Intelligence quotient

Intelligence quotient
An intelligence quotient or IQ is a score derived from one of several different standardized tests attempting to measure intelligence. The term "IQ," borrowed from the German Intelligenz-Quotient, was coined by the German psychologist William Stern in 1912 as a proposed method of scoring early modern children's intelligence tests such as those developed by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon in the early 20th Century.[1] Although the term "IQ" is still in common use, the scoring of modern IQ tests such as the Wechsler Adult The IQs of a large enough population can be modeled with a Normal Intelligence Scale is now based on a projection of the Distribution. subject's measured rank on the Gaussian bell curve with a center value (average IQ) of 100, and a standard deviation of 15, although different tests may have different standard deviations. IQ scores have been shown to be associated with such factors as morbidity and mortality,[2] parental social status,[3] and to a substantial degree, parental IQ. While its inheritance has been investigated for nearly a century, controversy remains as to how much is inheritable, and the mechanisms of inheritance are still a matter of some debate.[4] IQ scores are used in many contexts: as predictors of educational achievement or special needs, by social scientists who study the distribution of IQ scores in populations and the relationships between IQ score and other variables, and as predictors of job performance and income. The average IQ scores for many populations have been rising at an average rate of three points per decade since the early 20th century with most of the increase in the lower half of the IQ range: a phenomenon called the Flynn effect. It is disputed whether these changes in scores reflect real changes in intellectual abilities, or merely methodological problems with past or present testing.

History
The modern IQ score is a mathematical transformation of a raw score on an IQ test, based on the rank of that score in a normalization sample.[5] Modern scores are sometimes referred to as "deviance IQ", while older method age-specific scores are referred to as "ratio IQ." The two methodologies yield similar results near the middle of the bell curve, but the older ratio IQs yielded far higher scores for the intellectually gifted for example, Marilyn vos Savant, who appeared in the Guinness Book of World Records, obtained a ratio IQ of 228. While this score could make sense using Binet's formula (and even then, only for a child), on the Gaussian curve model it would be an exceptional 7.9 standard deviations above the mean and hence virtually impossible in a population with a normal IQ distribution (see normal distribution). In addition, IQ tests like the Wechsler were not intended to discriminate reliably much beyond IQ 145, as ceiling effects become a concern.

Intelligence quotient Since the publication of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), almost all intelligence scales have adopted the normal distribution method of scoring. The use of the normal distribution scoring method makes the term "intelligence quotient" an inaccurate description, mathematically speaking, of the intelligence measurement, but "I.Q." still enjoys colloquial usage, and is used to describe all of the intelligence scales currently in use.

Heritability
The role of genes and environment (nature and nurture) in determining IQ is reviewed in Plomin et al. (2001, 2003).[6] Until recently heritability was mostly studied in children. Various studies find the heritability of IQ between 0.4 and 0.8 in the United States;[7] [8] [9] that is, depending on the study, a little less than half to substantially more than half of the variation in IQ among the children studied was due to variation in their genes. The remainder was thus due to environmental variation and measurement error. A heritability in the range of 0.4 to 0.8 implies that IQ is "substantially" heritable. The effect of restriction of range on IQ was examined by Matt McGue and colleagues, who wrote that "restriction in range in parent disinhibitory psychopathology and family SES had no effect on adoptive-sibling correlations ... IQ."[10] On the other hand, a 2003 study by Eric Turkheimer, Andreana Haley, Mary Waldron, Brian D'Onofrio, Irving I. Gottesman demonstrated that the proportions of IQ variance attributable to genes and environment vary with socioeconomic status. They found that in impoverished families, 60% of the variance in IQ "in a sample of 7-year-old twins" is accounted for by the shared environment, and the contribution of genes was close to zero.[11] It is reasonable to expect that genetic influences on traits like IQ should become less important as one gains experiences with age. Surprisingly, the opposite occurs. Heritability measures in infancy are as low as 20%, around 40% in middle childhood, and as high as 80% in adulthood.[6] The American Psychological Association's 1995 task force on "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" concluded that within the white population the heritability of IQ is "around .75." The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart, a multiyear study of 100 sets of reared-apart twins which was started in 1979, concluded that about 70% of the variance in IQ was found to be associated with genetic variation. Some of the correlation of IQs of twins may be a result of the effect of the maternal environment before birth, shedding some light on why IQ correlation between twins reared apart is so robust.[4] There are a number of points to consider when interpreting heritability: A high heritability does not mean that the environment has no effect on the development of a trait, or that learning is not involved. Vocabulary size, for example, is very substantially heritable (and highly correlated with general intelligence) although every word in an individual's vocabulary is learned. In a society in which plenty of words are available in everyone's environment, especially for individuals who are motivated to seek them out, the number of words that individuals actually learn depends to a considerable extent on their genetic predispositions.[8] A common error is to assume that because something is heritable it is necessarily unchangeable. As previously noted, heritable traits can depend on learning, and they may be subject to other environmental effects as well. The value of heritability can change if the distribution of environments (or genes) in the population is substantially altered. For example, an impoverished or suppressive environment could fail to support the

Intelligence quotient development of a trait, and hence restrict individual variation. Differences in variation of heritability are found between developed and developing nations. This could affect estimates of heritability.[8] Another example is Phenylketonuria which previously caused mental retardation for everyone who had this genetic disorder. Today, this can be prevented by following a modified diet. On the other hand, there can be effective environmental changes that do not change heritability at all. If the environment relevant to a given trait improves in a way that affects all members of the population equally, the mean value of the trait will rise without any change in its heritability (because the differences among individuals in the population will stay the same). This has evidently happened for height: the heritability of stature is high, but average heights continue to increase.[8] Even in developed nations, high heritability of a trait within a given group has no necessary implications for the source of a difference between groups.[8] [12]

Environment
Environmental factors play a role in determining IQ. Proper childhood nutrition appears critical for cognitive development; malnutrition can lower IQ. A recent study found that the FADS2 gene, along with breastfeeding, adds about seven IQ points to those with the "C" version of the gene. Those with the "G" version of the FADS2 gene see no advantage.[13] [14] Musical training in childhood also increases IQ.[15] Recent studies have shown that training in using one's working memory may increase IQ.[16] [17]

Family environment
In the developed world, personality traits in some studies show that, contrary to expectations, environmental effects actually can cause non-related children raised in the same family ("adoptive siblings") to be as different as children raised in different families.[6] [18] There are some family effects on the IQ of children, accounting for up to a quarter of the variance, however, by adulthood this correlation approaches zero.[19] For IQ, adoption studies show that, after adolescence, adoptive siblings are no more similar in IQ than strangers (IQ correlation near zero), while full siblings show an IQ correlation of 0.6. Twin studies reinforce this pattern: monozygotic (identical) twins raised separately are highly similar in IQ (0.86), more so than dizygotic (fraternal) twins raised together (0.6) and much more than adoptive siblings (~0.0).[6]

Biased older studies?

