Growth of the Public Expenditure

Before independence, there was no planning in India and hence no effort was made on the part of the government to provide welfare services but the accelerating growth of government expenditure began in late seventies. The ratio of public expenditure to GDP has increased steadily from 9.1% in 1950-51 to 28.3 in 2005-06. There has been tremendous increase in total public expenditure during the perioc 1960-61 to 2005-06. The total public expenditure increased from Rs.2,631 crores in 1960-61 to Rs.9,99,563 crores in 2005-06. The ratio of Public Expenditure to national income in India is one of the highest in developing countries. But in India as a sizeable proportion of population is living below the poverty line. Many people fail to obtain even necessaries for human survival. They hardly derive any benefit from the public expenditure.

Causes for Increase In Government Expenditure 1. Population Growth

During the past 50 years of planning, the population of India has increased from 36.1 crore in 1950-51, it has crossed over 102 crore in 2001. The growth in population requires massive investment in health and education, law and social order, etc. A young population requires increasing expenditure on education & youth services, whereas the aging population requires transfer payments like old age pension, social security & health facilities.

2. Defence Expenditure
There has been enormous increase in defence expenditure in India during planning period. According to Economic Survey 2006-07 the defence expenditure of central government was Rs.10,874 crores in 1990-91 which has increased significantly to Rs.51,542 crores in 2006-07. The defence expenditure has increase tremendously due to modernization of defense equipment used by army, navy and airforce. India cannot postpone modernisation in defense specially when its neighboring countries are buying the latest defence equipments from developed countries of the world.

3. Increase in National Income

The increase in national income also resulted in more income to the government by way of tax revenue and other income. As a result of which the government Expenditure also increased because under the circumstances, the Government is not only expected to expand its traditional activities but it also undertakes new activities.

4. Government Subsidies
The Government of India has been providing subsidies on a number of items such as food, fertilizers, interest to priority sector, exports, education, etc. Because of the massive amounts of subsidies, the public expenditure has increased. According to Economic Survey 2006-07 the expenditure on subsidies by central government in 1990-91 was Rs.9581 crores which has increased significantly to Rs.44,792 crores in 2005-06.

5. Debt Servicing
The internal debt as well as external debt is on the iocrease. The government has been borrowing heavily both from the domestic market and from foreign sources, to meet its expenditure. As a result of which, the government has to make huge amounts of money towards interest payments. The interest payment of the central government has increased from 21,500 crore in 1990-91 to Rs.1,39,823 crores in 200607.

6. Expansion of Administrative Machinery

There has been an increase in the administrative machinery in the country with the rapid growth of population and also economic development. Heavy expenditure is to be incurred on administrative machinery in respect of police, tax administration, administration of public sector enterprises, etc.

7. Development Projects
The government has been undertaking various development projects such as irrigation, iron and steel, heavy machinery, power, telecommunications, etc. The development projects require lot of capital and revenue expenditure.

8. Urbanisation
There has been an increase in urbanization. In 1950-51 about 17% of the population was urban based. Now the urban population has increased to about 28%. There are more than 23 cities above one million population. The increase in urbanization requires heavy expenditure on law and order, education, civil amenities like drinking water housing, electricity, etc.

9. Industrialisation
Setting up key and basic industries requires a huge capital and profit may arise only in the long run. It is the government which starts such industries in a planned economy. India needs a strong network of infrastructure including transport, communication, power, fuel, etc. The public sector has created a strong infrastructure as a support base for our industrial sector by investing huge capital. The government has not only improved the rail, air and sea transport but has also expanded them manifold.

10. Economic Incentives

Economic incentives such as subsidies, cheap credit, tax concession, cheap electricity, etc. given by the Government to the agriculturists and industrialists have caused monetary burden on the Government whereas recoveries in respect of both economic and social services have been insignificant.

11. Increase in grant in aid to state and union territories

There has been tremendous increase in grant in aid to state and union territories during planning period. According to Tata Statistical Outline 2004-2005 the Grant in aid to states and Union Territories was Rs.3982 crores in 1990-91 which has increased to Rs.15,669 crores in 2003-2004. The grant in aid to states and union territories has increased significantly both for developmental purposes like construction of roads, railways, etc. and for non-developmental purposes like police administration, tackling terrorism and naxalite activities, etc.

