Energy is Ability to do work.

The energy can take a wide variety of forms - heat (thermal), light (radiant), mechanical, electrical, chemical, and nuclear energy. There are two types of energy - stored (potential) energy and working (kinetic) energy. For example, the food you eat contains chemical energy, and your body stores this energy until you release it when you work or play. All forms of energy are stored in different ways, in the energy sources that we use every day. These sources are divided into two groups -- renewable (an energy source that we can use over and over again) and nonrenewable/conventional (an energy source that we are using up and cannot recreate in a short period of time). Renewable energy sources include solar energy (which comes from the sun and can be turned into electricity and heat), wind energy,geothermal energy (from inside the earth), biomass from plants, and hydropower from water are also renewable energy sources. However, we get most of our energy from nonrenewable energy sources, which include the fossil fuels -- oil, natural gas, and coal. They're called fossil fuels because they were formed over millions and millions of years by the action of heat from the Earth's core and pressure from rock and soil on the remains (or "fossils") of dead plants and animals. Another nonrenewable energy source is the element uranium, whose atoms we split (through a process called nuclear fission) to create heat and ultimately electricity. We use all these energy sources to generate the electricity we need for our homes, businesses, schools, and factories. Electricity "energizes" our computers, lights, refrigerators, washing machines, and air conditioners, to name only a few uses. We use energy to run our cars. The gasoline we burn in our cars is made from oil. We use energy to cook on an outdoor grill or

soar in a beautiful hot-air balloon. The propane for these recreational activities is made from oil and natural gas. Energy is in everything. We use energy to do everything we do, from making a jump shot to baking our favorite cookies to sending astronauts into space -- energy is there, making sure we have the power to do it all. Read the brief biographies of individuals who have made significant contributions to energy and science.

Sources of energy We get most of our energy from nonrenewable energy sources, which include the fossil fuels - oil, natural gas, and coal. They're called fossil fuels because they were formed over millions and millions of years by the action of heat from the Earth's core and pressure from rock and soil on the remains (or "fossils") of dead plants and animals. Another nonrenewable energy source is the element uranium, whose atoms we split (through a process called nuclear fission) to create heat and ultimately electricity. Oil (Petroleum) Oil was formed from the remains of animals and plants that lived millions of years ago in a marine (water) environment before the dinosaurs. Over the years, the remains were covered by layers of mud. Heat and pressure from these layers helped the remains turn into what we today call crude oil. The word "petroleum" means "rock oil" or "oil from the earth."

Where does Oil come from? Crude oil is a smelly, yellow-to-black liquid and is usually found in underground areas called reservoirs. Scientists and engineers explore a chosen area by studying rock samples from the earth. Measurements are taken, and, if the site seems promising, drilling begins. Above the hole, a structure called a 'derrick' is built to house the tools and pipes going into the well. When finished, the drilled well will bring a steady flow of oil to the surface.

Oil was formed from the remains of animals and plants that lived millions of years ago in a marine (water) environment before the dinosaurs. Over the years, the remains were covered by layers of mud. Heat and pressure from these layers helped the remains turn into what we today call crude oil. The word "petroleum" means "rock oil" or "oil from the earth." How we get Oil? Crude oil is a smelly, yellow-to-black liquid and is usually found in underground areas called reservoirs. Scientists and engineers explore a chosen area by studying rock samples from the earth. Measurements are taken, and, if the site seems promising, drilling begins. Above the hole, a structure called a 'derrick' is built to house the tools and pipes going into the well. When finished, the drilled well will bring a steady flow of oil to the surface.

The world's top five crude oil-producing countries are: Saudi Arabia Russia United States Iran China Coal How coal was formed? Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock composed mostly of carbon and hydrocarbons. It is the most abundant fossil fuel produced in the United States. Coal is a nonrenewable energy source because it takes millions of years to create. The energy in coal comes from the energy stored by plants that lived hundreds of millions of years ago, when the earth was partly covered with swampy forests. For millions of years, a layer of dead plants at the bottom of the swamps was covered by layers of water and dirt, trapping the energy of the dead plants. The heat and pressure from the top layers helped the plant remains turn into what we today call coal.