Stoolmiller (1999)[20] found that the range restriction of family environments that goes with adoption, that adopting families tend to be more similar on for example socio-economic status than the general population, means that the role of the shared family environment has been underestimated in previous studies. Corrections for range correction applied to adoption studies indicate that socio-economic status could account for as much as 50% of the variance in IQ.[20] However, the effect of restriction of range on IQ for adoption studies was examined by Matt McGue and colleagues, who wrote that "restriction in range in parent disinhibitory psychopathology and family socio-economic status had no effect on adoptive-sibling correlations [in] IQ".[10]

Intelligence quotient Eric Turkheimer and colleagues (2003),[21] not using an adoption study, included impoverished US families. Results demonstrated that the proportions of IQ variance attributable to genes and environment vary nonlinearly with socio-economic status. The models suggest that in impoverished families, 60% of the variance in IQ is accounted for by the shared family environment, and the contribution of genes is close to zero; in affluent families, the result is almost exactly the reverse.[22] They suggest that the role of shared environmental factors may have been underestimated in older studies which often only studied affluent middle class families.[23]

Maternal (fetal) environment

A meta-analysis, by Devlin and colleagues in Nature (1997),[4] of 212 previous studies evaluated an alternative model for environmental influence and found that it fits the data better than the 'family-environments' model commonly used. The shared maternal (fetal) environment effects, often assumed to be negligible, account for 20% of covariance between twins and 5% between siblings, and the effects of genes are correspondingly reduced, with two measures of heritability being less than 50%. Bouchard and McGue reviewed the literature in 2003, arguing that Devlin's conclusions about the magnitude of heritability is not substantially different from previous reports and that their conclusions regarding prenatal effects stands in contradiction to many previous reports.[24] They write that: Chipuer et al. and Loehlin conclude that the postnatal rather than the prenatal environment is most important. The Devlin et al conclusion that the prenatal environment contributes to twin IQ similarity is especially remarkable given the existence of an extensive empirical literature on prenatal effects. Price (1950), in a comprehensive review published over 50 years ago, argued that almost all MZ twin prenatal effects produced differences rather than similarities. As of 1950 the literature on the topic was so large that the entire bibliography was not published. It was finally published in 1978 with an additional 260 references. At that time Price reiterated his earlier conclusion. Research subsequent to the 1978 review largely reinforces Prices hypothesis.

The Dickens and Flynn model

Dickens and Flynn[25] postulate that the arguments regarding the disappearance of the shared family environment should apply equally well to groups separated in time. This is contradicted by the Flynn effect. Changes here have happened too quickly to be explained by genetic heritable adaptation. This paradox can be explained by observing that the measure "heritability" includes both a direct effect of the genotype on IQ and also indirect effects where the genotype changes the environment, in turn affecting IQ. That is, those with a higher IQ tend to seek out stimulating environments that further increase IQ. The direct effect can initially have been very small but feedback loops can create large differences in IQ. In their model an environmental stimulus can have a very large effect on IQ, even in adults, but this effect also decays over time unless the stimulus continues (the model could be adapted to include possible factors, like nutrition in early childhood, that may cause permanent effects). The Flynn effect can be explained by a generally more stimulating environment for all people. The authors suggest that programs aiming to increase IQ would be most likely to produce long-term IQ gains if they taught children how

Intelligence quotient to replicate outside the program the kinds of cognitively demanding experiences that produce IQ gains while they are in the program and motivate them to persist in that replication long after they have left the program.[25] [26]

IQ and the brain

In 2004, Richard Haier, professor of psychology in the Department of Pediatrics and colleagues at University of California, Irvine and the University of New Mexico used MRI to obtain structural images of the brain in 47 normal adults who also took standard IQ tests. The study demonstrated that general human intelligence appears to be based on the volume and location of gray matter tissue in the brain also demonstrated that, of the brain's gray matter, only about 6 percent appeared to be related to IQ.[27] Many different sources of information have converged on the view that the frontal lobes are critical for fluid intelligence. Patients with damage to the frontal lobe are impaired on fluid intelligence tests (Duncan et al. 1995). The volume of frontal grey (Thompson et al. 2001) Some researchers claim that "in economic terms it appears that the IQ score measures something with decreasing marginal value. It is important to have enough of it, but having lots and lots does not buy you that much."[28] [29] Other studies show that ability and performance for jobs are linearly related, such that at all IQ levels, an increase in IQ translates into a concomitant increase in performance.[30] Charles Murray, coauthor of The Bell Curve, found that IQ has a substantial effect on income independently of family background.[31] The American Psychological Association's report Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns[8] states that IQ scores account for about one-fourth of the social status variance and one-sixth of the income variance. Statistical controls for parental SES eliminate about a quarter of this predictive power. Psychometric intelligence appears as only one of a great many factors that influence social outcomes.[8] One reason why some studies claim that IQ only accounts for a sixth of the variation in income is because many studies are based on young adults (many of whom have not yet completed their education). On pg 568 of The g Factor, Arthur Jensen claims that although the correlation between IQ and income averages a moderate 0.4 (one sixth or 16% of the variance), the relationship increases with age, and peaks at middle age when people have reached their maximum career potential. In the book, A Question of Intelligence, Daniel Seligman cites an IQ income correlation of 0.5 (25% of the variance). A 2002 study[32] further examined the impact of non-IQ factors on income and concluded that an offspring's inherited wealth, race, and schooling are more important as factors in determining income than IQ. For example, in 2004 African-American workers had the second-highest median earnings of American minority groups after Asian Americans[33] and among minority groups, only Asian Americans were more likely to hold white-collar occupations (management, professional, and related fields) despite the significant IQ gap between African and Asian Americans.[34]

