losses, we attribute N leaching and denitrification to be of importance.
Although nitrate leaching losses were not estimated in this study, results from a nearby
long-term experiment at Site 1 (Izaurralde et al., 1995) suggested these losses could be
rather small. Previous work with “N (Malhi and Nyborg, 1983) suggested also that deni-
trification losses from N fertilization in spring could be small compared with autumn N
fertilization. However, long-lasting wet periods occurring soon after fertilization in spring
may also induce substantial denitrification (Nyborg et al., 1990). A conservative estimate
of annual N loss through denitrification is 20 kg ha- ’ (Malhi and Nyborg, 1986; Nyborg,
1990). Gains of N through precipitation have been estimated to be small, of the order of l-
2 kg ha- ’ (M. Nyborg, unpublished data, 1995). The implication of this discussion is that
surficial layers (O-O. 15 m) of the soils under study might have been also gaining N through
non-symbiotic N fixation, from subsurface soil, or both. A correct representation of the N
cycle in managed ecosystems is considered essential to optimize the use of N resources and
improve our accounting of carbon fluxes.

4. Conclusions

Immobilization of N by straw occurred during the first few years of the experiment, but
disappearedthereafter. This was confirmed by the small immobilization values indicated
by the explanatory model. Yields under zero tillage were slightly lower than underconven-
tional tillage. Simple mathematical equationssuggestedfertilizer useefficiencies with ZT
to be slightly lower than with CT. There was a slightly greater yield when straw was
removed at the low organic matter site (Site 1)) and the reverseat the high organic matter
site (Site 2). That is, the long-term effect of straw removal or retention on continuously
cropped barley yields depended on the site. Conventional tillage and zero tillage, with
addition of fertilizer N and retention of straw at Site 1, were the only treatments with
apparentbut small net addition of N to soil. At Site 2, only the ZT treatment with addedN
and straw retained had a small estimated gain in soil N. In conclusion, soil ecosystems
functioning in subhumidenvironments with slight to moderateheatlimitations suchasthose
in central Alberta can adapt, within a few years, to zero tillage practices with full retention
of straw.

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