How we get coal Mining the Coal Coal miners use giant machines to remove coal from the ground. They use two methods: surface or underground mining. Many U.S. coal beds are very near the ground's surface, and about twothirds of coal production comes from surface mines. Modern mining methods allow us to easily reach most of our coal reserves. Due to growth in surface mining and improved mining technology, the amount of coal produced by one miner in one hour has more than tripled since 1978. Surface mining is used to produce most of the coal in the U.S. because it is less expensive than underground mining. Surface mining can be used when the coal is buried less than 200 feet underground. In surface mining, giant machines remove the topsoil and layers of rock to expose large beds of coal. Once the mining is finished, the dirt and rock are returned to the pit, the topsoil is replaced, and the area is replanted. The land can then be used for croplands, wildlife habitats, recreation, or offices or stores. Underground mining , sometimes called deep mining, is used when the coal is buried several hundred feet below the surface. Some underground mines are 1,000 feet deep. To remove coal in these underground mines, miners ride elevators down deep mine shafts where they run machines that dig out the coal. Surface mining: Underground mining:

Processing the Coal After coal comes out of the ground, it typically goes on a conveyor belt to a preparation plant that is located at the mining site. The plant cleans and processes coal to remove dirt, rock, ash, sulfur, and other unwanted materials, increasing the heating value of the coal. A Electricity Electricity is the flow of electrical power or charge. It is a secondary energy source which means that we get it from the conversion of other sources of energy, like coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear power and other natural sources, which are called primary sources. The energy sources we use to make electricity can be renewable or nonrenewable, but electricity itself is neither renewable or non-renewable. Electrical phenomena have been studied since antiquity, though advances in the science were not made until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Practical applications for electricity however remained few, and it would not be until the late nineteenth century that engineers were able to put it to industrial and residential use. The rapid expansion in electrical technology at this time transformed industry and society. Electricity's extraordinary versatility as a source of energy means it can be put to an almost limitless set of applications which include transport, heating, lighting, communications, and

computation. The backbone of modern industrial society is, and for the foreseeable future can be expected to remain, the use of electrical power.

In general usage, the word "electricity" is adequate to refer to a number of physical effects. In scientific usage, however, the term is vague, and these related, but distinct, concepts are better identified by more precise terms:

Electric charge a property of some subatomic particles, which determines their electromagnetic interactions. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields. Electric current a movement or flow of electrically charged particles, typically measured in amperes. Electric field an influence produced by an electric charge on other charges in its vicinity. Electric potential the capacity of an electric field to do work on a electric charge, typically measured in volts. Electromagnetism a fundamental interaction between the magnetic field and the presence and motion of an electric charge.

Natural Gas Where does Natural Gas come from? Millions of years ago, the remains of plants and animals decayed and built up in thick layers. This decayed matter from plants and animals is called organic material -- it was once alive. Over time, the mud and soil changed to rock, covered the organic material and trapped it beneath the rock. Pressure

and heat changed some of this organic material into coal, some into oil (petroleum), and some into natural gas -- tiny bubbles of odorless gas. The main ingredient in natural gas is methane, a gas (or compound) composed of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms.

In some places, gas escapes from small gaps in the rocks into the air; then, if there is enough activation energy from lightning or a fire, it burns. When people first saw the flames, they experimented with them and learned they could use them for heat and light. How we get Natural Gas? The search for natural gas begins with geologists (people who study the structure of the earth) locating the types of rock that are usually found near gas and oil deposits. Today their tools include seismic surveys that are used to find the right places to drill wells. Seismic surveys use echoes from a vibration source at the earth's surface (usually a vibrating pad under a truck built for this purpose) to collect information about the rocks beneath. Sometimes it is necessary to use small amounts of dynamite to provide the vibration that is needed. Scientists and engineers explore a chosen area by studying rock samples from the earth and taking measurements. If the site seems promising, drilling begins. Some of these areas are on

land but many are offshore, deep in the ocean. Once the gas is found, it flows up through the well to the surface of the ground and into large pipelines. Some of the gases that are produced along with methane, such as butane and propane (also known as 'by-products'), are separated and cleaned at a gas processing plant. The by-products, once removed, are used in a number of ways. For example, propane can be used for cooking on gas grills. Because natural gas is colorless, odorless and tasteless, mercaptan (a chemical that has a sulfur like odor) is added before distribution, to give it a distinct unpleasant odor (smells like rotten eggs). This serves as a safety device by allowing it to be detected in the atmosphere, in cases where leaks occur. Most of the natural gas consumed in the United States is produced in the United States. Some is imported from Canada and shipped to the United States in pipelines. Increasingly natural gas is also being shipped to the United States as liquefied natural gas(LNG). We can also use machines called "digesters" that turn today's organic material (plants, animal wastes, etc.) into natural gas. This replaces waiting for thousands of years for the gas to form naturally.

How natural gas stored and delivered The gas companies collect it in huge storage tanks, or underground, in old gas wells. The gas remains there until it is added back into the pipeline when people begin to use more gas, such as in the winter to heat homes.