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Other correlations with IQ

In addition, IQ and its correlation to health, violent crime, gross state product, and government effectiveness are the subject of a 2006 paper in the publication Intelligence. The paper breaks down IQ averages by U.S. states using the federal government's National Assessment of Educational Progress math and reading test scores as a source.[35] There is a correlation of -0.19 between IQ scores and number of juvenile offences in a large Danish sample; with social class controlled, the correlation dropped to -0.17. Similarly, the correlations for most "negative outcome" variables are typically smaller than 0.20, which means that test scores are associated with less than 4% of their total variance. It is important to realize that the causal links between psychometric ability and social outcomes may be indirect. Children with poor scholastic performance may feel alienated. Consequently, they may be more likely to engage in delinquent behavior, compared to other [8] children who do well. IQ is also negatively correlated with certain diseases. Tambs et al.[36] found that occupational status, educational attainment, and IQ are individually heritable; and further found that "genetic variance influencing educational attainment ... contributed approximately one-fourth of the genetic variance for occupational status and nearly half the genetic variance for IQ". In a sample of U.S. siblings, Rowe et al.[37] report that the inequality in education and income was predominantly due to genes, with shared environmental factors playing a subordinate role.

Public policy
In the United States, certain public policies and laws regarding military service,[38] [39] education, public benefits,[40] crime,[41] and employment incorporate an individual's IQ or similar measurements into their decisions. However, in 1971, for the purpose of minimizing employment practices that disparately impacted racial minorities, the U.S. Supreme Court banned the use of IQ tests in employment, except in very rare cases[42] . Internationally, certain public policies, such as improving nutrition and prohibiting neurotoxins, have as one of their goals raising, or preventing a decline in, intelligence.

Criticism and views

Binet
Alfred Binet, a French psychologist, did not believe that IQ test scales qualified to measure intelligence. He neither invented the term "intelligence quotient" nor supported its numerical expression. He stated: The scale, properly speaking, does not permit the measure of intelligence, because intellectual qualities are not superposable, and therefore cannot be measured as linear surfaces are measured. Binet, 1905 Binet had designed the Binet-Simon intelligence scale in order to identify students who needed special help in coping with the school curriculum. He argued that with proper remedial education programs, most students regardless of background could catch up and perform quite well in school. He did not believe that intelligence was a measurable fixed entity.

Intelligence quotient Binet cautioned: Some recent thinkers seem to have given their moral support to these deplorable verdicts by affirming that an individual's intelligence is a fixed quantity, a quantity that cannot be increased. We must protest and react against this brutal pessimism; we must try to demonstrate that it is founded on nothing.[43]

The Mismeasure of Man

Some scientists dispute psychometrics entirely. In The Mismeasure of Man, Harvard professor and paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould argued that intelligence tests were based on faulty assumptions and showed their history of being used as the basis for scientific racism, although did not at any point attempt to scientifically refute intelligence tests. He wrote: the abstraction of intelligence as a single entity, its location within the brain, its quantification as one number for each individual, and the use of these numbers to rank people in a single series of worthiness, invariably to find that oppressed and disadvantaged groupsraces, classes, or sexesare innately inferior and deserve their status.(pp. 2425) He spent much of the book criticizing the concept of IQ, including a historical discussion of how the IQ tests were created and a technical discussion of why g is simply a mathematical artifact. Later editions of the book included criticism of The Bell Curve. Gould did not dispute the stability of test scores, nor the fact that they predict certain forms of achievement. He did argue, however, that to base a concept of intelligence on these test scores alone is to ignore many important aspects of mental ability.

Relation between IQ and intelligence

According to Dr. C. George Boeree of Shippensburg University, intelligence is a person's capacity to (1) acquire knowledge (i.e. learn and understand), (2) apply knowledge (solve problems), and (3) engage in abstract reasoning. It is the power of one's intellect, and as such is clearly a very important aspect of one's overall well-being. Psychologists have attempted to measure it for well over a century. Several other ways of measuring intelligence have been proposed. Daniel Schacter, Daniel Gilbert, and others have moved beyond general intelligence and IQ as the sole means to describe intelligence.[44]

Test bias
The American Psychological Association's report Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns[8] states that IQ tests as predictors of social achievement are not biased against people of African descent since they predict future performance, such as school achievement, similarly to the way they predict future performance for European descent.[8] However, IQ tests may well be biased when used in other situations. A 2005 study stated that "differential validity in prediction suggests that the WAIS-R test may contain cultural influences that reduce the validity of the WAIS-R as a measure of cognitive ability for Mexican American students,"[45] indicating a weaker positive correlation relative to sampled white students. Other recent studies have questioned the culture-fairness of IQ tests when used in South Africa.[46] [47] Standard intelligence tests, such as the

Intelligence quotient Stanford-Binet, are often inappropriate for children with autism and dyslexia; the alternative of using developmental or adaptive skills measures are relatively poor measures of intelligence in autistic children, and have resulted in incorrect claims that a majority of children with autism are mentally retarded.[48]

Outdated methodology
A 2006 paper argues that mainstream contemporary test analysis does not reflect substantial recent developments in the field and "bears an uncanny resemblance to the psychometric state of the art as it existed in the 1950s."[49] It also claims that some of the most influential recent studies on group differences in intelligence, in order to show that the tests are unbiased, use outdated methodology. Some argue that IQ scores are used as an excuse for not trying to reduce poverty or otherwise improve living standards for all. Claimed low intelligence has historically been used to justify the feudal system and unequal treatment of women (see sex and intelligence). In contrast, others claim that the refusal of "high-IQ elites" to take IQ seriously as a cause of inequality is itself immoral.[50]

The view of the American Psychological Association

In response to the controversy surrounding The Bell Curve, the American Psychological Association's Board of Scientific Affairs established a task force in 1995 to write a consensus statement on the state of intelligence research which could be used by all sides as a basis for discussion. The full text of the report is available through several websites.[8]
[51]

In this paper the representatives of the association regret that IQ-related works are frequently written with a view to their political consequences: "research findings were often assessed not so much on their merits or their scientific standing as on their supposed political implications". The task force concluded that IQ scores do have high predictive validity for individual differences in school achievement. They confirm the predictive validity of IQ for adult occupational status, even when variables such as education and family background have been statistically controlled. They agree that individual differences in intelligence are substantially influenced by genetics and that both genes and environment, in complex interplay, are essential to the development of intellectual competence. They state there is little evidence to show that childhood diet influences intelligence except in cases of severe malnutrition. The task force agrees that large differences do exist between the average IQ scores of blacks and whites, and that these differences cannot be attributed to biases in test construction. The task force suggests that explanations based on social status and cultural differences are possible, and that environmental factors have raised mean test scores in many populations. Regarding genetic causes, they noted that there is not much direct evidence on this point, but what little there is fails to support the genetic hypothesis. The APA journal that published the statement, American Psychologist, subsequently published eleven critical responses in January 1997, several of them arguing that the report failed to examine adequately the evidence for partly-genetic explanations.