12. New Responsibilities

Several new responsibilities have been assumed by the Indian Government in the post independence period. In a Complex Multi Caste Indian Society there are frequent occasions of social tensions which require greater amount of public services like Law and Order, Defence, etc. Provisions of justice and constitutional remedies also require expenditure.

13. Education
Education not only contributes to mental development of man but also raises productivity. Moreover mass education is necessary condition for the success of democracy. The state has made attempts to create various types of educational facilities. In order to meet growing demand for skilled labours. Government has also set up specialised institutes for medical & technical education which involves heavy expenditure.

Conclusion
There is a tremendous rise in total public expenditure in India during the period 1961-2007 without adequate increase in revenues. This has resulted in huge deficit in budget in India. Hence there is a need to manage public expenditure in India to control and reduce fiscal deficit during future period of time.

METHODOLOGY OF WILDLYF CONSERVATION

Conservation and management of wildlife is a special field of applied ecology that should rank very high iN public interest. In general the following may be said to be the aims and objectives of wildlife management. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Protection of natural habitats of organisms through controlled exploitation. Maintenance of rare species in protected areas such as national parks, santuries etc. Establishment of specific biosphere reserves for endangered plants and animals. Protection of wild life through legislation such as banning hunting etc. Imposing specific restrictions on export of endangered plants and animals or their products. Educating the public about the need to protect and preserve the environment as a long range goal for the welfare of future generations. 7. To preserve the diversity species. 8. To ensure sustainable Utilization of species and ecosystems which | support millions of rural communities and major industries. 9. Protection by law : Laws should be enacted to protect wild life. The Indian law for wild life conservation came into force in 1972 as the Indian wild life protection Act. 10. Establishment of protected Areas: It is essential to establish wild life sanctuaries, national parks and biosphere reserves to protect wild life. These places provide ideal condition for wild life. 11. Restoration of Original habitat: Restoration of original habitat to be built in the deforested areas. Every year Vanmahostav to be observed. 12. Better living condition: The animals are to be encouraged to live under the cover of thick grass or bushes and trees. 13. Educating common people: Common people to be educated for the conservation and protection of wild life. This is the most effective method of preserving wild life. 14. Training of wild management: Training of wild life forest officers, wild life ecologists is essential for conservation wild life.

Explanation The Wildlife in India is a mix of species of different types of organisms.[1] Apart from a handful of the major famed animals such as cows, buffaloes, goats, poultry and sheep, India has an amazingly wide variety of animals native to the country. It is home to tigers, lions, leopards, snow leopards, pythons, wolves, foxes, bears, crocodiles, rhinoceroses, camels, wild dogs, monkeys, snakes, antelope species, deer species, varieties of bison and not to mention the mighty Asian elephant. The region's rich and diverse wildlife is preserved in 89 national parks, 13 Bio reserves and 400+ wildlife sanctuaries across the country.[2] Since India is home to a number of rare and threatened animal species, wildlife management in the country is essential to preserve these species.[3] According to one study, India along with 17 mega diverse countries is home to about 60-70% of the world's biodiversity.[4]Many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, to which India originally belonged. Peninsular India's subsequent movement towards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic change 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.[9] Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya.[8] As a result, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians.[5] Notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and the brown and carmine Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species.[10] These include the Asiatic lion, the Bengal tiger, and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat; further federal protections were promulgated in the 1980s. Along with over 500 wildlife sanctuaries, India now hosts 15 biosphere reserves, four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; 25 wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention. The varied and rich wildlife of India has had a profound
impact on the region's popular culture. The common name for wilderness in India is Jungle, which was adopted into the English

language. The word has been also made famous in The Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling. India's wildlife has been the subject of numerous other tales and fables such as the Panchatantra and the Jataka tales.