Natural gas is moved by pipelines from the producing fields to consumers. Since natural gas demand is greater in the winter, gas is stored along the way in large underground storage systems, such as old oil and gas wells or caverns formed in old salt beds. The gas remains there until it is added back into the pipeline when people begin to use more gas, such as in the winter to heat homes. When chilled to very cold temperatures, approximately -260 degrees Fahrenheit, natural gas changes into a liquid and can be stored in this form. Liquefied natural gas (LNG) can be loaded onto tankers (large ships with several domed tanks) and moved across the ocean to deliver gas to other countries. Once in this form, it takes up only 1/600th of the space that it would in its gaseous state. When this LNG is received in the United States, it can be shipped by truck to be held in large chilled tanks close to users or turned back into gas to add to pipelines. When the gas gets to the communities where it will be used(usually through large pipelines), the gas is measured as it flows into smaller pipelines called "MAINS". Very small lines, called "SERVICES", connect to the mains and go directly to homes or buildings where it will be used.

Hydrogen Hydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, nonmetallic, tasteless, highly flammable diatomic gas with the molecular formula H2. With an atomic weight of 1.00794 u, hydrogen is the lightest element. Hydrogen is the simplest element known to man. Each atom of hydrogen has only one proton. It is also the most plentiful gas in the universe. Stars are made primarily of hydrogen. The sun is basically a giant ball of hydrogen and helium gases. In the sun's core, hydrogen atoms combine to form helium atoms. This processcalled fusion gives off radiant energy. This radiant energy sustains life on earth. It gives us light and makes plants grow. It makes the wind blow and rain fall. It is stored as chemical energy in fossil fuels. Most of the energy we use today came from the sun's radiant energy. Hydrogen gas is lighter than air and, as a result, it rises in the atmosphere. This is why hydrogen as a gas (H2) is not found by itself on earth. It is found only in compound form with other elements. Hydrogen combined with oxygen, is water (H2O). Hydrogen combined with carbon, forms different compounds such as methane (CH4), coal, and petroleum. Hydrogen is also found in all growing thingsbiomass. It is also an abundant element in the earth's crust. Hydrogen has the highest energy content of any common fuel by

weight(about three times more than gasoline), but the lowest energy content by volume (about four times less than gasoline). It is the lightest element, and it is a gas at normal temperature and pressure. Hydrogen gas, H2, was first artificially produced and formally described by T. Von Hohenheim (also known as Paracelsus, 14931541) via the mixing of metals with strong acids. He was unaware that the flammable gas produced by this chemical reaction was a new chemical element. In 1671, Robert Boyle rediscovered and described the reaction between iron filings and dilute acids, which results in the production of hydrogen gas. In 1766, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize hydrogen gas as a discrete substance, by identifying the gas from a metal-acid reaction as "inflammable air" and further finding in 1781 that the gas produces water when burned. He is usually given credit for its discovery as an element. In 1783, Antoine Lavoisier gave the element the name hydrogen (from the Greek hydro meaning water and genes meaning creator) when he and Laplace reproduced Cavendish's finding that water is produced when hydrogen is burned

Hydrogen and energy carrier Energy carriers move energy in a usable form from one place to another. Electricity is the most well-known energy carrier. We use electricity to move the energy in coal, uranium, and other energy sources from power plants to homes and businesses. We also use electricity to move the energy in flowing water from hydropower dams to consumers. It is much easier to use electricity than the energy sources themselves. Like electricity, hydrogen is an energy carrier and must be produced from another substance. Hydrogen is not widely used today but it has great potential as an energy carrier in the future. Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of resources (water, fossil fuels, biomass) and is a byproduct of other chemical

processes. Unlike electricity, large quantities of hydrogen can be easily stored to be used in the future. Hydrogen can also be used in places where its hard to use electricity. Hydrogen can store the energy until its needed and can be moved to where its needed. How is hydrogen made Since hydrogen doesn't exist on earth as a gas, we must separate it from other elements. We can separate hydrogen atoms from water, biomass, or natural gas molecules. The two most common methods for producing hydrogen are steam reforming and electrolysis (water splitting). Scientists have even discovered that some algae and bacteria give off hydrogen. Steam reforming is currently the least expensive method of producing hydrogen and accounts for about 95 percent of the hydrogen produced in the United States. It is used in industries to separate hydrogen atoms from carbon atoms in methane(CH4). Because methane is a fossil fuel, the process of steam reforming results in greenhouse gas emissions that are linked with global warming. Electrolysis is a process that splits hydrogen from water. It results in no emissions but it is currently a very expensive process. New technologies are being developed all the time. Hydrogen can be produced at large central facilities or at small plants for local use. Every region of the country (and the world) has some resource that can be used to make hydrogen. Its flexibility is one of its main advantages. USES OF HYDROGEN About 9 million metric tonnes of hydrogen are produced in the United States today, enough to power 20-30 million cars or 5-8 million homes. Nearly all of this hydrogen is used by industry in refining, treating metals, and processing foods. Most of this hydrogen is produced in just three states: California, Louisiana,