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High IQ societies
A high IQ society is an organization that limits membership to people who are within a certain high percentile of IQ test results. (For example, Mensa International)

Pop culture usage

Many websites and magazines use the term IQ to refer to technical or popular knowledge in a variety of subjects not related to intelligence, including sex,[52] poker,[53] and American football,[54] among a wide variety of other topics. These tests are generally not standardized and do not fit within the normal definition of intelligence. Intelligence tests such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Stanford-Binet, Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities, or the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-II, to name some of the best constructed, are not merely placing a test taker's score within the norm, as presumably are the thousands of alleged "IQ Tests" found on the internet, but they are also testing factors (e.g., fluid and crystallized intelligence, working memory, and the like) that were previously found to represent pure measures of intelligence using factor analysis. This claim may not be made for the hundreds of online tests marketing themselves as IQ Tests, a distinction that may be unfortunately lost upon the uneducated public taking them.

Reference charts
IQ reference charts are tables suggested by psychologists to divide intelligence ranges in various categories.

See also
Child prodigy Cultural intelligence Curiosity quotient CHC Theory Emotional intelligence EQ SQ theory Genetics of intelligence Graduate Record Examination Intellectual giftedness IQ and Global Inequality IQ and the wealth of nations IQ reference chart Late bloomer Nature versus nurture Race Differences in Intelligence Sentience quotient Social IQ Spiritual intelligence Theory of multiple intelligences

Triarchic theory of intelligence Triple Nine Society

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10

References
Notes
[1] i.e. as a quotient of "mental age" and "chronological age." [2] Cervilla et al (2004). "Premorbid cognitive testing predicts the onset of dementia and Alzheimer's disease better than and independently of APOE genotype" (http:/ / www. jnnp. com/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 75/ 8/ 1100). Psychiatry 2004;75:1100-1106.. . Retrieved on August 6 2006. [3] Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns (http:/ / www. gifted. uconn. edu/ siegle/ research/ Correlation/ Intelligence. pdf) (Report of a Task Force established by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the American Psychological Association - Released August 7, 1995 - A slightly edited version was published in the American Psychologist, Feb 1996. Official Journal of the APA) [4] Devlin B, Daniels M, Roeder K (1997). "The heritability of IQ". Nature 388 (6641): 46871. doi: 10.1038/41319 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ 41319). PMID 9242404. The same study suggests that the heritable component of IQ becomes more significant with age. [5] See: quantile, percentile, percentile rank. [6] Plomin et al. (2001, 2003) [7] R. Plomin, N. L. Pedersen, P. Lichtenstein and G. E. McClearn (May 1994). " Variability and stability in cognitive abilities are largely genetic later in life (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ t0844nw244473143/ )". Behavior Genetics 24 (3): 207. doi: 10.1007/BF01067188 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ BF01067188). . Retrieved on 2006-08-06. [8] Neisser et al. (August 7, 1995). "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" (http:/ / www. lrainc. com/ swtaboo/ taboos/ apa_01. html). Board of Scientific Affairs of the American Psychological Association. . Retrieved on August 6 2006. [9] Bouchard TJ, Lykken DT, McGue M, Segal NL, Tellegen A (1990). " Sources of human psychological differences: the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=2218526)". Science 250 (4978): 223228. PMID 2218526. . [10] McGue, M. et al.. The Environments of Adopted and Non-adopted Youth: Evidence on Range Restriction From the Sibling Interaction and Behavior Study (SIBS). doi: 10.1007/s10519-007-9142-7 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s10519-007-9142-7). [11] Turkheimer E, Haley A, Waldron M, D'Onofrio B, Gottesman II (2003). " Socioeconomic status modifies heritability of IQ in young children (http:/ / www. blackwell-synergy. com/ openurl?genre=article& sid=nlm:pubmed& issn=0956-7976& date=2003& volume=14& issue=6& spage=623)". Psychol Sci 14 (6): 623628. doi: 10.1046/j.0956-7976.2003.psci_1475.x (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1046/ j. 0956-7976. 2003. psci_1475. x). PMID 14629696. . [12] See: Ethnic Differences in Children's Intelligence Test Scores: Role of Economic Deprivation, Home Environment, and Maternal Characteristics [13] Gene governs IQ boost from breastfeeding (http:/ / www. physorg. com/ news113505546. html) [14] Caspi A, Williams B, Kim-Cohen J, et al (2007). "Moderation of breastfeeding effects on the IQ by genetic variation in fatty acid metabolism". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104: 18860. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0704292104 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1073/ pnas. 0704292104). PMID 17984066. [15] Schellenberg, E. G. (2004). "Music lessons enhance IQ." Psychol Sci 15(8): 511-4. [16] (Klingberg et al., 2002) [17] Jaeggi SM, Buschkuehl M, Jonides J, Perrig WJ (2008). " Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 0801268105v1)". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105 (19): 68296833. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0801268105 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1073/ pnas. 0801268105). PMID 18443283. . [18] Harris (1998) [19] Bouchard TJ (1998). "Genetic and environmental influences on adult intelligence and special mental abilities". Hum. Biol. 70 (2): 257279. PMID 9549239. [20] Stoolmiller M (1999). " Implications of the restricted range of family environments for estimates of heritability and nonshared environment in behavior-genetic adoption studies (http:/ / content. apa. org/ journals/ bul/ 125/ 4/ 392)". Psychol Bull 125 (4): 392409. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.125.4.392 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1037/ 0033-2909. 125. 4. 392). PMID 10414224. . [21] Eric Turkheimer and colleagues (2003) [22] Socioeconomic status modifies heritability of iq in young children (http:/ / www. blackwell-synergy. com/ doi/ abs/ 10. 1046/ j. 0956-7976. 2003. psci_1475. x?cookieSet=1) Eric Turkheimer, Andreana Haley, Mary Waldron, Brian D'Onofrio, Irving I. Gottesman. Psychological Science 14 (6), 623628. 2003