METHODOLOGY OF MANGROVES
Explanation of mangroves Mangrove generally refers to a group of salt-tolerant and evergreen woody plants that have morphological adaptations and are situated in the tropical and subtropical river intertidal zones. The term does not merely refer to one type of plant. The name originates from the features of the plant, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, in the Rhizophoraceae family. The wood, tree trunk, branches and flowers of this tree are all red. Natural red dyes can be extracted from its tree bark, which gave it the name red tree skin. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystem classifies mangroves as either True Mangroves or Minor Mangroves based on their features and morphological adaptations. True mangroves refer to those woody plants that have developed aerial roots and viviparous traits through morphological adaptations, and only live in river estuaries. Minor mangroves, also known as mangrove associates, are those plants that are salt and drought tolerant, and have the ability to extend their growth from the intertidal zone to land. The only types of mangroves currently in Taiwan that conforms to the definition stated are Kandelia candel, Rhizophora stylosa, Lumnitzera racemosa in the Combretum family, and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza in the Vervain family. There are also other various types of plants in the Binhai area of Taiwan, including mangrove associates, such as Clerodendrum inerme, Hibiscus tiliaceus, and Excoecaria agallocha. There are also marine plants that consist of Bolboschoenus planiculmis, seashore dropseedgrass, and Spinifex littoreus in the Gramineae family, as well as Pandanus odoratissimus, sea lettuce, and saline type plants.
The methods of Mangroves The importance of the thick weed-like mangrove forests was not acknowledged in the past, and mangroves were gradually replaced for industrial development or farming, and fisheries. Large volumes of rubbish and wastewater were discharged into the estuary. This resulted in the destruction of coastal environments, and the rapid decrease, or even disappearance, of mangrove forests. In recent years, the rise in environmental awareness has finally allowed people realize the value of wetlands. Countries from around the world are beginning to understand the significance of mangrove forests in the environment and are gradually changing their view on the value of mangroves. National scholars have identified the following as the four main functions of mangroves:

Ecological Function: Mangrove wetlands accumulate rich organic matter and salt transported from the upstream river and ocean. Mangroves are situated on muddy beaches where the river meets the sea. Significant amounts of organic nutrients are produced through the decomposition of mangrove litter, and these nutrients are supplied to the plankton along the coastal waters for consumption via the rise and fall of tides. The large quantities of organic sediment in the wetland are the source of food and habitat for fishes, shrimps, shellfishes, crabs and birds. This creates the best living environment for these creatures. Not only is the ecological balance of the river estuaries maintained, it also forms a complete detritus food chain in the ecosystem. Mangrove are an important medium connecting the land and the sea. Environmental Protection Function: Mangroves possess the ability to intercept silt and build beaches. This not only protects the seashore and riverbank, it also reduces the impact of strong winds and waves. The aerial roots and stilt roots developed as means to survival also have the ability to help retain water and soil. In the past, fishermen planted mangroves along their fishponds shore with the aim to protect the quay and supply food for the fish to reduce costs. However, research on wetlands in recent years has discovered that apart from providing wild animals with good habitat surroundings, it also filters various kinds of poisonous substances and acts as storage for nutrient substances. Wetlands are also the best water treatment system for the sea and estuary. The demolition of mangrove forests will therefore cause river estuaries to lose their ability to retain water and soil, as well as their water purification function. The sea waves may even erode and exhaust shorelines, which affects the stability of the ecosystem. Academic and Educational Function: The components that form the mangrove forest ecosystem are rather diverse. Apart from mangrove plants, there are algae and fungi found on the surface of mangrove leaves, as well as birds, fishes, arthropods and mollusks. It is formed through the combination of species with great biodiversity. The interlinkage of

mangrove wetland and ecosystem can be observed in conjunction with the interdependency of food chains that together provides a high degree of academic research value. Mangrove forests are also the best location to learn about the natural environment. For instance, the Guandu mangrove forest has integrated migratory birds with local ecological attributes to establish a comprehensive wetland conservation that provides the most straightforward introduction and understanding of wetlands for students and tourists. Economical Function: Mangroves have various economic effects; its wood can be utilized as building material and firewood, and its tree bark can provide denim refinement and dye extraction. Along the coastal areas of Southeast Asia, many people take advantage of the mangrove environment by employing it as a coastal windbreaker to breed fishes. After the formation of the forest, its leaf litter can be fully utilized as the source of food for fishes to reduce the cost of fish farming. Furthermore, the rich ecology and unique scenery of mangrove estuaries can be planned for tourism, leisure and recreation purposes. Mangrove Ecotourism is currently a tourist attraction in places such as Hong Kong and Malaysia