and Texas. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is the primary user of hydrogen as an energy fuel; it has used hydrogen for years in the space program. Liquid hydrogen fuel lifts the space shuttle into orbit. Hydrogen batteriescalled fuel cells power the shuttles electrical systems. The only by-product is pure water, which the crew uses as drinking water. Hydrogen Fuel CellHydrogen fuel cells (batteries) make electricity. They are very efficient, but expensive to build. Small fuel cells can power electric cars. Large fuel cells can provide electricity in out of the way places with no power lines. Because of the high cost to build fuel cells, large hydrogen power plants won't be built for a while. However, fuel cells are being used in some places as a source of emergency power to hospitals and to wilderness locations. Portable fuel cells are being sold to provide longer power for laptop computers, cell phones, and military applications.

Uranium (nuclear)

Nuclear energy is energy in the nucleus (core) of an atom. Atoms are tiny particles that make up every object in the universe. There is enormous energy in the bonds that hold atoms together. Nuclear energy can be used to make electricity. But first the energy must be released. It can be released from atoms in two ways: nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. In nuclear fusion, energy is released when atoms are combined or fused together to form a larger atom. This is how the sun produces energy. In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart to form smaller atoms, releasing energy. Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to produce electricity. Nuclear Fuel Atoms are made up of three major particles: protons, neutrons and electrons. The most common fissionable atom is an isotope (the specific member of the atom's family) of uranium known as uranium-235 (U-235 or U 235 ), which is the fuel used in most types of nuclear reactors today. Although uranium is quite common, about 100 times more common than silver, U-235 is relatively rare.

Nuclear power plants generate electricity Most power plants burn fuel to produce electricity, but not nuclear power plants. Instead, nuclear plants use the heat given off during fission as fuel. Fission takes place inside the reactor of a nuclear power plant. At the center of the reactor is the core,

which contains the uranium fuel. The uranium fuel is formed into ceramic pellets. The pellets are about the size of your fingertip, but each one produces the same amount of energy as 150 gallons of oil. These energy-rich pellets are stacked end-to-end in 12-foot metal fuel rods. A bundle of fuel rods is called a fuel assembly. Fission generates heat in a reactor just as coal generates heat in a boiler. The heat is used to boil water into steam. The steam turns huge turbine blades. As they turn, they drive generators that make electricity. Afterward, the steam is changed back into water and cooled in a separate structure at the power plant called a cooling tower. The water can be used again and again.

Types of reactors Just as there are different approaches to designing and building airplanes and automobiles, engineers have developed different types of nuclear power plants. Most popular of them are: boilingwater reactors (BWRs), and pressurized-water reactors (PWRs). In the BWR, the water heated by the reactor core turns directly into steam in the reactor vessel and is then used to power the turbine-generator. In a PWR, the water passing through the reactor core is kept under pressure so that it does not turn to steam at all -- it remains liquid. Steam to drive the turbine is generated in a separate piece of equipment called a steam generator. A steam generator is a giant cylinder with thousands of tubes in it through which the hot radioactive water can flow. Outside the tubes in the steam generator, nonradioactive water (or clean water) boils and eventually turns to steam. The clean water may come from one of several sources: oceans, lakes or

rivers. The radioactive water flows back to the reactor core, where it is reheated, only to flow back to the steam generator. Nuclear reactors are basically machines that contain and control chain reactions, while releasing heat at a controlled rate. In electric power plants, the reactors supply the heat to turn water into steam, which drives the turbine-generators. The electricity is shipped or distributed through transmission lines to homes, schools, hospitals, factories, office buildings, rail systems and other customers. Nuclear Steam Supply System:

The reactor core is composed of four main elements: THE FUEL. Nuclear fuel consists of pellets of enriched uranium dioxide encased in 12-foot long pencil-thick metal tubes, called fuel rods. These fuel rods are bundled to form fuel assemblies. A nuclear plant can operate continuously for up to 2 years. To run this long, a reactor must have as many as 100 to 300 fuel assemblies. THE CONTROL RODS. The control rods contain material that regulates the rate of the chain reaction. If they are pulled out of the core, the reaction speeds up. If they are inserted, the reaction slows down.

THE COOLANT. A coolant, usually water, is pumped through the reactor to carry away the heat produced by the fissioning of the fuel. This is comparable to the water in the cooling system of a car, which carries away the heat built up in the engine. In a reactor, as much as 330,000 gallons of water flow through the reactor core every minute to carry away the heat. THE MODERATOR. A moderator, water, slows down the speed at which atoms travel. This reduction in speed actually increases the opportunity to split, thereby releasing energy. Although engineering designs are quite complex, these four elements -- the fuel, the control rods, the coolant and the moderator -- are the basic components of a nuclear reactor.