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[23] New Thinking on Children, Poverty & IQ (http:/ / www. connectforkids. org/ node/ 516) November 10, 2003 Connect for Kids [24] Bouchard, T.J.; McGue, M.. Genetic and environmental influences on human psychological differences. doi: 10.1002/neu.10160 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ neu. 10160). [25] Dickens and Flynn (2001) [26] William T. Dickens and James R. Flynn, " The IQ Paradox: Still Resolved (http:/ / www. brookings. edu/ views/ papers/ dickens/ 20020205. pdf)," Psychological Review 109, no. 4 (2002). [27] Richard Haier (July 19, 2004). "Human Intelligence Determined by Volume and Location of Gray...dick Matter Tissue in Brain" (http:/ / today. uci. edu/ news/ release_detail. asp?key=1187). Brain Research Institute, UC Irvine College of Medicine. . Retrieved on August 6 2006. [28] Detterman and Daniel, 1989. [29] Earl Hunt. "The Role of Intelligence in Modern Society" (http:/ / www. americanscientist. org/ template/ AssetDetail/ assetid/ 24538/ page/ 4). American Scientist. 4 (Nonlinearities in Intelligence). . Retrieved on August 6 2006. [30] Coward, W.M. and Sackett, P.R. (1990). Linearity of ability-performance relationships: A reconfirmation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75:297300. [31] Murray, Charles (1998). Income Inequality and IQ, AEI Press PDF (http:/ / www. aei. org/ docLib/ 20040302_book443. pdf) [32] The Inheritance of Inequality (http:/ / www. ingentaconnect. com/ content/ aea/ jep/ 2002/ 00000016/ 00000003/ art00001) Bowles, Samuel; Gintis, Herbert. The Journal of Economic Perspectives. Volume 16, Number 3, 1 August 2002, pp. 3-30(28) [33] "Incomes, Earnings, and Poverty from the 2004 American Community Survey" (http:/ / www. census. gov/ prod/ 2005pubs/ acs-01. pdf) (PDF). United States Census Bureau. August 2005. . Retrieved on October 24 2006. [34] Peter Fronczek and Patricia Johnson (August 2003). "Occupations: 2000" (http:/ / www. census. gov/ prod/ 2003pubs/ c2kbr-25. pdf) (PDF). United States Census Bureau. . Retrieved on October 24 2006. [35] Michael A. McDaniel, Virginia Commonwealth University (accepted for publication August 2006). "Estimating state IQ: Measurement challenges and preliminary correlates" (http:/ / www. people. vcu. edu/ ~mamcdani/ Publications/ McDaniel (2006) Estimating state IQ. pdf) (PDF). Intelligence. . [36] Tambs K, Sundet JM, Magnus P, Berg K. "Genetic and environmental contributions to the covariance between occupational status, educational attainment, and IQ: a study of twins." Behav Genet. 1989 Mar;19(2):20922. PMID 2719624. [37] Rowe, D. C., W. J. Vesterdal, and J. L. Rodgers, "The Bell Curve Revisited: How Genes and Shared Environment Mediate IQ-SES Associations," University of Arizona, 1997 [38] "RAND_TR193.pdf" (http:/ / www. rand. org/ pubs/ technical_reports/ 2005/ RAND_TR193. pdf) (PDF). . [39] "MR818.ch2.pdf" (http:/ / www. rand. org/ pubs/ monograph_reports/ MR818/ MR818. ch2. pdf) (PDF). . [40] "Social Security Administration" (http:/ / www. ssa. gov/ disability/ professionals/ bluebook/ 12. 00-MentalDisorders-Adult. htm). . [41] June 24, 2002 (Steve Sailer). "IQ Defenders Feel Vindicated by Supreme Court" (http:/ / www. isteve. com/ 2002_IQ_Supreme_Court_Death_Penalty. htm). UPI. . Retrieved on 2006-08-06. [42] Nicholas Lemann. The IQ Meritocracy. Time 100 link (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ time100/ scientist/ other/ iq. html) [43] Rawat, R. The Return of Determinism? (http:/ / www. rso. cornell. edu/ scitech/ archive/ 95sum/ bell. html) [44] The Waning of I.Q. (http:/ / select. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 09/ 14/ opinion/ 14brooks. html) by David Brooks, The New York Times [45] Culture-Fair Cognitive Ability Assessment (http:/ / asm. sagepub. com/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 12/ 3/ 303) Steven P. Verney Assessment, Vol. 12, No. 3, 303-319 (2005) [46] Shuttleworth-Edwards AB, Kemp RD, Rust AL, Muirhead JG, Hartman NP, Radloff SE (2004). "Cross-cultural effects on IQ test performance: a review and preliminary normative indications on WAIS-III test performance". J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 26 (7): 903920. doi: 10.1080/13803390490510824 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 13803390490510824). PMID 15742541. [47] Case for Non-Biased Intelligence Testing Against Black Africans Has Not Been Made: A Comment on Rushton, Skuy, and Bons (2004) (http:/ / www. blackwell-synergy. com/ doi/ abs/ 10. 1111/ j. 1468-2389. 2006. 00346. x) 1*, Leah K. Hamilton1, Betty R. Onyura1 and Andrew S. Winston International Journal of Selection and Assessment Volume 14 Issue 3 Page 278 - September 2006 [48] Edelson, MG (2006). " Are the majority of children with autism mentally retarded? a systematic evaluation of the data (http:/ / www. willamette. edu/ dept/ comm/ reprint/ edelson/ )". Focus Autism Other Dev Disabl 21 (2): 6683. doi: 10.1177/10883576060210020301 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1177/ 10883576060210020301). . Retrieved on 2007-04-15.

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[49] The attack of the psychometricians (http:/ / users. fmg. uva. nl/ dborsboom/ papers. htm). Denny Borsboom. Psychometrika Vol. 71, No. 3, 425440. September 2006. [50] Steve Sailer (2000). "How to Help the Left Half of the Bell Curve" (http:/ / www. isteve. com/ How_to_Help_the_Left_Half_of_the_Bell_Curve. htm). VDARE.com. . Retrieved on 2006-08-06. [51] (http:/ / www. gifted. uconn. edu/ siegle/ research/ Correlation/ Intelligence. pdf) [52] "Planned Parenthood Sex IQ" (http:/ / www. plannedparenthood. org/ health-topics/ sex-101/ your-sex-iq-4328. htm). . Retrieved on 2008-08-10. [53] "NL Holdem Poker IQ Test" (http:/ / www. testyourpoker. com). . Retrieved on 2008-08-10. [54] "American Football IQ" (http:/ / www. footballiqtest. com). . Retrieved on 2008-08-10.

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Collective statements
Mainstream Science on Intelligence (http:/ / www. psychpage. com/ learning/ library/ intell/ mainstream. html) PDF Reprint - Mainstream science on intelligence: An editorial with 52 signatories, history, and bibliography. (http:/ / www. udel. edu/ educ/ gottfredson/ reprints/ 1997mainstream. pdf) Scientific American: Intelligence Considered (http:/ / www. psych. utoronto. ca/ ~reingold/ courses/ intelligence/ cache/ 1198yam. html)

External links
Articles in English at "Intelligence and IQ Tests" (http:/ / www. qi-inteligencia. com/ index. php?option=com_content& view=category& id=35& Itemid=59)

Intelligence quotient

15

Article Sources and Contributors

Intelligence quotient Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=284913434 Contributors: "alyosha", *Kat*, 100110100, 123spamfighter123, 2004-12-29T22:45Z, 213.253.39.xxx, 24fan24, A Musing, A.Ou, AAAAA, AS, ASA-IRULE, AaRH, AaronSw, AbsolutDan, Acornlord, Acroterion, Adambro, Addshore, Adpolitis, Aelffin, Ahoerstemeier, Ahseaton, Akamad, Al-Andalus, Alansohn, Alejo2083, Aleph42, Alethiophile, Alexfusco5, Allison Stillwell, Alphachimp, Amirbaraka, Andonio, Andres, AndrewJ123, Andries, AndyCapp, Anetode, AngelOfSadness, Angelic Wraith, Anna Lincoln, Anonymous Dissident, Antandrus, Anwar saadat, Arbor, ArchonMagnus, ArtOfLife, Arundhati lejeune, Asgard851, Asparagus, Aua, Audriusa, Aunukia, Australopitecus, Av99, AxelBoldt, Axeman89, Aydcery, AzaToth, B800, BMF81, BOOHOOIWANNASING, BShiplet, Backin72, BadSeed, Baddox, Barfooz, BarnabyJoans, BaronLarf, Barronkrjr, Barrylb, Bassbonerocks, Bb3cxv, Bbatsell, Bdoserror, Beaumains, Beefyt, Beek man, Beetstra, Beland, Beltz, Benuski, Benwildeboer, Big Brother 1984, BigNate37, Biki2, BillWatson, Blackworm, Blainster, Blamblamblam, Bob Andolusorn, Bobblewik, Bobet, Bobo192, Bodnotbod, Bongwarrior, Boombaard, Boothy443, BrainDoc, Brainyiscool, BrianGV, British cigarette, Bsneaky123, Btouburg, Buck Mulligan, Bulldog123, Butter Bandit, CAVincent, CIreland, CPT Spaz, Cacycle, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Candidulus, Canon, Cantus, Caper13, CapitalR, Capricorn42, Captain-tucker, CardinalDan, Cathryn J., Cbuckley, Ceeded, Celestianpower, Cema, Charles Gaudette, Chasingsol, CheesemonkeyFrenchperson, Cheesy Yeast, Chesterg, Chicocvenancio, Chmod007, Cholling, Chris 73, Chrislk02, Christian List, Chukpeev, Chunky Rice, Ck lostsword, Coatchecker, Cognitiveelite, Collinimhof, Comrade42, ConcernedScientist, Connelly, ConnorD1, Conversion script, Copydeskcat, Corgy.x, Corpx, Cpsimoes, Cquan, Crazyvas, Credeswish, Crownjewel82, CryptoDerk, Csernica, Csrempert, Cyberevil, Czar Dragon, D, DBaba, DJ Clayworth, Dalassa, Dale Arnett, Damicatz, Damieng, DanMS, Dandaman32, Dane Sorensen, Daniel, Daniel5127, DanielBor, Danijelretard, Danny Rathjens, Dannyvocal, DarkBlueOreos, Darkmeerkat, Darth Panda, Davewild, David Fuchs, David*dahlia, David.Mestel, DavidBrowne, DavidOaks, DavidWBrooks, Davidprior, Dawn Bard, Dcamp314, Ddxc, Decumanus, Deglr6328, Delirium, Delldot, Delta G, Deltabeignet, Demi, Denelson83, Deon Steyn, DerHexer, Derek Ross, Derrekito, DeusIrae22, DevastatorIIC, Deville, Dewgong, DidiDigomi, Dina, DirkOliverTheis, DirkvdM, Discospinster, Dmcq, Doc glasgow, Document, DonSiano, DoubleBlue, Doulos Christos, Download, Dr. Blofeld, Dr. Volkmar Weiss, Dravecky, Dreaded Walrus, Dreamafter, Drummond, Dsantesteban, Dtony102, Duffman, EM1227819, ERK, ERcheck, ESkog, Ed Fitzgerald, Ed Poor, EdGl, Edison, Edward Z. Yang, Eeekster, Eequor, Egnarorm, Elohimgenius, Emiao, Emilfaro, Emperormikey, Emurphy42, Enelson, Enigmaman, EnterpriseCrew, Epbr123, Eric Kvaalen, Erik9, Ernham, Errabee, Esrogs, Etexzan, Eubulides, Euchiasmus, Eve Teschlemacher, Everyking, Evil g1, Exteray, Extropian314, Fallenfromthesky, Farquaadhnchmn, Fegect4, Fert360, FieryMatrix, Figureskatingfan, Firefoxman, Flavonoid, Folyman, Fram, Frecklefoot, Freedo, FrenchIsAwesome, Frencheigh, FreplySpang, Friedchicken1979, Frigglinn, Froth, Frumphammer, Fsubones, Full Shunyata, Furrykef, Futurebird, Fvasconcellos, Gabbe, Gail, Galoubet, Garden, Geneb1955, Geneffects, Giftlite, Gilgamesh he, Gioto, Glennwells, Gnangarra, Goergen2, Gogo Dodo, Gopher292, Gracefool, Graham87, Graibeard, Grandpafootsoldier, Gregor Strasser, GregorB, Grey Goshawk, Grick, Grifter tm, Grumpyyoungman01, Guido del Confuso, Guillaume777, H9i9j9, HARRY POTTER, HGBaley, Hadal, Hadj, HairyPerry, Handsomehomerplus3, Haukurth, Headbomb, Helixweb, Henrik, Herald Alberich, Heron, HexaChord, Hgmichna, Hiddekel, Hitssquad, Hlucho, Hobartimus, Holme053, Horselover Frost, Hotel Caliphate, Huangdi, HungryWhale, Hurtstotouchfire, Husond, Hut 8.5, Hyenaste, IRP, Ian Pitchford, Icestorm815, Igni, Igoldste, Imagination dbride, Imnotminkus, Imperator Honorius, Inkington, Ino5hiro, Integralolrivative, Ishikawa Minoru, Islander, Isnow, Isolani, Itinerant1, Ivansanchez, IvyIQTest100, J.delanoy, JASpencer, JForget, JQF, JYOuyang, JaGa, Jacj, Jae, Jagz, Jahiegel, Jaksap, Jamesjones5, Jamessugrono, JanCeuleers, Jauerback, Jaybuffington, Jayron32, Jeffq, Jeltz, Jengod, Jennavecia, Jeremy68, Jfdwolff, JimD, Jimlyttle, Jj137, Jkjkjk5435435, Jmh649, Jnivekk, John254, JohnCD, Johnkarp, Johnmarkh, Jokestress, Jon t44, Jonathan321, Jonpro, JordanSamuels, Jose Ramos, Joseewiki, Joshannon, Joyous!, Jpgordon, Jrathage, Jrockley, Jtkiefer, Jtneill, Julesd, Juliancolton, Just James, KC., KSchutte, Kaisershatner, Kanonkas, Karada, Karekare0, Karnpatel18, Kbdank71, Keeper76, Kemet, Kerrygrink, Kgasso, Kier07, King Nintendoid, Kingfish, Kingpin13, Kingturtle, Knutux, Kostisl, Krawi, Ktrenchard, Kweeket, Kwertii, Kyle Barbour, L337 kybldmstr, LAX, Langhorner, Latitudinarian, LazyDog86, Le sacre, Leafyplant, Lecajoler, Ledinlaind, Lee M, Lezi18767, Ligulem, Liljonluvsblonde, Lindmere, LinkTiger, Linnell, Livebrick, Lkepler, Lord antares, Loremaster, Love-Eva, Lovro, Lslongmore, Luckyherb, Luria69, MBisanz, MD87, MER-C, MSTCrow, Mackensen, Macphisto12, Magnus Bakken, Mailer diablo, Majorclanger, MalleusManus, Mandarax, Mangajunglist, MarXidad, Markb, Markhurd, Markus Kuhn, Marshalldunn, Martarius, Marysunshine, Mat-C, Matt Deres, Matt Gies, Matthew238, Matthewmeisel, Mauls, Mav, MaveenOlam, Max1231, Max234, Maximus Rex, Mbc362, Mboverload, McSly, Mdgruen, Mdhowe, Mdrine, Mdwh, MegX, MeijinNoKori, Mel21clc, MelissaDonovan Afrikak, Mendaliv, Mentifisto, Mentisock, Metamagician3000, MetsFan76, Michael Belisle, Michael Hardy, MichaelACookII, MichaelJanich, Michaelas10, Micler, Mifter, Mihai, Mike R, Mike Rosoft, Mike2000, Mimiian, Mindless Imbecile, Misza13, Mitchan, Mixwell, Mm1972, Monomoi, Montgomery '39, Moozer91, Morganfitzp, Morken, Moulder, Mr.guy6, MrASingh, MrArt, Mrgreenluv, Muchness, Muchosucko, Mufka, Munci, Murraypaul, Mvasaly, Mxipp, Mxn, Nabla, Nakon, Narssarssuaq, Naryathegreat, Nasz, Nate1481, Natgoo, Natl1, NawlinWiki, Ncdoyle, Nectarflowed, Neilc, Neverquick, Nick, NightMonkey, Nihiltres, Nilfanion, Nivix, Nixeagle, Nkayesmith, Nmyung728, Nnp, No-Bullet, NoPetrol, Noe, Noles1984, Noobsaucepwnage, Normalityrelief, Nouse4aname, Novistar, Nslsmith, Nth barfields, Nuno Tavares, O1ive, ONEder Boy, OccamzRazor, Oddity-, Ohnoitsjamie, Olathe, Old Moonraker, Olivier, Olorin28, OneGyT, OneWeirdDude, Oracleoftruth, Oreo Priest, Oroso, Otherone, Oxymoron83, Oysterguitarist, Pacaro, Padddy5, Parthan, Pascal.Tesson, Patman, Patrick, Paxsimius, Pejman47, Peoplesunionpro, Per84, Peter, Petruspennanen, Pgk, Pgr94, Phil 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Shinwachi, Shinyam, SilentC, Siliconov, Silver Edge, Simetrical, Simoes, SimonP, Sin-man, Sinn, SiobhanHansa, Sisyphus2006, Skidude9950, Skimnc, Skinnyweed, Slashme, Sloth monkey, Slowking Man, SmartyPants3576, Smenge32, Smurrayinchester, Snoyes, So1omon, SoWhy, Socrates lives, Solitude, Soul phire, SpLoT, Spadeprince, Sparkleyone, SpecB, Splitpeasoup, SpuriousQ, Stan Shebs, Startstop123, Stephen Compall, Stephenchou0722, Steve Farrell, Stevemcmahon1, Stevertigo, Stifle, Stubblyhead, Stwalkerster, Suila, SummerPhD, Sunderland06, Sunray, Suruena, Svburke@hotmail.com, Svdmolen, Swimboy1, TOttenville8, TakuyaMurata, Taotriad, Technolust, Tejanosoccer13, The Anarchist Beggar, The Anome, The Jeff Killer, The Rogue Penguin, The Wolfgang, ThePointblank, Thincat, Thingg, Thiseye, ThomasPusch, ThoseWeLost, Tigerhawkvok, Titanium Dragon, Titoxd, Toi, Tom harrison, Tomeasy, Tone, Tonyfaull, Toon05, Toughpigs, Tower, Toytoy, TracerBuIIet, Travis Evans, Trilokeshwar Shonku, Tristan Schmelcher, Trusilver, Tstrobaugh, Tualha, Tukes, Twilbert, Tyler Stransky, Tzarnaz, UB65, UP, Ubern00b, Ucanlookitup, Ultramarine, Unicycle77, Unschool, Until It Sleeps, Us.werdna, Usafunnygirl, Useight, User2004, User27091, Vary, Versageek, Versus, Versus22, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vicse1784, Victor Chmara, Viz, Vladsinger, Vlmastra, VodkaJazz, Voyagerfan5761, Voyaging, WD RIK NEW, WODUP, WSFDude, WadeSimMiser, Wafulz, Walkerma, Wallach2008, Wang ty87916, Ward3001, Warfvinge, Watcher, Wdhamilton, Weatherguy1033, Werdan7, Wesmantooth90, Whosyourjudas, Wiki alf, WikiSlasher, Wikieditor06, WildlifeAnalysis, WillDarlock, Willking1979, Wilson44691, Wknight94, Wombatman, Woohookitty, Wsiegmund, Wtmitchell, Wuhwuzdat, X42bn6, Xbxg32000, Xenoranger, Xerol, XmaX, Xompanthy, Xp54321, Xy7, Xyzzyplugh, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yayay, Yidisheryid, Yonosnada, YorkBW, Yotimbob, Yug, Z10x, ZBrannigan, Zazaban, Zen Apprentice, Zenohockey, Zensufi, Zr40, Zsinj, Zzuuzz, , 2137 anonymous edits

License License
Version 1.2, November 2002 Copyright (C) 2000,2001,2002 Free Software Foundation, Inc. 51 Franklin St, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA 02110-1301 USA Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.

16

0. PREAMBLE

The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other functional and useful document "free" in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for modifications made by others. This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means that derivative works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft license designed for free software. We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free software, because free software needs free documentation: a free program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference.

1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS

This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed under the terms of this License. Such a notice grants a world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that work under the conditions stated herein. The "Document", below, refers to any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and is addressed as "you". You accept the license if you copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring permission under copyright law. A "Modified Version" of the Document means any work containing the Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifications and/or translated into another language. A "Secondary Section" is a named appendix or a front-matter section of the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the publishers or authors of the Document to the Document's overall subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall directly within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in part a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any mathematics.) The relationship could be a matter of historical connection with the subject or with related matters, or of legal, commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them. The "Invariant Sections" are certain Secondary Sections whose titles are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this License. If a section does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it is not allowed to be designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero Invariant Sections. If the Document does not identify any Invariant Sections then there are none. The "Cover Texts" are certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this License. A Front-Cover Text may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words. A "Transparent" copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy, represented in a format whose specification is available to the general public, that is suitable for revising the document straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input to text formatters. A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file format whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent. An image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount of text. A copy that is not "Transparent" is called "Opaque". Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format, SGML or XML using a publicly available DTD, and standard-conforming simple HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for human modification. Examples of transparent image formats include PNG, XCF and JPG. Opaque formats include proprietary formats that can be read and edited only by proprietary word processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD and/or processing tools are not generally available, and the machine-generated HTML, PostScript or PDF produced by some word processors for output purposes only. The "Title Page" means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this License requires to appear in the title page. For works in formats which do not have any title page as such, "Title Page" means the text near the most prominent appearance of the work's title, preceding the beginning of the body of the text. A section "Entitled XYZ" means a named subunit of the Document whose title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following text that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ stands for a specific section name mentioned below, such as "Acknowledgements", "Dedications", "Endorsements", or "History".) To "Preserve the Title" of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a section "Entitled XYZ" according to this definition. The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which states that this License applies to the Document. These Warranty Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has no effect on the meaning of this License.

2. VERBATIM COPYING

You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no other conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large enough number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3. You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and you may publicly display copies.

3. COPYING IN QUANTITY

If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the Document's license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as the publisher of these copies. The front cover must present the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and visible. You may add other material on the covers in addition. Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other respects. If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent pages. If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network location from which the general network-using public has access to download using public-standard network protocols a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material. If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps, when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that edition to the public. It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document.

4. MODIFICATIONS

You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version: 1. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions (which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section of the Document). You may use the same title as a previous version if the original publisher of that version gives permission. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, together with at least five of the principal authors of the Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five), unless they release you from this requirement. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified Version, as the publisher. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other copyright notices.

2.

3. 4. 5.

License
6. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below. 7. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover Texts given in the Document's license notice. 8. Include an unaltered copy of this License. 9. Preserve the section Entitled "History", Preserve its Title, and add to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled "History" in the Document, create one stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified Version as stated in the previous sentence. 10. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations given in the Document for previous versions it was based on. These may be placed in the "History" section. You may omit a network location for a work that was published at least four years before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the version it refers to gives permission. 11. For any section Entitled "Acknowledgements" or "Dedications", Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all the substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements and/or dedications given therein. 12. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles. 13. Delete any section Entitled "Endorsements". Such a section may not be included in the Modified Version. 14. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled "Endorsements" or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section. 15. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers. If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's license notice. These titles must be distinct from any other section titles. You may add a section Entitled "Endorsements", provided it contains nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various parties--for example, statements of peer review or that the text has been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a standard. You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit permission from the previous publisher that added the old one. The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified Version.

17

5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS

You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers. The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but different contents, make the title of each such section unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work. In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled "History" in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled "History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled "Acknowledgements", and any sections Entitled "Dedications". You must delete all sections Entitled "Endorsements."

6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS

You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects. You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.

7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS

A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit. When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves derivative works of the Document. If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate.

8. TRANSLATION

Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may include translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the license notices in the Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include the original English version of this License and the original versions of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between the translation and the original version of this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will prevail. If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements", "Dedications", or "History", the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual title.

9. TERMINATION

You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly provided for under this License. Any other attempt to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Document is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance.

10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See http:/ / www. gnu. org/ copyleft/ . Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.

How to use this License for your documents

To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of the License in the document and put the following copyright and license notices just after the title page: Copyright (c) YEAR YOUR NAME. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License". If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts, replace the "with...Texts." line with this: with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts being LIST. If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the situation. If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of free software license, such as the GNU General Public License, to permit their use in free software.